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86-644: Totoket Mountain rises steeply between 200 ft (61 m) and 650 ft (198 m) above the surrounding landscape, with a high point of (est.) 720 ft (219 m) above sea level. It is roughly 11.5 mi (18.5 km) long by 4.25 mi (10 km) wide at its widest point and lies within the towns of Durham , North Branford , and Guilford, Connecticut . Major peaks on the mountain include Sea Hill 410 ft (120 m); East and West Sugarloaf Hill , 512 and 476 ft (156 and 145 m); Totoket Mountain (a subordinate peak), 577 ft (176 m); and Bluff Head , est. 720 ft (220 m),

172-442: A destructive pattern of growth in an endless quest to move away from the sprawl that only results in creating more of it. Urban sprawl is associated with a number of negative environmental outcomes. One of the major environmental problems associated with sprawl is land consumption , habitat loss and subsequent reduction in biodiversity . A review by Brian Czech and colleagues finds that urbanization endangers more species and

258-656: A growing trend in America's metropolitan areas. The Brookings Institution has published multiple articles on the topic. In 2005, author Michael Stoll defined job sprawl simply as jobs located more than 5-mile (8.0 km) radius from the CBD, and measured the concept based on year 2000 U.S. Census data. Other ways of measuring the concept with more detailed rings around the CBD include a 2001 article by Edward Glaeser and Elizabeth Kneebone's 2009 article, which show that sprawling urban peripheries are gaining employment while areas closer to

344-453: A household in the town was $ 77,639, and the median income for a family was $ 82,864. Males had a median income of $ 51,250 versus $ 38,833 for females. The per capita income for the town was $ 29,306. About 1.3% of families and 1.7% of the population were below the poverty line , including 0.4% of those under age 18 and 3.1% of those age 65 or over. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,773 people, 1,040 households, and 809 families living in

430-661: A pejorative way. According to the National Resources Inventory (NRI), about 44 million acres (69,000 sq mi; 180,000 km ) of land in the United States was developed between 1982 and 2017. Presently, the NRI classifies approximately 100,000 more square kilometres (40,000 square miles) (an area approximately the size of Kentucky ) as developed than the Census Bureau classifies as urban. The difference in

516-408: A planning approach and those advocating the efficiency of the market". Those who criticize sprawl tend to argue that sprawl creates more problems than it solves and should be more heavily regulated, while proponents argue that markets are producing the economically most efficient settlements possible in most situations, even if problems may exist. However, some market-oriented commentators believe that

602-446: A result, the places where people live, work, shop, and recreate are far from one another, usually to the extent that walking, transit use and bicycling are impractical, so all these activities generally require a car. The degree to which different land uses are mixed together is often used as an indicator of sprawl in studies of the subject. According to this criterion, China's urbanization can be classified as "high-density sprawl",

688-429: A seemingly self-contradictory term coined by New Urbanist Peter Calthorpe . He explains that despite the high-rise buildings, China's superblocks (huge residential blocks) are largely single-use and surrounded by giant arterial roads, which detach different functions of a city and create an environment unfriendly to pedestrians. Job sprawl is another land use symptom of urban sprawl and car-dependent communities. It

774-404: Is Republican Brendan Rea, who has served since 2023. The other selectmen are Republican Robert Chadd, and Democrat Thomas Hennick Durham is split between the 12th and 34th state senate districts, as well as the 86th and 101st state house districts. Democrat Christine Cohen represents the 12th senate district, and Republican Paul Cicarella represents the 34th senate district. Vincent Candelora ,

860-665: Is a former farming village on the Coginchaug River in central Connecticut. The town is part of the Lower Connecticut River Valley Planning Region . The population was 7,152 at the 2020 census . Every autumn, the town hosts the Durham Fair , the largest volunteer agricultural fair in New England. The Durham town center is listed by the U.S. Census Bureau as a census-designated place . The core of

946-417: Is a natural product of population increases, higher wages, and therefore better access to housing. Improvement in transportation also means that individuals are able to live further from large cities and industrial hubs, thus increasing demand for better housing further from the noise of cities. This leads to the creation of sprawling residential land development surrounding densely packed urban areas. Despite

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1032-518: Is accessible from this lot and via a trailhead located between Totoket Mountain and Pistapaug Mountain on Connecticut Route 17 , 4 mi (6 km) east of Northford and 3.3 mi (5.3 km) west of the junction of Route 77; parking is permitted along the road. The Big Gulph trailhead is located behind the Northford Park recreation fields on Connecticut Route 17 , 2.2 mi (3.5 km) east of Northford and 5.4 mi (8.7 km) west of

1118-479: Is argued that human beings, while social animals, need significant amounts of social space or they become agitated and aggressive. However, the relationship between higher densities and increased social pathology has been largely discredited. According to Nancy Chin, a large number of effects of sprawl have been discussed in the academic literature in some detail; however, the most contentious issues can be reduced "to an older set of arguments, between those advocating

1204-570: Is commonly linked to increased dependency on cars. In 2003, a British newspaper calculated that urban sprawl would cause an economic loss of £3,905 per year, per person through cars alone, based on data from the RAC estimating that the average cost of operating a car in the UK at that time was £5,000 a year, while train travel (assuming a citizen commutes every day of the year, with a ticket cost of 3 pounds) would be only £1,095. Additionally, increased density increases

1290-571: Is defined as low-density, geographically spread-out patterns of employment, where the majority of jobs in a given metropolitan area are located outside of the main city's central business district (CBD), and increasingly in the suburban periphery. It is often the result of urban disinvestment , the geographic freedom of employment location allowed by predominantly car-dependent commuting patterns of many American suburbs, and many companies' desire to locate in low-density areas that are often more affordable and offer potential for expansion. Spatial mismatch

1376-414: Is defined by negative characteristics. What constitutes sprawl may be considered a matter of degree and will always be somewhat subjective under many definitions of the term. Ewing has also argued that suburban development does not, per se , constitute sprawl depending on the form it takes, although Gordon & Richardson have argued that the term is sometimes used synonymously with suburbanization in

1462-511: Is due. Thus urban sprawl is subsidized by the tax code. In China, land has been converted from rural to urban use in advance of demand, leading to vacant rural land intended for future development, and eventual urban sprawl. Housing subdivisions are large tracts of land consisting entirely of newly built residences. New Urbanist architectural firm Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company state that housing subdivisions "are sometimes called villages, towns, and neighbourhoods by their developers, which

1548-665: Is in contrast to New York, San Francisco or Chicago which have compact, high-density cores surrounded by areas of very low-density suburban periphery, such as eastern Suffolk County in the New York metro area and Marin County in the San Francisco Bay Area . Some cases of sprawl challenge the definition of the term and what conditions are necessary for urban growth to be considered sprawl. Metropolitan regions such as Greater Mexico City , Delhi National Capital Region Beijing , and

1634-617: Is land and 0.16% is water. The west side of Durham is flanked by the Metacomet Ridge , a mountainous trap rock ridgeline that stretches from Long Island Sound to nearly the Vermont border. Notable features of the Metacomet ridge in Durham include Trimountain , Fowler Mountain , Pistapaug Mountain , and the north tip of Totoket Mountain . The 50-mile (80-kilometer) Mattabesett Trail traverses

1720-422: Is misleading since those terms denote places that are not exclusively residential". They are also referred to as developments. Subdivisions often incorporate curved roads and cul-de-sacs . These subdivisions may offer only a few places to enter and exit the development, causing traffic to use high volume collector streets. All trips, no matter how short, must enter the collector road in a suburban system. After

1806-619: Is more geographically ubiquitous in the mainland United States than any other human activity. Urban sprawl is disruptive to native flora & fauna and introduces invasive plants into their environments. Although the effects can be mitigated through careful maintenance of native vegetation, the process of ecological succession and public education, sprawl represents one of the primary threats to biodiversity. Regions with high birth rates and immigration are therefore faced with environmental problems due to unplanned urban growth and emerging megacities such as Kolkata. Other problems include: At

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1892-442: Is often regarded unsustainable". Bhatta et al. wrote in 2010 that despite a dispute over the precise definition of sprawl, there is a "general consensus that urban sprawl is characterized by [an] unplanned and uneven pattern of growth, driven by a multitude of processes and leading to inefficient resource utilization". Reid Ewing has shown that sprawl has typically been characterized as urban developments exhibiting at least one of

1978-488: Is part of Connecticut's 3rd congressional district , and is represented by Rosa DeLauro , however parts of it were located in the 2nd district as late as 2010. Durham is a swing town in presidential elections, having voted for the Democratic and Republican candidate five times each in the last ten election cycles. The Durham Meadows superfund site encompasses an area of town around the abandoned Merriam Manufacturing, and

2064-416: Is related to job sprawl and economic environmental justice . Spatial mismatch is defined as the situation where poor urban, predominantly minority citizens are left without easy access to entry-level jobs, as a result of increasing job sprawl and limited transportation options to facilitate a reverse commute to the suburbs. Job sprawl has been documented and measured in various ways. It has been shown to be

2150-649: Is the shopping mall . Unlike the strip mall, this is usually composed of a single building surrounded by a parking lot that contains multiple shops, usually "anchored" by one or more department stores . The function and size is also distinct from the strip mall. The focus is almost exclusively on recreational shopping rather than daily goods. Shopping malls also tend to serve a wider (regional) public and require higher-order infrastructure such as highway access and can have floorspaces in excess of 1 million sq ft (93,000 m ). Shopping malls are often detrimental to downtown shopping centres of nearby cities since

2236-819: The Cato Institute , a libertarian think tank , has argued that sprawl, thanks to the automobile, gave rise to affordable suburban neighborhoods for middle class and lower class individuals, including non-whites. He notes that efforts to combat sprawl often result in subsidizing development in wealthier and whiter neighborhoods while condemning and demolishing poorer minority neighborhoods. The American Institute of Architects , American Planning Association , and Smart Growth America recommend against sprawl and instead endorses smart , mixed-use development , including buildings in close proximity to one another that cut down on automobile use, save energy, and promote walkable, healthy, well-designed neighborhoods. The Sierra Club ,

2322-522: The Connecticut Forest and Park Association ), passes over Bluff Head and through the Northwoods area. A fourth trailhead is located in the gap between Pistapaug Mountain and Totoket Mountain. Much of the mountain has been protected as public watershed. The balance of the landscape is relatively rural, with farmland and semi-rural home development in the center of the ridge and some conservation land on

2408-573: The Durham census-designated place , corresponding to the town center. The population density was 443.1 inhabitants per square mile (171.1/km ). There were 1,078 housing units at an average density of 172.3 per square mile (66.5/km ). The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.91% White , 0.47% Black or African American , 0.07% Native American , 0.87% Asian , 0.25% from other races , and 0.43% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 1.01% of

2494-708: The Greater Tokyo Area are often regarded as sprawling despite being relatively dense and mixed use. Many theories speculate as to the reason for the creation of urban sprawl. The theory of "flight from blight" explains that aspects of living in urban areas, such as high taxes, crime rates, poor infrastructure and school qualities lead to many people moving out of urban areas and into surrounding suburban areas. According to The Limits to Growth , reasons why wealthier people move to suburbs include noise, pollution, crime, drug addiction, poverty, labor strikes, and breakdown of social services. Others suggest that Urban Sprawl

2580-544: The Second World War , residential lawns became commonplace in suburbs, notably, but not exclusively in North America. The development of country clubs and golf courses in the early 20th century further promoted lawn culture in the United States. Lawns now take up a significant amount of land in suburban developments, contributing to sprawl. In areas of sprawl, commercial use is generally segregated from other uses. In

2666-532: The 10–35 mile ring. This compares to the year 1998 – 23.3%, 34.2%, and 42.5% in those respective rings. The study shows CBD employment share shrinking, and job growth focused in the suburban and exurban outer metropolitan rings. Sprawl often refers to low- density development . There is no precise definition of "low density", but it might commonly mean Single-family homes on large lots. Such buildings usually have fewer stories and are spaced farther apart, separated by lawns , landscaping , roads or parking lots. In

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2752-460: The CBD are losing jobs. These two authors used three geographic rings limited to a 35-mile (56 km) radius around the CBD: 3 miles (4.8 km) or less, 3 to 10 miles (16 km), and 10 to 35 miles (56 km). Kneebone's study showed the following nationwide breakdown for the largest metropolitan areas in 2006: 21.3% of jobs located in the inner ring, 33.6% of jobs in the 3–10 mile ring, and 45.1% in

2838-618: The Metacomet Ridge dates back 200 million years ago with the rifting apart of North America from Eurasia in the process that would ultimately create the Atlantic Ocean . In the area that is now the Metacomet Ridge and surrounding sedimentary rock basin, massive basalt (traprock) lava flows spread across the prehistoric rift valley , some of them several hundred feet thick, over a period of 20 million years. Sediment accumulated between lava flows and lithified into sedimentary rock . After

2924-546: The NRI classification is that it includes rural development, which by definition cannot be considered to be "urban" sprawl. Currently, according to the 2000 Census , approximately 2.6 percent of the U.S. land area is urban. Approximately 0.8 percent of the nation's land is in the 37 urbanized areas with more than 1,000,000 population. In 2002, these 37 urbanized areas supported around 40% of the total American population. Nonetheless, some urban areas like Detroit have expanded geographically even while losing population. But it

3010-465: The San Francisco Bay Area's Greenbelt Alliance , 1000 Friends of Oregon and counterpart organizations nationwide, and other environmental organizations oppose sprawl and support investment in existing communities. NumbersUSA , a national organization advocating immigration reduction , also opposes urban sprawl, and its founder, Roy Beck , specializes in the study of this issue. One of

3096-506: The U.S. and Canada, these often take the form of strip malls , which refer to collections of buildings sharing a common parking lot, usually built on a high-capacity roadway with commercial functions (i.e., a "strip"). Similar developments in the United Kingdom are called Retail Parks. Strip malls consisting mostly of big box stores or category killers are sometimes called "power centers" (U.S.). These developments tend to be low-density;

3182-598: The US are now located in suburbs generating much of the revenue, although a lack of growth will require higher tax rates. In Europe , the term peri-urbanisation is often used to denote similar dynamics and phenomena, but the term urban sprawl is currently being used by the European Environment Agency . There is widespread disagreement about what constitutes sprawl and how to quantify it. For example, some commentators measure sprawl by residential density , using

3268-447: The United States 2–4 houses per acre (5–10 per hectare) might be considered low-density while in the UK 8–12 per acre (or 20–30 per hectare) would still be considered low-density. Because more automobiles are used in the USA, much more land is designated for parking. The impact of low density development in many communities is that developed or "urbanized" land is increasing at a faster rate than

3354-402: The average family size was 3.06. In the CDP the population was spread out, with 26.1% under the age of 18, 4.4% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 27.5% from 45 to 64, and 13.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.4 males. The median income for a household in the CDP

3440-457: The average number of residential units per acre in a given area. Others associate it with decentralization (spread of population without a well-defined centre), discontinuity ( leapfrogging development, as defined below ), segregation of uses, and so forth. The term urban sprawl is highly politicized and almost always has negative connotations. It is criticized for causing environmental degradation , intensifying segregation , and undermining

3526-526: The buildings are single-story and there is ample space for parking and access for delivery vehicles. This character is reflected in the spacious landscaping of the parking lots and walkways and clear signage of the retail establishments. Some strip malls are undergoing a transformation into Lifestyle centers ; entailing investments in common areas and facilities (plazas, cafes) and shifting tenancy from daily goods to recreational shopping. Another prominent form of retail development in areas characterized by sprawl

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3612-468: The center of the ridge. An admission permit (fee charged) is required to use these trails. The Northwoods trailhead area is located in the area of Bluff Head, on the northeast side of the mountain; it is maintained by the Guilford Land Trust and is free to the public; 500 ft (152 m) sheer basalt cliffs and a firetower provide sweeping views. The 50 mile (80k) Mattabesett Trail (managed by

3698-478: The chance that people will take the bicycle for their commute which would be better for their health. Bicycles are a common mode of transportation for those living in urban centers due to many factors. One major factor many people consider relates to how, when one rides a bike to, say, their workplace, they are exercising as they do so. This multi-tasking is better for one's health than automatic transport. A heavy reliance on automobiles increases traffic throughout

3784-491: The city as well as automobile crashes, pedestrian injuries, and air pollution. Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for Americans between the ages of five and twenty-four and is the leading accident-related cause for all age groups. Residents of more sprawling areas are generally at greater risk of dying in a car crash due to increased exposure to driving. Evidence indicates that pedestrians in sprawling areas are at higher risk than those in denser areas, although

3870-454: The conversion of agricultural land to urban use is not a problem due to the increasing efficiency of agricultural production; they argue that aggregate agricultural production is still more than sufficient to meet global food needs despite the expansion of urban land use. Sprawl leads to increased driving, which in turn leads to vehicle emissions that contribute to air pollution and its attendant negative impacts on human health . In addition,

3956-611: The current custom of requiring a developer to provide subdivision infrastructure as a condition of development. Usually, the developer is required to set aside a certain percentage of the developed land for public use, including roads, parks and schools. In the past, when a local government built all the streets in a given location, the town could expand without interruption and with a coherent circulation system, because it had condemnation power . Private developers generally do not have such power (although they can sometimes find local governments willing to help), and often choose to develop on

4042-703: The current patterns of sprawl are in fact the result of distortions of the free market. Chin cautions that there is a lack of "reliable empirical evidence to support the arguments made either for or against sprawl". She mentions that the lack of a common definition, the need for more quantitative measures "a broader view both in time and space, and greater comparison with alternative urban forms" would be necessary to draw firmer conclusions and conduct more fruitful debates. Arguments opposing urban sprawl include concrete effects such as health and environmental issues as well as abstract consequences including neighborhood vitality. American public policy analyst Randal O'Toole of

4128-409: The delivery of free bottled water to affected residents. Suburban sprawl Urban sprawl (also known as suburban sprawl or urban encroachment ) is defined as "the spreading of urban developments (such as houses, dense multi–family apartments, office buildings and shopping centers) on undeveloped land near a more or less densely populated city". Urban sprawl has been described as

4214-492: The desirability of the area adjacent to such structures. Providing services such as water , sewers , road maintenance, and electricity is also more expensive per household in less dense areas, given that sprawl increases lengths of power lines, roads, and pipes, necessitating higher maintenance costs. Residents of low-density areas spend a higher proportion of their income on transportation than residents of high density areas. The unplanned nature of outward urban development

4300-477: The dismantling of infrastructure that occurred in the United States. Despite its sprawl, Metropolitan Los Angeles is the densest major urban area (over 1,000,000 population) in the US, being denser than the New York urban area and the San Francisco urban area. Most of metropolitan Los Angeles is built at more uniform low to moderate density, leading to a much higher overall density for the entire region. This

4386-442: The extent of modern sprawl has consumed a large amount of the most productive agricultural land, as well as forest, desert and other wilderness areas. In the United States the seller may avoid tax on profit by using a tax break exempting like-kind exchanges from capital gains tax ; proceeds from the sale are used to purchase agricultural land elsewhere and the transaction is treated as a "swap" or trade of like assets and no tax

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4472-496: The following characteristics: low-density or single-use development, strip development, scattered development, and/or leapfrog development (areas of development interspersed with vacant land). He argued that a better way to identify sprawl was to use indicators rather than characteristics because this was a more flexible and less arbitrary method. He proposed using " accessibility " and "functional open space" as indicators. Ewing's approach has been criticized for assuming that sprawl

4558-647: The high point. The southern half of the mountain splits into two arms which completely encircle the Lake Gaillard Reservoir. Beside Lake Gaillard, the mountain shelters several other small bodies of water, including Menuckatuck Reservoir, West Lake, Clear Lake, Bartlett Pond, Lane Pond, and the scenic Myerhuber Pond (protected as part of the Northwoods conservation area), just below the high cliffs of Bluff Head. The Metacomet Ridge continues north from Totoket Mountain as Pistapaug Mountain and south as Saltonstall Mountain . An outlying peak, Peter's Rock , lies to

4644-578: The junction of Route 77. Parking is free, but a permit is required to use the trails. The Sugarloaf Hills trailhead and parking lot are located on West Street, 2 mi (3 km) north of its junction with Connecticut Route 80 in North Branford . A permit is required to park and use the trails. Durham, Connecticut Durham ( / ˈ d ɜːr ə m / DURR -əm ) is a town in Middlesex County , Connecticut , United States . Durham

4730-426: The lack of a clear agreed upon description of what defines sprawl most definitions often associate the following characteristics with sprawl. This refers to a situation where commercial, residential , institutional and industrial areas are separated from one another. Consequently, large tracts of land are devoted to a single use and are segregated from one another by open space, infrastructure, or other barriers. As

4816-593: The larger area consumed by sprawling suburbs compared to urban neighborhoods, more farmland and wildlife habitats are displaced per resident. As forest cover is cleared and covered with impervious surfaces ( concrete and asphalt ) in the suburbs, rainfall is less effectively absorbed into the groundwater aquifers . This threatens both the quality and quantity of water supplies. Sprawl increases water pollution as rain water picks up gasoline , motor oil , heavy metals , and other pollutants in runoff from parking lots and roads. Gordon & Richardson have argued that

4902-411: The mountain include hiking , mountain biking , hunting (in season), picnicking , fishing (certain locations only) and snowshoeing ; many high cliffs provide excellent views of the rural countryside. The South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority (SCCRWA) maintains two networks of trails on Totoket Mountain: Big Gulph on the northwest side of the mountain, and Sugarloaf Hills located in

4988-410: The nearby core city . Medieval suburbs suffered from the loss of protection of city walls, before the advent of industrial warfare . Modern disadvantages and costs include increased travel time, transport costs, pollution, and destruction of the countryside. The revenue for building and maintaining urban infrastructure in these areas are gained mostly through property and sales taxes. Most jobs in

5074-425: The nearness of the workplace to retail and restaurant space that provides cafes and convenience stores with daytime customers is an essential component to the successful balance of urban life. Furthermore, they state that the closeness of the workplace to homes also gives people the option of walking or riding a bicycle to work or school and that without this kind of interaction between the different components of life

5160-930: The north side of Totoket Mountain was included in a study by the National Park Service for the designation of a new National Scenic Trail now tentatively called the New England National Scenic Trail , which would include the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail in Massachusetts and the Mattabesett Trail and Metacomet Trail trails in Connecticut. The Northwoods-Bluff Head parking lot is located on Connecticut Route 77 , 3.75 mi (6.04 km) south of Durham center and 9 mi (14 km) north of Guilford center . The Mattabesett Trail

5246-405: The northeast bluffs. The SCCRWA restricts public access on portions of its watershed property; boating and fishing on Lake Gaillard are prohibited. Threats to Totoket Mountain and its unique habitat include suburban sprawl and quarrying . A large quarry operates on the southwest side of the mountain, but expansion is restricted by watershed property to the east and housing to the north. In 2000,

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5332-487: The operational Durham Manufacturing company. Both companies disposed of organic solvents, paint wastes, and degreasers in open lagoons and buried drums. The waste leached into the town's water supply, contaminating several private wells with methylene chloride , 1,4-dioxane , and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection are coordinating cleanup and monitoring efforts, including

5418-435: The population is growing. Overall density is often lowered by " leapfrog development". This term refers to the relationship, or lack of it, between subdivisions. Such developments are typically separated by large green belts , i.e. tracts of undeveloped land, resulting in an overall density far lower even than the low density indicated by localized per-acre measurements. This is a 20th and 21st century phenomenon generated by

5504-408: The population. There were 1,040 households, out of which 36.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.5% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.2% were non-families. 18.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and

5590-627: The reduced physical activity implied by increased automobile use has negative health consequences. Sprawl significantly predicts chronic medical conditions and health-related quality of life, but not mental health disorders. The American Journal of Public Health and the American Journal of Health Promotion, have both stated that there is a significant connection between sprawl, obesity , and hypertension . Loud vehicles can cause stress, prevent sleep, and minimize social interactions in public for people living in cities (especially homeless people). In

5676-652: The relationship is less clear than for drivers and passengers in vehicles. Research covered in the Journal of Economic Issues and State and Local Government Review shows a link between sprawl and emergency medical services response and fire department response delays. Living in larger, more spread out spaces generally makes public services more expensive. Since car usage becomes endemic and public transport often becomes significantly more expensive, city planners are forced to build highway and parking infrastructure , which in turn decreases taxable land and revenue, and decreases

5762-534: The ridge. Miller's Pond State Park is located within the town. Durham was incorporated in 1708. The settlement was named after Durham , England. It took land from Guilford , and Haddam . Durham has one of the first public libraries in the United States. It was founded in 1733, two years after Benjamin Franklin started the Philadelphia library. Moses Austin who, along with his son Stephen F. Austin , began

5848-574: The rifting processes ceased, layers of strata faulted and tilted upward. Subsequent erosion , glaciation , and uplift exposed the weather resistant edge of the traprock lava sheets, creating the cliffline of the Metacomet Ridge as it is today. The mineral content and the shape of the ridge make possible a variety of microclimate ecosystems. Hot and dry cliff faces support plant and animal species uncommon so far north. Deeply gouged ravines support cooler climate species found in more northerly climes, while gradual backslope environments support species typical of

5934-470: The same time, the urban cores of these and nearly all other major cities in the United States , Western Europe , and Japan that did not annex new territory experienced the related phenomena of falling household size and, particularly in the U.S., " white flight ", sustaining population losses. This trend has slowed somewhat in recent years, as more people have regained an interest in urban living. Due to

6020-553: The settlement of Spanish and Mexican Texas by Anglo-Americans , was born in Durham in 1761. In the 1830s Durham came to prominence as the birthplace of Richard P. Robinson, who was tried for and acquitted of the infamous murder of Helen Jewett . As of the census of 2000, there were 6,627 people, 2,277 households, and 1,871 families living in the town. The population density was 280.8 inhabitants per square mile (108.4/km ). There were 2,349 housing units at an average density of 99.5 per square mile (38.4/km ). The racial makeup of

6106-628: The shopping malls act as a surrogate for the city centre . Some downtowns have responded to this challenge by building shopping centres of their own. Fast food chains are often built early in areas with low property values where the population is expected to boom and where large traffic is predicted, and set a precedent for future development. Eric Schlosser , in his book Fast Food Nation , argues that fast food chains accelerate suburban sprawl and help set its tone with their expansive parking lots, flashy signs, and plastic architecture (65). Duany Plater Zyberk & Company believe that this reinforces

6192-474: The state House Minority Leader, represents the 87th state house district, and Democrat John-Michael Parker represents the 101st district. The 12th senate district, from 2015 to 2019, was represented by Edward M. Kennedy Jr. of the Kennedy family . Durham has voted consistently voted Republican in gubernatorial elections. In the 2018 election , Republican Bob Stefanowski beat Democrat Ned Lamont 57%–37%. Durham

6278-573: The supply of housing in desirable areas, and thus, it also decreases housing prices in those areas (by the logic of supply and demand ). Urban sprawl may be partly responsible for the decline in social capital in the United States. Compact neighborhoods can foster casual social interactions among neighbors, while sprawl creates barriers. Sprawl tends to replace public spaces with private spaces such as fenced-in backyards. Critics of sprawl maintain that sprawl erodes quality of life . Duany and Plater-Zyberk believe that in traditional neighborhoods

6364-407: The surrounding latitude. Talus slopes beneath cliffs accumulate minerals that support alkaline -loving plant species uncommon in surrounding acidic southern New England. Extensive cliffs provide ideal habitat and important migration corridors for raptor species. See Metacomet Ridge for detailed information about the geology and ecosystem of Totoket Mountain. Recreational activities enjoyed on

6450-573: The town center has also been listed as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places . According to the United States Census Bureau , the town has a total area of 23.8 square miles (62 km ), of which, 23.6 square miles (61 km ) is land and 0.2 square miles (40  ha or 0.67%) is water. The town center CDP has a total area of 6.3 square miles (16 km ). 6.3 square miles (16 km ) of it

6536-559: The town was 96.68% White , 1.15% Black or African American , 0.18% Native American , 0.85% Asian , 0.30% from other races , and 0.85% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 1.54% of the population. There were 2,277 households, out of which 41.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 72.3% were married couples living together, 7.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.8% were non-families. 14.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.9% had someone living alone who

6622-411: The tracts that happen to be for sale at the time they want to build, rather than pay extra or wait for a more appropriate location. Some research argues that religious ideas about how humans should live (and die) promote low-density development and may contribute to urban sprawl. Land for sprawl is often taken from fertile agricultural lands , which are often located immediately surrounding cities;

6708-541: The unrestricted growth in many urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for very dense urban planning . Sometimes the urban areas described as the most "sprawling" are the most densely populated. In addition to describing a special form of urbanization , the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development. In modern times some suburban areas described as "sprawl" have less detached housing and higher density than

6794-603: The urban pattern quickly falls apart. James Howard Kunstler has argued that poor aesthetics in suburban environments make them "places not worth caring about", and that they lack a sense of history and identity. Urban sprawl has class and racial implications in many parts of the world; the relative homogeneity of many sprawl developments may reinforce class and racial divides through residential segregation . Numerous studies link increased population density with increased aggression. Some people believe that increased population density encourages crime and anti-social behavior. It

6880-419: The vitality of existing urban areas, and is attacked on aesthetic grounds. The pejorative meaning of the term means that few openly support urban sprawl as such. The term has become a rallying cry for managing urban growth. The term urban sprawl was often used in the letters between Lewis Mumford and Frederic J. Osborn, firstly by Osborn in his 1941 letter to Mumford and later by Mumford, generally condemning

6966-507: The waste of agricultural land and landscape due to suburban expansions. The term was used in an article in The Times in 1955 as a negative comment on the state of London 's outskirts. Definitions of sprawl vary; researchers in the field acknowledge that the term lacks precision. Batty et al. defined sprawl as "uncoordinated growth: the expansion of community without concern for its consequences, in short, unplanned, incremental urban growth which

7052-654: The west of Totoket Mountain. The west side of Totoket Mountain drains into the Farm River, thence to the East Haven River and Long Island Sound; the south side into the Branford River and Long Island Sound, the east side into West River and Long Island Sound, and the north side into Parmalee Brook, then to the Coginchaug River , thence to the Connecticut River and Long Island Sound. The origin of Totoket Mountain and

7138-603: The years following World War II, when vehicle ownership was becoming widespread, public health officials recommended the health benefits of suburbs due to soot and industrial fumes in the city center. However, air in modern suburbs is not necessarily cleaner than air in urban neighborhoods. In fact, the most polluted air is on crowded highways, where people in suburbs tend to spend more time. On average, suburban residents generate more per capita pollution and carbon emissions than their urban counterparts because of their increased driving, as well as larger homes. Sprawl also reduces

7224-415: Was $ 66,505, and the median income for a family was $ 72,465. Males had a median income of $ 47,179 versus $ 37,500 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $ 26,972. About 2.1% of families and 3.0% of the population were below the poverty line , including 1.0% of those under age 18 and 4.3% of those age 65 or over. Durham has a selectman-town meeting form of government. The current first selectman

7310-452: Was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.17. In the town, the population was spread out, with 29.0% under the age of 18, 4.8% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 27.4% from 45 to 64, and 9.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.4 males. The median income for

7396-491: Was not just urbanized areas in the U.S. that lost population and sprawled substantially. According to data in "Cities and Automobile Dependence" by Kenworthy and Laube (1999), urbanized area population losses occurred while there was an expansion of sprawl between 1970 and 1990 in Amsterdam , Netherlands; Brussels , Belgium; Copenhagen , Denmark; Frankfurt , Hamburg and Munich , Germany; and Zürich , Switzerland, albeit without

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