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68-520: The Toreli rose to particular prominence during the Georgian Golden Age under Queen Tamar ( r. 1178/1184–1213) and her immediate successors, George IV (r. 1213–1223) and Rusudan (r. 1223–1246). They held fiefs in south and central Georgia and, at times, governed the newly conquered north Armenian districts on behalf of the crown. Several members of the family – one of the most important princely houses at that time – occupied important posts in

136-567: A centralized power with a strong military, with several decisive victories against the Muslims in Ganja , gates of which were captured by Demetrius and moved as a trophy to Gelati. A talented poet, Demetrius also continued his father's contributions to Georgia's religious polyphony . The most famous of his hymns is Thou Art a Vineyard , which is dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the patron saint of Georgia, and

204-449: A day's march from Tbilisi. Little is known of Ilghazi's exact battle plan or course of action and order of battle other than the commonly suggested deployment of large numbers of light missile troops, particularly archers and light cavalry in the vanguard to harass the enemy lines while the bulk of the army remained behind them in orderly battle formation. It is suggested that Ilghazi's vanguard approached David's army and reported back about

272-699: A friendly state in Georgia's immediate southwestern neighborhood, as well as by the dynastic solidarity to the dispossessed Comnenoi. The country's power had grown to such extent that in the later years of Tamar's rule, the Kingdom was primarily concerned with the protection of the Georgian monastic centers in the Holy Land , eight of which were listed in Jerusalem . Saladin 's biographer Bahā' ad-Dīn ibn Šaddād reports that, after

340-544: A member of the Toreli family. This article about a member of the Georgian nobility is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Georgian Golden Age (11th-13th centuries) The Georgian Golden Age ( Georgian : საქართველოს ოქროს ხანა , romanized : sakartvelos okros khana ) describes a historical period in the High Middle Ages , spanning from roughly the late 11th to 13th centuries, during which

408-505: A much smaller force than expected, which might have raised Ilghazi's confidence enough to not expect any surprise. It is also claimed that the Seljuq light cavalry rode in front of the Georgians and started to shoot and taunt them which was received with little to no effect on their morale. There is no evidence of heavy cavalry present on Ilghazi's side or any type of cavalry which could have matched

476-463: A new era of revival. To highlight his country's higher status, he became the first Georgian king to reject the highly respected titles bestowed by the Eastern Roman Empire , Georgia’s longtime ally, indicating that Georgia would deal with its powerful friend only on a parity basis. Due to close family ties between Georgian and Byzantine royalty - Princess Martha of Georgia , aunt of David IV,

544-452: A prominent Mongol commander Chormaqan led a massive army against Georgia and its vassals, forcing Queen Rusudan to flee to the west, leaving eastern Georgia in the hands of noblemen who eventually made peace with the Mongols and agreed to pay tribute; those who resisted were subject to complete annihilation. The Mongol armies chose not to cross the natural barrier of Likhi Range in pursuit of

612-424: A threat. Meanwhile, the Georgians successfully managed to deploy a large portion of their force where they would almost encircle the enemy in a pincer movement. Their opponents remained unaware of such activities. Upon approaching the Seljuq leaders, the deserters, using the self-confidence of the Muslims to their advantage, attacked them with arrows, killing every Seljuq commander in sight and others who were attending

680-452: Is still sung in Georgia's churches 900 years after its creation. Demetrius was succeeded by his son George in 1156, beginning a stage of more offensive foreign policy. The same year he ascended to the throne, George launched a successful campaign against the Seljuq sultanate of Ahlat . He freed the important Armenian town of Dvin from Turkish vassalage and was thus welcomed as a liberator in

748-521: The Fifth Crusade and concentrated on fighting the invaders, but the Mongol onslaught was too strong to overcome. Georgians suffered heavy losses in the war and the king himself was severely wounded. As a result, George became handicapped and died prematurely at the age of 31. George's sister Rusudan assumed the throne but she was too inexperienced and her country too weakened to push out the nomads. In 1236

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816-639: The Gelati Monastery , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , which became an important center of scholarship in the Eastern Orthodox Christian world of that time. David also played a personal role in reviving Georgian religious hymnography, composing the Hymns of Repentance ( Georgian : გალობანი სინანულისანი , galobani sinanulisani ), a sequence of eight free-verse psalms. In this emotional repentance of his sins, David sees himself as reincarnating

884-572: The Georgian Orthodox Church and gained free passage for Georgian pilgrims to the Holy Land . The widespread use of the Jerusalem cross in Medieval Georgia - an inspiration for the modern national flag of Georgia - is thought to date to the reign of George V. The death of George V, the last of great kings of unified Georgia, precipitated an irreversible decline of the Kingdom. The following decades were marked by Black Death , which

952-583: The Kingdom of Georgia reached the peak of its power and development. In addition to military expansion, this period saw the flourishing of medieval Georgian architecture, painting and poetry, which was frequently expressed in the development of ecclesiastic art, as well as the creation of the first major works of secular literature. Lasting more than two centuries, the Golden Age came to a gradual end due to persistent invasions of nomads , such as Mongols , as well as

1020-571: The Lord's Sepulchre , they march into the Holy City...without paying tribute to anyone, for the Saracens dare in no wise molest them... With flourishing commercial centers now under Georgia's control, industry and commerce brought new wealth to the country and Tamar's court. Tribute extracted from the neighbors and war booty added to the royal treasury, giving rise to the saying that "the peasants were like nobles,

1088-637: The Mazyadid Dubays b. Sadaqa of Al Hillah , Toghrul and Nakhichevan , with his atabeg Kun-Toghdi , all took part. According to historian Alexander Mikaberidze, "The size of the Muslim army is still a matter of debate, with numbers ranging from a fantastic 600,000 men (as given by Walter the Chancellor and Matthew of Edessa ) to 400,000 ( Sempad Sparapet 's Chronicle), while estimates of modern Georgian historians vary between 100,000 and 250,000 men. Although

1156-640: The Mongol hegemony over Georgia in the course of the 13th century. Of the Toreli branches, the longest surviving were the Javakhishvili , in Shida Kartli , eventually confirmed as princes ( knyaz ) of the Russian Empire in 1850. Some Georgian historians (such as S. Kakabadze , N. Shoshiashvili, S. Tsaishvili) have put forward a tentative hypothesis identifying the medieval Georgian epic poet Shota Rustaveli with

1224-650: The Ayyubid conquest of Jerusalem in 1187, Tamar sent envoys to the sultan to request that the confiscated possessions of the Georgian monasteries in Jerusalem be returned. Saladin's response is not recorded, but the queen's efforts seem to have been successful. Ibn Šaddād furthermore claims that Tamar outbid the Byzantine emperor in her efforts to obtain the relics of the True Cross , offering 200,000 gold pieces to Saladin who had taken

1292-507: The Biblical David , with a similar relationship to God and his people. His hymns also share the idealistic zeal of the contemporaneous European crusaders to whom David was a natural ally in his struggle against the Seljuks . The kingdom continued to flourish under Demetrius I , the son of David. Although his reign saw a disruptive family conflict related to royal succession, Georgia remained

1360-535: The Georgian Queen, sparing western Georgia of the widespread rampages. Later, Rusudan attempted to gain support from Pope Gregory IX , but without any success. In 1243, Georgia was finally forced to acknowledge the Great Khan as its overlord. Perhaps no Mongol invasion devastated Georgia as much as the decades of anti-Mongol struggle that took place in the country. The first anti-Mongol uprising started in 1259 under

1428-416: The Georgian army's main body, while being constantly struck at the flanks by heavy cavalry. After a while, those tactics broke the fighting will of the Muslim army, which was soon routed. Ilghazi reportedly received an injury to his head when a hundred crusaders managed to break through his lines, rushing towards the Seljuq command banner. The numbers of Seljuks fleeing the field was reportedly so large that

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1496-468: The Georgian cavalry was taking scores of prisoners for several days. As a result, the Georgians were able to liberate the entire region from Muslim influence and even contest territories within the Seljuq Empire , which at that point was left almost defenceless. The captured Seljuqs would serve for David's ambitions to rebuild his kingdom. The unification of Georgia and the elimination of Muslim authority

1564-457: The Georgian counterpart. On the other side, the Georgians were facing a significantly superior foe in terms of numbers, but had the strategic as well as tactical advantage. The Georgians were well aware of the Muslim preparations and took necessary precautions. In 1118, after successful completion of David IV 's military reform, a royal guard and a household force known as 'mona-spa', a royal servant host made up of mercenaries and lower nobility

1632-502: The Georgian court. According to Tamar's historian, the aim of the Georgian expedition to Trebizond was to punish the Byzantine emperor Alexius IV Angelus for his confiscation of a shipment of money from the Georgian queen to the monasteries of Antioch and Mount Athos . Tamar's Pontic endeavor can also be explained by her desire to take advantage of the Western European Fourth Crusade against Constantinople to set up

1700-439: The Georgian infantry joined the fight, the Seljuq troops started to panic and retreated en masse through the huge gap in their army's rearguard, which wasn't engaged in the battle. This provoked large numbers of uninvolved Seljuq troops to flee as well, causing a massive rout, while their vanguard was completely annihilated. According to a Georgian chronicler, King David’s troops pursued them for three days “putting all of them to

1768-535: The Georgian king eventually showed patience and "respected the feelings of the Muslims." A well-educated man, he preached tolerance of other religions, abrogated taxes and services for the Muslims and Jews, and protected the Sufis and Muslim scholars. Having his forces exhausted and being wounded himself, Ilghazi returned to Mardin in a devastated condition. The Didgori battle helped the Crusader states, which had been under

1836-524: The Georgian king was well aware of the coalition's plans, he decided to exclude one of the coalition leaders. In the first half of 1121, the Georgians twice attacked the Seljuks in the territory of the Emirate of Ganja and massacred them. As a consequence, the ruler of Arran was no longer able to participate in the campaign. Ilghazi was aware of the defeat of his main ally, but he continued his march. In July 1121,

1904-642: The Georgian politicians of that time saw the Kipchaks as potential allies against the Seljuk conquests. According to Georgian chronicles, Georgians knew about the Kipchaks' good fighting skills, their bravery, and the enormous human resources that they had." After the victories of the Rus' Grand Prince Vladimir II Monomakh in 1109, 40,000 Kipchaks commanded by Otrok Khan , known in Georgia as Atrak'a, son of Sharagan (i.e. Sharukan), fled to Georgia, received baptism, and entered

1972-408: The Georgian right flank, ordering his heavy cavalry to ride straight into the seemingly disorganised Seljuk left flank, which was trying to reinforce the vanguard. Having the advantage of moving downhill, the charge of the Georgian cavalry proved very effective. Almost simultaneously the left wing, under the command of David's son Demetrius , struck the Seljuk right flank also with heavy cavalry. When

2040-510: The Georgian state reached the zenith of power and prestige in the Middle Ages. She not only shielded much of her Empire from further Turkish onslaught but successfully pacified internal tensions, including a coup organized by her Russian husband Yury Bogolyubsky , prince of Novgorod . Additionally, she pursued policies that were considered very enlightened for her time period, such as abolishing state-sanctioned death penalty and torture. Among

2108-579: The Georgians' reconquest of Tbilisi in 1122. Soon after that David moved the capital from Kutaisi to Tbilisi. The victory at Didgori inaugurated the medieval Georgian Golden Age and is celebrated in The Georgian Chronicles as a ( Georgian : ძლევაჲ საკვირველი dzlevay sak'virveli lit. the " miraculous victory "). Modern Georgians continue to remember the event as an annual August 12 festival known as Didgoroba ("[the day] of Didgori"). Both Georgian and Islamic sources testify that on

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2176-506: The Golden Age forms an important part of its status as a once-powerful and ancient nation that maintained relations with Greece and Rome . The Golden Age began with the reign of David IV ("the builder" or "the great"), the son of George II and Queen Helena, who assumed the throne at the age of 16 in a period of Great Turkish Invasions . As he came of age under the guidance of his court minister, George of Chqondidi , David IV suppressed

2244-551: The Mongols, restored the pre-1220 state borders of Georgia, and returned the Empire of Trebizond into Georgia's sphere of influence. Under him, Georgia established close international commercial ties, mainly with the Byzantine Empire - to which George V had family ties - but also with the great European maritime republics , Genoa and Venice . George V also achieved the restoration of several Georgian monasteries in Jerusalem to

2312-518: The Muslims, it can be argued that the Frank soldiers were allies rather than mercenaries. It's supposed that Crusaders arrived to Georgia through Constantinople because the territory between Antioch and Georgia was occupied by the Seljuks. King David could not allow Ilghazi to unite with the Tbilisi Muslims, so he decided to intercept him on his way there. He used a strategy of surprise and to entice

2380-572: The Panther's Skin ( Vepkhistq'aosani ). Revered in Georgia as the greatest achievement of native literature, the poem celebrates the Medieval humanistic ideals of chivalry , friendship and courtly love . Around the time when Mongols invaded the Slavic northeast of Europe , the nomadic armies simultaneously pushed down south to Georgia. George IV , son of Queen Tamar, put aside his preparations in support of

2448-400: The Seljuq army overrun, leaving a very large number of dead, injured, prisoners, and booty. Fleeing remnants were constantly pursued and run down for several days so that they wouldn't have time or opportunity to regroup or commence any other move. Aside from those accounts, it has also been suggested that confronted by a vanguard of the large invading force, David had to rely on the advantages

2516-520: The administration and army, including the dignity of amirspasalar . A senior branch held the hereditary office of eristavi ("duke") of Akhalkalaki , and a junior branch – Akhaltsikheli – that of Akhaltsikhe . At one point in the 12th century, the former was briefly surpassed by the latter, whose influence quickly waned after the death of Shalva and Ivane Akhaltsikheli during the Khwarezmian invasion in 1225. The Toreli went in gradual decline during

2584-502: The area. George also continued the process of intermingling Georgian royalty with the highest ranks of the Eastern Roman Empire, a testament of which is the marriage of his daughter Rusudan to Manuel Komnenos , the son of Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos . The successes of her predecessors were built upon by Queen Tamar , daughter of George III, who became the first female ruler of Georgia in her own right and under whose leadership

2652-415: The army of Ilghazi entered Georgian territory. According to Al-Fāriqī , Ilghazi selected the route from Kars to Javakheti and Trialeti to reach Tbilisi , where he could camp, rest, and then act against the Georgians. The Muslim army under the overall command of Ilghazi entered the valley of Trialeti in eastern Georgia and encamped in the vicinities of Didgori and Manglisi in 10 August 1121, about

2720-570: The battle of Didgori is reported in two sources: one by a 12th-century Armenian historian, Matthew of Edessa , who mentions 100 Franks, and the other by Walter the Chancellor , according to whom David used 200 Frankish soldiers deployed ahead of his armies as a striking force against the enemy. There is no exact information whether they were auxiliary troops sent by the prince of Antioch or king Baldwin II of Jerusalem , or simply mercenaries . However, as both Franks and Georgians had one common enemy,

2788-487: The center but would immediately switch to their respective positions when the battle commenced. During battle, David IV would assume command over his army's left wing, while Demetrius was leading the right. According to the French knight and historian Walter the Chancellor , before heading off to battle, King David inspired his army with these words: Soldiers of Christ! If we fight bravely for our Faith, we will defeat not only

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2856-573: The complaints of the Muslim merchants of – Tbilisi , Ganja and Dmanisi – Sultan Mahmud II of Baghdad ( r.  1118–1131 ) sent an expedition into Georgia under command of Ilghazi ibn Artuq of Mardin , whose hegemony in the Middle East and authority among the Muslims was indisputable. After pillaging the County of Edessa and defeat of Roger of Antioch at the battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119,

2924-537: The devil’s servants, but the devil himself. We will gain the greatest weapon of spiritual warfare when we make a covenant with the Almighty God and vow that we would rather die for His love than escape from the enemy. And if any one of us should wish to retreat, let us take branches and block the entrance to the gorge to prevent this. When the enemy approaches, let us attack fiercely! Georgian relations with Cumans - Kipchaks seem to have been generally peaceful. Moreover,

2992-452: The dissent of feudal lords and centralized the power in his hands to effectively deal with foreign threats. In 1121, he decisively defeated much larger Turkish armies during the Battle of Didgori , with fleeing Seljuq Turks being run down by pursuing Georgian cavalry for several days. A huge amount of booty and prisoners were captured by David's army, which had also secured Tbilisi and inaugurated

3060-530: The enemy step-by-step into a trap. He chose a mountainous and wooded area near the Didgori Mountain range, situated between Manglisi and Tbilisi, to attack. "On August 11, 1121, King David led his army along the Nichbisi valley from the ancient capital of Mtskheta and divided his troops into two parts, one under his personal command and the other smaller group under his son Demetrius I , hidden in reserve behind

3128-535: The higher numbers are exaggerated, all sources indicate that the Muslims made massive preparations. In mid-summer 1121, the Muslim troops advanced along various routes, with part of them passing the provinces of Erzerum and Kars , while Sultan Toghrul ibn Muhammad moved through Ganja and Tughan-Arslan the "Hunchback" marched from Dvin ." According to Matthew of Edessa , the Muslim coalition numbered 560,000 men in total, led by Ilghazi with his vassal Tughan-Arslan , and with support from nomadic Arab tribes. As

3196-521: The king, which consisted of 5,000 well-trained and heavily armored mounted warriors with lances and bows. They were used as shock cavalry together with the nobility. The Crusaders , the Kipchak cavalry, and a small portion of infantry were deployed in the center of the Georgian army around the king's banner while the rest were equally split in two major wings initially out of sight for the Seljuqs. Each formation

3264-598: The leadership of David VI and lasted for almost thirty years. The anti-Mongol strife continued without much success under Kings Demetrius the Self-Sacrificer , who was executed by the Mongols, and David VIII . Georgia finally saw a period of revival unknown since the Mongol invasions under King George V the Brilliant . A far-sighted monarch, George V managed to play on the decline of the Ilkhanate , stopped paying tribute to

3332-410: The meeting. While this was going on, David ordered a frontal attack on the enemy vanguard with his crusader knights which not only devastated the enemy's forward lines, but also entangled the Seljuq archers in close combat, effectively taking out a crucial component of Ilghazi's force. This trick resulted in chaos and panic among the Muslims. The Georgians then began to quickly advance on the flanks from

3400-506: The narrations of Homer and Aristotle to me about the Trojan War and the bravery of Achilles or Josephus’ writings about the valor of the Maccabees or Alexander and Titus at Jerusalem?” The battle entered Georgian national consciences as a “miraculous victory” (ძლევაჲ საკვირველი) and is without doubt one of the apogees of Georgian history. It signaled the emergence of Georgia as a military power in

3468-489: The nation's origins and instead portrayed it as a vulnerable, feminine "orient" in need of imperial protection. Battle of Didgori Modern estimates : Several times larger 100,000–250,000 (Georgian sources) 30,000 (Turkish sources) Medieval Christian sources : 400,000–600,000 or 800,000 Medieval Arab sources Total : 55,600 (Georgian sources) The Battle of Didgori ( Georgian : დიდგორის ბრძოლა , romanized : didgoris brdzola )

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3536-474: The nearby heights with orders to attack the flank at a given signal." The course of the battle is differently related in the contemporary historical records. According to the Arab chronicler Ibn al-Athir , David sent a small Kipchak detachment of his men in order to simulate negotiation. The Muslims thought that the small detachment had left the Georgian army seeking protection, so the Muslims did not regard them as

3604-427: The nearby terrain offered to disguise his troop movements. The Seljuk cavalry was provoked or tricked into a relatively narrow pass where they probably had not much room to maneuver. As these were cut off from the rest of Ilghazi's army, the Georgians were easily able to take them out with spears, pikes, and light infantry using bows and javelins. The rest of the coalition army was probably forced to climb slopes to attack

3672-464: The nobles like princes, and the princes like kings." Tamar's reign also marked the continuation of artistic development in the country commenced by her predecessors. While her contemporary Georgian chronicles continued to enshrine Christian morality, the religious theme started to lose its earlier dominant position to the highly original secular literature. This trend culminated in an epic written by Georgia's national poet Rustaveli - The Knight in

3740-467: The pressure of Ilghazi's armies. The weakening of the main enemy of the Latin principalities was beneficial for the Kingdom of Jerusalem under King Baldwin II . According to A. Mikaberidze, "The triumphant victory at Didgori captured the imagination of future Georgian generations. A contemporary chronicler marveled, “What tongue can relate the wonders which our sustaining Christ gave us on that day? And what are

3808-593: The relics as booty at the battle of Hattin  – to no avail, however. Jacques de Vitry , the Patriarch of Jerusalem at that time wrote: There is also in the East another Christian people, who are very warlike and valiant in battle, being strong in body and powerful in the countless numbers of their warriors...Being entirely surrounded by infidel nations...these men are called Georgians, because they especially revere and worship St. George...Whenever they come on pilgrimage to

3876-457: The remarkable events of Tamar's reign was the foundation of the empire of Trebizond on the Black Sea in 1204. This state was established in the northeast of the crumbling Byzantine Empire with the help of the Georgian armies, which supported Alexios I of Trebizond and his brother, David Komnenos , both of whom were Tamar's relatives. Alexios and David were fugitive Byzantine princes raised at

3944-506: The reputation of Ilghazi as a great military commander and champion of Muslims against Christians spread far and wide. After this victory Ilghazi made a truce with the Crusaders and went north towards Armenia at the invitation of the sultan's brother Toghrul, ruler of Arran . There he joined a Muslim coalition against Christian Georgians and lead the coalition's army, in which his vassal Tughan-Arslan lord of Arzen , Bidlis and Dvin ,

4012-482: The service of the Georgian king David IV. The Georgian-Kipchak alliance was facilitated by David's earlier marriage to the Khan 's daughter, who received the name Gurandukht . Kipchaks were outfitted by the crown and were granted lands to settle. In turn, the Kipchaks provided one soldier per family, allowing King David to establish a standing army in addition to his royal troops. The participation of Frankish soldiers in

4080-477: The spread of Black Death by these same nomadic groups. Georgia further weakened after the Fall of Constantinople , which effectively marked the end of the Eastern Roman Empire , Georgia's traditional ally. As a result of these processes, by the 15th century Georgia fractured and turned into an isolated enclave, largely cut off from Christian Europe and surrounded by hostile Islamic Turco-Iranic neighbors. For Georgia

4148-462: The sword and leaving them to the carnivorous beasts and birds of the mountains and plains” of the Manglisi Valley. Terrible and savage slaughter of the enemy troops ensued and the [enemy] corpses filled up the rivers and covered all valleys and cliffs. With the Kipchaks joining in, the final remnants of Seljuq resistance crumbled and joined the rout. The battle was decided within three hours with

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4216-456: The western side of the mountain in full formation. Ilghazi and his son-in-law both survived the attack on the vanguard, but were severely injured during the fight and withdrew from the battlefield, leaving the Seljuq army virtually leaderless. The majority of his commanders were either injured or killed, which caused confusion and probably resulted in a lack of adequate response to the chaotic situation. King David didn't hesitate and personally led

4284-446: Was completed in the year following the battle at Didgori. David laid siege to and captured the city of Tbilisi , which became the capital of Georgia. The medieval sources emphasize David's acts of revenge against the Muslims of Tbilisi. However, the Arab historian al-'Ayni (1360–1451), who utilizes sources, some of which have not survived, admits that the city was pillaged but says that

4352-406: Was formed. The Georgian army of 56,000 men included 500 Alans , about 200 Franks , and 15,000 Kipchaks . The smallest formations would be equivalents of today's platoons "group of 20" (ოცეული), then a "group of 100" (ასეული) and so forth all led by servants of higher status and different rank. The core component of David's army was the so called mona-spa, or servant host, the personal retinue of

4420-475: Was fought between the armies of the Kingdom of Georgia and the Seljuk Empire at the narrow place of Didgori, 40 km west of Tbilisi , on August 12, 1121. The large Muslim army, under the command of Ilghazi , was unable to maneuver and suffered a devastating defeat due to King David IV 's effective military tactics. The battle at Didgori was the culmination of the entire Georgian–Seljuk wars and led to

4488-409: Was headed by a great and dense line of horsemen. The heavy cavalry would smash into the enemy ranks with their lances , joined by the infantry which would entangle the Seljuq main body in fights while the cavalry was to regroup and carry out repeated attacks till the enemy broke. At the sign of collapse, David would then send forward his Kipchak cavalry. Initially the king and all his entourage stayed in

4556-402: Was once a Byzantine Empress Consort - by the 11th century as many as 16 Georgian ruling princes and kings had held Byzantine titles, David becoming the last one to do so. David IV made particular emphasis on removing the vestiges of unwanted Eastern influences, which the Georgians considered forced, in favor of the traditional Christian and Byzantine overtones. As part of this effort, he founded

4624-537: Was spread by the nomads, as well as numerous invasions under the leadership of Tamerlane , who devastated the country's economy, population, and urban centers. After the fall of Byzantium , Georgia definitively turned into an isolated, fractured Christian enclave, a relic of the faded East Roman epoch surrounded by hostile Turco-Iranic neighbors. Georgia's decline resulted in "emasculation" of its image in Russian Imperial perceptions, which systematically overlooked

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