Misplaced Pages

#851148

51-516: The population of the commune consists of 99% Zarma people (also called Djerma). Most of them own cattle, sheep, goats and dromedaries, renting them out to the Fulani people or Tuareg people for tending. Though arable land is rare and poor, there is also some agriculture, mostly millet and sorghum . The area is part of the Sahel and consists of a vast expanse of plateau and hills. The physical environment

102-491: A compound may have several separate huts, each hut with the different wives of the head male. The huts are traditionally roundhouses, or circular shaped structures made of mud walls with a thatched straw conical roof. The Zarma people grow maize , millet , sorghum , rice , tobacco, cotton and peanuts during the rainy season (June to November). They have traditionally owned herds of animals, which they rent out to others till they are ready to be sold for meat. Some own horses,

153-639: A descendant of Askia Daoud and brother to Askia Muhammed Gao. The language, society and culture of the Songhai people is barely distinguishable from the Zarma people . Some scholars consider the Zarma people to be a part of and the largest ethnic sub-group of the Ayneha . Some study the group together as Zarma-Songhai people. However, both groups see themselves as two different peoples. The Songhai proper have traditionally been

204-568: A distinct subgroup within the larger Songhai ethnolinguistic family. Residing predominantly in Niger's Songhai region , Northern Mali , and a minority presence in Burkina Faso . Notably, they trace their lineage to the ruling dynasties of the ancient Songhai Empire . In Niger and Burkina Faso, differentiating the Songhaiborai from the Zarma people poses a challenge, as both are subgroups within

255-442: A historical musical tradition. The Zarma people are alternatively referred to as Zerma , Zaberma , Zabarma Zabermawa , Djerma , Dyerma , Jerma , or other terms. Zarma is the term used by the Zarma people themselves. The estimates for the total population of Zarma people as of 2013 has been generally placed over three million, but it varies. They constitute several smaller ethnic sub-groups, who were either indigenous to

306-578: A large region. According to Anne Haour – a professor of African Studies, some scholars consider the historic caste-like social stratification in Zarma-Songhai people to be a pre-Islam feature while some consider it derived from the Arab influence. Caste-based servitude The traditional form of caste-based servitude was still practiced by the Tuareg , Zarma and Arab ethnic minorities. The different strata of

357-505: A large region. According to Anne Haour – a professor of African Studies, some scholars consider the historic caste-like social stratification in Zarma-Songhay people to be a pre-Islam feature while some consider it derived from the Arab influence. The different strata of the Songhai have included the kings and warriors, the scribes, the artisans, the weavers, the hunters, the fishermen, the leather workers and hairdressers (Wanzam), and

408-677: A legacy of those Zerma people who historically belonged to the warrior class and were skilled cavalrymen in Islamic armies. Living along the River Niger, some Zarma people rely on fishing. The property inheritance and occupational descent is patrilineal. Many Zarma people, like Songhai, have migrated into coastal and prospering cities of West Africa, especially Ghana. Zarma people also grow guavas, mangoes, bananas, and citrus fruits. The Zarma people, like their neighboring ethnic groups in West Africa, have

459-523: A possible passage of the Moroccan army. Askia Muhammed Gao died in 1632 without being able to regroup his men to reclaim Gao , which had fallen under the control of Judar Pasha . His son, Fari Monzon ( Fari Mondyo ) who was an Inspector of tax collection during the reign of Askia Ishaq I succeeded him and in 1661 tried for the second time to regroup the Songhai including their rival cousins (the Si Hamey and

510-442: A rich tradition of music, group dance known as Bitti Harey and singing. The common musical instruments that accompany these arts include gumbe (big drum), dondon (talking drums), molo or kuntigui (string instruments), goge (violin-like instrument). Some of this music also accompanies with folley , or spirit possession-related rituals. Songhaiborai The Songhaiborai (also Songhai , Songhay , Sonrhaï ) are

561-531: A socially stratified society, like many West African ethnic groups with castes . According to the medieval and colonial era descriptions, their vocation is hereditary, and each stratified group has been endogamous. The social stratification has been unusual in two ways; it embedded slavery, wherein the lowest strata of the population inherited slavery, and the Zima , or priests and Islamic clerics, had to be initiated but did not automatically inherit that profession, making

SECTION 10

#1733084701852

612-647: A vassal of the Mali Empire . In the early 14th century they were defeated by the rising Sonni dynasty , founders of the Songhai Empire. The surviving Za became the leaders of small Zarma principalities. Some helped Askia Muhammad overthrow Sonni Baru in 1493, but did not return to power. After leaving Gao, the Zarma first settled in the Zarmaganda , later expanding south into the Dallol Bosso valley and Dosso by

663-441: Is a part of the Zarma people tradition, with preferred partners being cross cousins, and a system of ritualistic acceptance between co-wives. This endogamy is similar to other ethnic groups in West Africa. The women among Zarma people, like other ethnic groups of Sahel and West Africa, have traditionally practiced female genital mutilation (FGM). However, the prevalence rates have been lower and falling. According to UNICEF and

714-461: Is about 250 mm; most of it falls in August, about 104 mm. May is the warmest month of the year; with a 24h temperature average of 33.9 °C and a daily average maximum of almost 41 °C. January is the coldest month, on average 23.9 °C. Zarma people The Zarma people are an ethnic group predominantly found in westernmost Niger . They are also found in significant numbers in

765-623: Is in an advanced state of degradation caused by habitat destruction , poaching, and the vicissitudes of the local climate. In March 2017, the Nigerien government declared a state of emergency in the Ouallam Department (and thus in Tongo Tongo) because of the spill-over from the war in nearby Mali , where large areas are under the control of jihadist groups linked to Al-Qaeda . As of fall 2017, many western nations advise against all travel in

816-454: Is now southwest Niger near the capital Niamey . According to legend, this migration was led by Mali Bero , who migrated by flying on a magical millet silo bottom. He decided to migrate with his people following a fight between the Zarma and a neighboring Tuareg village. Using this oral tradition as evidence, Lange has argued that the Zarma were the ruling class of the Gao Empire , later

867-653: The Koyraboro . The Songhai originally were the descendants and partisans of the Sonni dynasty that retreated to this area of present Niger after the coup d'état of 1493 and that of the Askia dynasty that also moved later to this same region after the invasion of the Songhai Empire by the Saadi dynasty of Morocco in 1591. These two historical events that resulted in the mass exodus of

918-562: The Maliki - Sunni school, and they live in the arid Sahel lands, along the Niger River valley which is a source of irrigation, forage for cattle herds, and drinking water. Relatively prosperous, they own cattle, sheep, goats and dromedaries , renting them out to the Fulani people or Tuareg people for tending. The Zarma people have had a history of slave and caste systems, like many West African ethnic groups. Like them, they also have had

969-529: The Songhai Empire Sonni Ali died in 1492, his former army general and nephew Askia Mohammad rebelled against his son and successor, Sonni Baru and defeated him in a battle in 1493 . Sonni Baru fled to Ayorou and established his own small kingdom. After the defeat of the Songhai Empire at the battle of Tondibi in 1591, the son of Askia Dawud , Askia Muhammed Gao ( aka Wayki ), deposed his brother Askia Ishaq II and briefly took command of

1020-534: The Zarma ) in order to take back the city of Gao. Together, they were able to garner the support of the Tuaregs from Imanan and Azawad . Recognizing the strength of the Moroccan army, they later decided to abandon the struggle for the re-establishment of the Songhai Empire . The son of Fari Monzon , Tabari took command of Karma , a principality established since the passage of Askia Mohammad I during his pilgrimage to Mecca . His other brothers and cousins created

1071-527: The Zima or priests and Islamic clerics had to be initiated but did not automatically inherit that profession, making the cleric strata a pseudo-caste. According to Ralph Austen, a professor emeritus of African history, the caste system among the Zarma people was not as well developed as the caste system historically found in the African ethnic groups further west to them. Louis Dumont , the 20th-century author famous for his classic Homo Hierarchicus , recognized

SECTION 20

#1733084701852

1122-458: The "Mamar Hamey". The Si Hamey (meaning: descendants of Sonni), as the name implies, are the descendants and partisans of the Sonnis , while the "Mamar Hamey" are the descendants and partisans of Askia Mohammad I whose vernacular name among the Songhai is "Mamar". It is also worth noting that both groups use the title surname " Maiga " (meaning, "King or Prince"). After the ruler and founder of

1173-463: The 17th century. Forming a number of small communities, each led by a chief or ruler called Zarmakoy , these polities were in conflict for economically and agriculturally attractive lands with the Tuareg people , the Fula people and other ethnic groups in the area. The Zabarma Emirate was founded by itinerant Zarma preachers and horse traders in the 19th century military, eventually conquering much of

1224-552: The American mission in Niger. On December 27, 2018, the French Air Force , assisted by Nigerien ground forces, conducted a raid near the village, killing 15 terrorists and destroying 20 motorcycles. Tongo Tongo has a desert climate . From October to April, there is virtually no rainfall. According to Köppen and Geiger , this climate is classified as BWh . The average annual temperature is 29.4 °C. Average annual precipitation

1275-460: The FGM practice. According to UNICEF, these efforts have successfully and noticeably reduced the practice to a prevalence rate in the single digits (9% in Zarma ethnic group in 2006 ), compared to east-North Africa (Egypt to Somalia) where the FGM rates are very high. The Zarma villages traditionally consist of walled off compounds where a family group called windi lives. Each compound has a head male and

1326-617: The French increased their presence. The French relied on the Dosso post and Niger river valley as supply hubs as they attempted to establish their colonial control all the way to Chad . This led to conflicts with the Zarma people. French colonial rulers established mines throughout West Africa staffed with African labor, many of whom were migrant Zarma people. Thousands of Zarma travelled to various mines, as well as to build roads and railroads. These laborers followed pre-colonial raiding pathways towards

1377-581: The Gabda, Tinga, Sorko, Kalles, Golles, Loqas and Kurtey peoples. The Zarma language is one of the southern Songhai languages , a branch of the Nilo-Saharan language family. Because of the common language and culture, they are sometimes referred to as "Zarma Songhay" (each also may be spelled "Djerma" and "Songhai"). Zarma oral traditions place their origins in the Niger Bend region of Mali . Some describe

1428-531: The Gold coast, with colonial mines provided economic opportunities and a means to escape French economic exploitation. Of the various ethnic groups in Niger, the early cooperation of the Zarma elite with the colonizers led to a legacy where Zarma interests have been promoted, and they have continued to compose an important part of the Nigerien political elite after independence in 1960. The language, society and culture of

1479-628: The Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and ISIS , had been using a nearby route to travel back and forth into Mali and back to a base camp in Niger and traffic in black market merchandise. The Nigerien forces were working to disrupt this so-called rat line and interdict the militants. While scouting the route, the group came under attack by more than 50 enemy fighters, riding in a dozen vehicles and on about 20 motorcycles, firing from numerous directions with small arms. Four Army Special Forces soldiers, five Nigerien soldiers and at least 21 ISGS militants were killed in

1530-451: The Ouallam Department. The U.S. military has been operating in that area with local forces to help them fight terrorism and to disrupt the militants' movements. On October 4, 2017, an 11-man team of U.S. soldiers from the Army's 3rd Special Forces Group was operating with approximately 35 Forces Armees Nigeriennes (FAN) on a train and advise mission near Tongo Tongo. Militants, both Al-Qaeda in

1581-413: The Songhai emptied Gao and Timbuktu of their Songhai nobles, who find themselves dispersed today in the above-mentioned region of Southwestern Niger . According to oral history, the Songhai nobles came to be known as "Songhai" during the reign of Sonni Ali Ber . The name was coined from his name to form a tribal name for the ruling caste. The main factions of the Songhai are the "Si Hamey" and

Tongo Tongo - Misplaced Pages Continue

1632-580: The Songhai proper and Zarma have owned property and herds, and these have dominated the political system and governments during and after the French colonial rule. Within the stratified social system, the Islamic system of polygynous marriages is a norm, with preferred partners being cross cousins . This endogamy within Songhai-Zarma people is similar to other ethnic groups in West Africa. The Songhay are mostly agriculturalists (mostly growing rice and millet), hunters, fishers and cattle owners which they let

1683-402: The Songhai resistance army. Supported by the remains of the disbanded army, they migrated down river from Gao to the same region of Ayorou where Sonni Baru and his people had taken refuge after their overthrow, precisely in present-day Niger 's Tillabery Region . Askia Wayki (Muhammed Gao) installed his base on the banks of the Niger river in the current locality of Sikié hoping in vain for

1734-522: The World Health Organization studies, in Zarma culture the female circumcision is called Haabize . It consists of two rituals. One is ritual cutting away the hymen of new born girls, second is clitoridectomy between the ages of 9 and 15 where either her prepuce is cut out or a part to all of clitoris and labia minora is cut then removed. The operation has been ritually done by the traditional barbers called wanzam . Niger has attempted to end

1785-425: The Zarma as originally Mande or Soninke . Historian Dierk Lange has argued that these legends are accurate, pointing to Mande words in the Zarma language. Other scholars, however, believe them to have been part of the broader Songhai ethnic umbrella since the beginning. The Zarma migrated south-eastward into their current geographic concentration during the Songhai Empire period, settling particularly in what

1836-437: The Zarma people have traditionally been a socially stratified society, like the Songhai people at large, with their society featuring castes . According to the medieval and colonial era descriptions, their vocation is hereditary, and each stratified group has been endogamous. The social stratification has been unusual in two ways; one it embedded slavery, wherein the lowest strata of the population inherited slavery, and second

1887-506: The Zarma people is barely distinguishable from the Songhai people . Some scholars consider the Zarma people to be a part of and the largest ethnic sub-group of the Songhai – a group that includes nomads of Mali speaking the same language as the Zarma. Some study the group together as Zarma-Songhai people. However, both groups see themselves as two different people. Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan , Tal Tamari and other scholars have stated that

1938-417: The Zarma-Songhai people have included the kings and warriors, the scribes, the artisans, the weavers, the hunters, the fishermen, the leather workers and hairdressers (Wanzam), and the domestic slaves (Horso, Bannye). Each caste reveres its own guardian spirit. Some scholars such as John Shoup list these strata in three categories: free (chiefs, farmers and herders), servile (artists, musicians and griots), and

1989-541: The adjacent areas of Nigeria and Benin , along with smaller numbers in Burkina Faso , Ivory Coast , Ghana , Togo , and Sudan . In Niger, the Zarma are often considered by outsiders to be of the same ethnicity as the neighboring Songhaiborai , although the two groups claim differences, having different histories and speaking different dialects. They are sometimes lumped together as the Zarma-Songhay or Songhay-Zarma . The Zarma people are predominantly Muslims of

2040-626: The ambush. A further eight Nigeriens and two US soldiers were wounded. Initially the US acknowledged only three killed, as the fourth soldier was initially missing; his body was found two days later at the location of the incident. US Africa Command communicated that the soldiers killed were Staff Sergeants Bryan Black (35) of Puyallup, Washington, Jeremiah Johnson (39) of Springboro, Ohio, Dustin Wright (29) of Lyons, Georgia, and Sgt. La David Johnson (25) of Miami Gardens, Florida. No group has taken responsibility for

2091-662: The cleric strata a pseudo-caste. Louis Dumont , the 20th-century author famous for his classic Homo Hierarchicus , recognized the social stratification among Zarma-Songhai people as well as other ethnic groups in West Africa, but suggested that sociologists should invent a new term for West African social stratification system. Other scholars consider this a bias and isolationist because the West African system shares all elements in Dumont's system, including economic, endogamous, ritual, religious, deemed polluting, segregative and spread over

Tongo Tongo - Misplaced Pages Continue

2142-570: The domestic slaves (Horso, Bannye). Each caste reveres its own guardian spirit. Some scholars such as John Shoup list these strata in three categories: free (chiefs, farmers and herders), servile (artists, musicians and griots), and the slave class. The servile group were socially required to be endogamous, while the slaves could be emancipated over four generations. The highest social level, states Shoup, claim to have descended from King Sonni 'Ali Ber and their modern era hereditary occupation has been Sohance (sorcery). The traditionally free strata of

2193-422: The era prior to the Songhai Empire and have assimilated into the Zarma people, or else are people of Zarma origins who have differentiated themselves some time in the precolonial period (through dialect, political structure, or religion), but these are difficult to differentiate according to Fuglestad. Groups usually referred to as part of the Zarma or Songhay, but who have traceable historical distinctions include

2244-456: The killings, although officials commented that the US suspected a local branch of Islamic State was responsible; they did not publicly name any group. At the time and location of the ambush, threats were deemed unlikely, so there was no overhead armed air cover during the engagement. US Africa Command acknowledged the loss of elite US forces would trigger a review of how the US military carries out operations but did not suggest any move to scale back

2295-424: The kingdoms of Namaro , Gothèye , Dargol , Téra , Sikié , Kokorou etc. This marked the end of an empire that once shone for its immensity and the courage of its leaders in spite of multiple incessant internal conflicts of succession. These kingdoms, however, did not find their union circumstantial until March 1906, during the anti-colonial battle of Karma - Boubon led by Oumarou Kambessikonou (Morou Karma) ,

2346-506: The same language family, sharing a very similar dialect and culture. Despite the significant commonalities, the Songhaiborai may identify themselves and their dialect as "Zarma," emphasizing the shared heritage. However, both groups acknowledge their distinct branches within the same ethnicity, often adopting the collective name "Zarma," making it difficult for outsiders to discern any noticeable differences. Additionally, in Mali, they are recognized as

2397-452: The slave class. The servile group were socially required to be endogamous, while the slaves could be emancipated over four generations. The traditionally free strata of the Zerma people have owned property and herds, and these have dominated the political system and governments during and after the French colonial rule. Within the stratified social system, the Islamic system of polygynous marriages

2448-577: The slaves, and this status system survived even after slavery was officially abolished during French colonial rule. The French came to regions inhabited by the Zarma people at the end of the 1890s, during a period of intra-ethnic conflict. The French established a partnership with the Zarmakoy Aouta of Dosso , building a military post there in November 1898. From 1901 to 1903 the area was plagued by natural disasters such as famines and locust attacks, as

2499-431: The social stratification among Zarma-Songhai people as well as other ethnic groups in West Africa, but suggested that sociologists should invent a new term for West African social stratification system. Other scholars consider this a bias and isolationist because the West African system shares all elements in Dumont's system, including economic, ritual, spiritual, endogamous, elements of pollution, segregative and spread over

2550-558: The total population of the Songhay-Zarma people, similar proportions to other ethnic groups in pre-colonial West Africa. However, Bruce Hall cautions that while it is "certainly true that the majority of population" had a servile status, these colonial era estimates for "slaves" may exaggerate because there is a difference between servile status and true slavery. Slaves were an economic asset used for farming, herding and domestic work. A system of social stratification developed even among

2601-558: The voltaic plateau (southern Burkina Faso , northern Ghana ). The slave trade and slave raiding were historically important parts of the society and economy of the Niger river valley, and there is textual evidence annual raids undertaken by Sunni 'Ali and Askiya Muhammad to capture slaves, for domestic use and export to North Africa. Sahelian societies, including the Zarma, have historically been based on slavery from far before colonialism. According to Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan , slaves accounted for two-thirds to three-quarters of

SECTION 50

#1733084701852
#851148