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130-450: Titular sees are dioceses that no longer functionally exist, often because the territory was conquered by Muslims or because it is schismatic . The Greek–Turkish population exchange of 1923 also contributed to titular sees. The see of Maximianoupolis along with the town that shared its name was destroyed by the Bulgarians under Emperor Kaloyan in 1207; the town and the see were under

260-571: A Muslim Where are your valiant warriors and priests Where are your hunting parties and your feats? Where is that warlike mien and where are those Great armies that destroyed our county's foes? Count Iran as a ruin, as the lair Of lions and leopards. Look now and despair Right from the start of the caliphate, it was realized that there was a need to write down the sayings and story of Muhammad, which had been memorized by his followers before they all died. Most people in Arabia were illiterate, and

390-605: A Muslim emissary. Muhammad died in 632 and was succeeded by Abu Bakr , the first caliph with undisputed control of the entire Arab peninsula after the successful Ridda Wars , which resulted in the consolidation of a powerful Muslim state throughout the peninsula. Byzantine sources, such as Short History written by Nikephoros , claim that the Arab invasion came about as a result of restrictions imposed on Arab traders curtailing their ability to trade within Byzantine territory, and to send

520-449: A change of the bishop's place of residence. For example, several of the sees added by this change of policy are in the western and central United States, such as Grass Valley, California , whose diocese was dissolved upon the erection of the Diocese of Sacramento . The change of practice is reflected in the inclusion from then on of such sees in the official lists of titular sees in editions of

650-460: A collection of militarily weak but geographically inaccessible principalities of Persia. It took decades to bring them all under control of the caliphate. In what is now Afghanistan—a region where the authority of the shah was always disputed—the Muslims met fierce guerrilla resistance from the militant Buddhist tribes of the region. Despite the complete Muslim triumph over Sasanid Iran as compared to

780-646: A complete defeat at the Battle of Agnadello , on 14 May 1509. In 1510, Venice negotiated with Julius II, who withdrew from the League of Cambrai and removed the censure in exchange for terms that included Venice agreeing to return disputed towns in Romagna, to renounce claims to fill vacant benefices, to acknowledge jurisdiction of ecclesiastical tribunals over clergy and their immunity to secular tribunals including exemption from taxes, to revoke all unauthorised treaties made with towns in

910-575: A conflict with the head of the Church. Additionally, Florence was full of antagonistic parties and irreconcilable interests. To gain time, Florence sent Niccolò Machiavelli on a diplomatic mission to France in July 1510, where he found Louis XII eager for war and inclined towards the idea of a general council to depose Julius II. Julius II was a soldier, and his goal was to free the entire Italian Peninsula from subjection to foreign powers. However, only Venice and

1040-403: A corresponding title, such as Superior of a Mission sui iuris , Apostolic Administrator, Ordinary, Prefect Apostolic, territorial Abbot, Vicar Apostolic, or Prelate. The ecclesiastic may be in priestly or episcopal orders. In recent practice an Apostolic Administrator, Vicar Apostolic, or Prelate (in this precise sense) is often appointed (and consecrated) a bishop. If that happens he is assigned

1170-845: A decade does suggest serious deficiencies with the Visigothic kingdom, though the limited sources make it difficult to discern the precise reasons for the collapse of the Visigoths. Another Germanic people who founded a state upon the ruins of the Western Roman Empire were the Franks who settled in Gaul . Like the Visigoths, the Frankish cavalry played a "significant part" in their wars. The Frankish kings expected all of their male subjects to perform three months of military service every year, and all serving under

1300-612: A general council, the Fifth Lateran Council, at Rome; it assembled there on 19 April 1512, with a very small attendance that had only Italian prelates. Julius deprived the four leading schismatic cardinals of their dignities, deposed them from their offices and excommunicated the conciliabulum participants. After the conciliabulum transferred from Pisa to Milan because of popular opposition, possibly elected Carvajal as Antipope Martin VI. Soon afterward, in 1512, fearing

1430-509: A guerrilla war was waged by Christians in the hilly countryside of north-western Syria supported by the Byzantines. At the same time, the Byzantines began a policy of launching raids via sea on the coast of the caliphate with the aim of forcing the Muslims to keep at least some of their forces to defend their coastlines, thus limiting the number of troops available for an invasion of Anatolia. Unlike Syria with its plains and deserts — which favored

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1560-553: A hill, and two wings of cavalry on either side. Little is known about the military forces of the Christian state of Ethiopia other than that they were divided into sarawit professional troops and the ehzab auxiliaries. The Ethiopians made much use of camels and elephants. The Berber peoples of North Africa had often served as a federates (auxiliaries) to the Byzantine Army. The Berber forces were based around

1690-714: A holy war in defense of the Christian faith and the Wood of the Holy Cross, as splinters of wood said to be from the True Cross were known, had been used to inspire Christian fighting zeal. The idea of a holy war against the "fire worshipers", as the Christians called the Zoroastrians, had aroused much enthusiasm, leading to an all-out effort to defeat the Persians. Nevertheless, neither empire

1820-508: A mutiny in Medina in 656 and 'Uthman's murder . Uthman's successor Ali was faced with a civil war, known to Muslims as the fitna , when the governor of Syria Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan revolted against him. During this time, the first period of Muslim conquests stopped, as the armies of Islam turned against one another. A group known as the Kharaji decided to end the civil war by assassinating

1950-472: A neighbouring territory or subdivided, according to developing circumstances. An example might be the uniting on November 30, 1987, of two Egyptian vicariates apostolic , Heliopolis of Egypt and Port Said, to become the single Vicariate Apostolic of Alexandria of Egypt–Heliopolis of Egypt–Port Said , governed by Egypt's only Latin Ordinary at present. A different example would be the division, on 6 July 6, 1992, of

2080-507: A painful manner. The charge against him was that he had persuaded Heraclius not to allow the Saracens to trade from the Byzantine country and send out of the Byzantine state the thirty pounds of gold which they normally received by way of commercial gain; and for this reason they began to lay waste the Byzantine land. Some scholars assert that this is the same Sergius, called "the Candidatus", who

2210-407: A reflection of the religious zeal of the conquerors and evidence of divine favor. The theory that the conquests are explainable as an Arab migration triggered by economic pressures enjoyed popularity early in the 20th century but has largely fallen out of favor among historians, especially those who distinguish the migration from the conquests that preceded and enabled it. There are indications that

2340-581: A separate six volume index. Moroni acknowledged the great difficulties in compiling this work, even after he thoroughly examined all the sources available to him. In 1851, the Annuario Pontificio began to have such a list, but it did not purport to be complete. On the contrary, it contained only those that were in general use. Names of dioceses disappeared and were listed again when the titles were actually assigned. Until 1882, these titles were given as in partibus infidelium . According to Corrigan,

2470-451: A titular see, in addition to his status as head of the territorial jurisdiction. the appointment as bishop is less likely in the case of a Superior of a Mission sui iuris , or a Prefect Apostolic, but may happen, especially when a man who is already a bishop governing a particular jurisdiction is appointed cumulatively to govern one of these others. A particular territory may have its canonical status changed more than once, or may be united to

2600-572: A war, the foreign prince had the right to invade the Papal States and to withdraw his subjects' obedience to the pope. The synod also threatened Julius II with a general council. Julius II ignored the French synod and again assumed personal command of the army in Northern Italy . In August 1510, at Bologna , he became dangerously ill but then recovered. In October, he negotiated an anti-French alliance. In

2730-648: Is known about the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah other than it lasted for several days by the banks of the river Euphrates in what is now Iraq and ended with the Persian force being annihilated. Abolishing the Lakhmid Arab buffer state had forced the Persians to take over the desert defense themselves, leaving them overextended. As a result of al-Qadisiyyah, the Arab-Muslims gained control over the whole of Iraq, including Ctesiphon ,

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2860-638: Is known in the Muslim world as the "Victory of Victories". As with the Levant, this was the first time since the collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC with the Battle of Opis , that Mesopotamia was ruled again by Semitic-speaking people, after centuries of Persian ( Achaemenid , Parthian and Sasanian empires), and Roman-Greek ( Macedonian , Seleucid the Roman empires) ruling periods. After Nahavand,

2990-452: Is now Afghanistan, indicates a weakening of the power of the Shahinshah (King of Kings), suggesting the empire was already breaking down at the time of the Muslim conquest. Persian society was rigidly divided into castes with the nobility being of supposed "Aryan" descent, and this division of Persian society along caste lines was reflected in the military. The azatan aristocracy provided

3120-592: The Annuario Pontificio . Previously, titular sees were routinely (yet not always) assigned not only to auxiliary bishops, similar pseudo-diocesan offices and pre-diocesan apostolic vicars or (Eastern Catholic) apostolic exarchs (not apostolic prefects ), but also to retired bishops by way of emeritate (sometimes with a 'promotion' from a suffragan see to an archiepiscopal titular see; however sometimes transferred to another during an incumbent emeritus bishop's life) and even to coadjutor bishops . That practice

3250-779: The Aegean Islands . Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Insulae (the Aegean Islands) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees : Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Lesbos (the Aegean Islands) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees: Early Muslim conquests This is an accepted version of this page Byzantine Empire Sassanid Persia Caucasus Other regions The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( Arabic : الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة , romanized :  al-Futūḥāt al-ʾIslāmiyya ), also known as

3380-695: The Arab conquests , were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad , the founder of Islam . He established a new unified polity in Arabia based in Medina that expanded rapidly under the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate , culminating in Muslim rule being established on three continents ( Asia , Africa , and Europe ) over the next century. According to Scottish historian James Buchan : "In speed and extent,

3510-576: The Battle of the Masts off Cape Chelidonia in Anatolia in 655, the Muslims defeated the Byzantine fleet in a series of boarding actions. As a result, the Byzantines began a major expansion of their navy, which was matched by the Arabs, leading to a naval arms race. From the early 8th century onward, the Muslim fleet would launch annual raids on the coastline on the Byzantine empire in Anatolia and Greece. As part of

3640-569: The Church of the Holy Sepulchre to remain, with the caliph praying on a prayer rug outside of the church. The loss to the Muslims of Jerusalem, the holiest city to Christians, proved to be the source of much resentment in Christendom. The city of Caesarea Maritima continued to withstand the Muslim siege—as it could be supplied by sea—until it was taken by assault in 640. It was the first time since

3770-570: The Diocese of Évreux , who was controversial for his positions on religious, political and social matters, refused to retire and become Bishop Emeritus of Évreux, he was transferred to the titular see of Partenia . The crusading William IV, Count of Nevers , dying in the Holy Land in 1168, left the building known as the Hospital of Panthenor in the town of Clamecy in Burgundy , together with some land, to

3900-651: The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and for making Damascus into the capital of a "superpower" that stretched from Portugal to Central Asia, covering the vast territory from the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of China. The rapidity of the early conquests has received various explanations. Contemporary Christian writers conceived them as God's punishment visited on their fellow Christians for their sins. Early Muslim historians viewed them as

4030-654: The Gallican conciliabulum "shows how some members of the Sacred College were ever open to schismatic solutions". According to Kraus, it was intended by French politicians to restrain Julius II, and to recognize by general council of the principles of the 1438 Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges , drawn from the articles of the Council of Constance and the Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence. The schismatic conciliabulum at Pisa

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4160-468: The Nile Delta were protected by water and because Amr lacked the machinery to break down city fortifications. The Arabs laid siege to Babylon, and its starving garrison surrendered on 9 April 641. Nevertheless, the province was scarcely urbanized and the defenders lost hope of receiving reinforcements from Constantinople when the emperor Heraclius died in 641. Afterwards, the Arabs turned north into

4290-515: The Old Swiss Confederacy were ready to field armies against the French. Julius II began hostilities by deposing and excommunicating his vassal, Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara , who supported France. Louis XII retaliated in September 1510 by convoking a synod of French bishops at Tours , which judged that the pope had no right to make war upon a foreign prince and if the pope undertook such

4420-646: The Papal States and the Spanish Empire at the Battle of Ravenna (1512) hindered the opening of the council called by Julius II. During the council, the ambassador of the Holy Roman Emperor announced that Maximilian had rejected the decisions made by the conciliabulum at Pisa, and a similar announcement was made by Louis XII's ambassador. At the seventh session, in 1513, Carvajal and Sanseverino separated from their French colleagues and formally renounced

4550-561: The Ridda Wars prompted the Byzantines to send a major expedition into southern Palestine , which was defeated by the Arab forces under command of Khalid ibn al-Walid at the Battle of Ajnadayn in 634. Ibn al-Walid had converted to Islam around 627, becoming one of Muhammad's most successful generals. Ibn al-Walid had been fighting in Iraq against the Sasanians when he led his force on a trek across

4680-571: The Siege of Carthage , that parts of North Africa and Iberia were reconquered by Semitic-speaking people. Among other drastic changes, the early Muslim conquests brought about the collapse of the Sasanian Empire and great territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire . Explanations for the Muslim victories have been difficult to discover, primarily because only fragmentary sources have survived from

4810-588: The Swiss mercenaries invasion of the French occupied Duchy of Milan , the conciliabulum participants departed to Asti and then Lyon , France, where they abandoned the conciliabulum later that year. The schismatic conciliabulum was a political step aimed at Julius II, who was involved in conflict with the Duchy of Ferrara and France. The whole matter was a futile attempt to revive 15th century conciliarism and to use it for political purposes. Julius II

4940-572: The "mighty" walls built by the Emperor Theodosius II in the 5th century proved their worth. The majority of the people in Syria remained Christian, and a substantial Jewish minority remained as well; both communities were to teach the Arabs much about science, trade and the arts. The Umayyad caliphs are well-remembered for sponsoring a cultural "golden age" in Islamic history—for example, by building

5070-437: The "real military leader" at Yarmuk "under the nominal command of others". Syria was ordered to be abandoned to the Muslims with Heraclius reportedly saying: "Peace be with you Syria; what a beautiful land you will be for your enemy". On the heels of their victory, the Arab armies took Damascus again in 636, with Baalbek , Homs , and Hama to follow soon afterwards. However, other fortified towns continued to resist despite

5200-485: The 19th century to two separately 'restored' titular successor sees: a Latin titular archbishopric of Nazareth and a Maronite ( Antiochian Rite ) titular (Arch)bishopric of Nazareth, both suppressed only in the early 20th century. The granting of titular sees is occasionally practised in the Eastern and other Orthodox churches. The Roman Catholic Church lists as titular sees, former diocese that no longer function, several in

5330-449: The Arabs had a strong culture of remembering history orally. To preserve the story of Muhammad and to prevent any corruptions from entering the oral history, Abu Bakr had ordered scribes to write down the story of Muhammad as told to them by his followers, which was the origin of the Quran. Disputes had emerged over which version of the Quran was the correct one and, by 644 different versions of

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5460-662: The Bishops of Bethlehem, in case Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control. After Saladin took Bethlehem in 1187, the Bishop took up residence in 1223 in his property, which remained the seat of titular Bishops of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until the French Revolution of 1789. The Roman Catholic Archbishopric of Nazareth first had two centuries of Metropolitan Archbishops of Nazareth in Barletta (southern Italy), and gave rise in

5590-632: The Byzantine Empire, but much of the cavalry were either recruited from "martial" peoples in the Balkans or in Asia Minor or alternatively were Germanic mercenaries. Most of the Byzantine troops in Syria were indigenae (local), and it seems that at the time of the Muslim conquest, the Byzantine forces in Syria were Arabs. In response to the loss of Syria, the Byzantines developed the phylarch system of using Armenian and Arab Christian auxiliaries living on

5720-475: The Byzantine and Sasanian empires competed for influence in Arabia by sponsoring clients, and in turn Arabian tribes sought the patronage of the two rival empires to bolster their own ambitions. The Lakhmid kingdom which covered parts of what is now southern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia was a client of Persia, and in 602 the Persians deposed the Lakhmids to take over the defense of the southern frontier. This left

5850-523: The Byzantine empire. Control of Egypt meant that the caliphate could weather droughts without the fear of famine, laying the basis for the future prosperity of the caliphate. The Byzantine Empire had traditionally dominated the Mediterranean and the Black Sea with major naval bases at Constantinople , Acre , Alexandria and Carthage . In 652, the Arabs won their first victory at sea off Alexandria, which

5980-414: The Byzantines to the Muslims (namely Egypt , Palestine , and Syria ) had been reclaimed from the Sasanians only a few years prior to the Muslim conquests. Arabia was a region that hosted several cultures, some urban and others nomadic Bedouin . Arabian society was divided along tribal and clan lines, with the most important divisions being between the "southern" and "northern" tribal associations. Both

6110-406: The Caspian Sea when an invading Muslim army was almost wiped out by the cavalry of the Khazar Khanate , and, seeing a chance to take back Egypt, the Byzantines launched an amphibious attack which took back Alexandria for a short period of time. Though most of Egypt is desert, the Nile Delta has some of the most productive and fertile farmland in the entire world, which had made Egypt the "granary" of

6240-420: The Council's discussions, was behind the so-called "sale of indulgences " scandal that precipitated Martin Luther 's Ninety-five Theses , which were published just seven months after the close of the council. According to historian Nelson Minnich, Luther was shocked that the Lateran Council had in his view abrogated decisions of previous councils and he adopted sola scriptura in consequence. Whether or not

6370-442: The French were at first successful, but after his death, they yielded to the superior forces of the League. After being defeated in the Battle of Ravenna in 1512, they retreated beyond the Alps. Bologna again submitted to Julius II, and the cities of Parma , Reggio and Piacenza became part of the Papal States. The reforms of the Council of Constance (1414–1418) and the Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence (1431–1449) failed. At

6500-459: The Ghanaian diocese of Accra, to separate from its territory the new diocese of Koforidua . At the same date, the diocese of Accra became a Metropolitan Archdiocese. After a name change, an abandoned name may be 'restored' as a titular see, even though a residential successor see exist(ed). Furthermore, the Catholic Church may create more than one titular see named after a single city, by creating one or more lines of apostolic succession assigned to

6630-535: The Latin and/or one or more Eastern Catholic rites, which are not necessarily of the same rank. It was formerly the practice to add the term in partibus infidelium , often shortened to in partibus or i.p.i. , meaning "in the lands of the unbelievers", to the name of the see conferred on titular (non-diocesan) Latin Church bishops. Formerly, when bishops fled from invading Muslims, they were welcomed by other churches, while preserving their titles and their rights to their own dioceses. They were entrusted with

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6760-483: The Latin patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, ten archbishops, fifty-six bishops, some abbots and generals of religious orders, the ambassadors of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and those of Venice and of Florence. After Julius II died, his successor, Pope Leo X , continued the council, and the last session was held on 16 March 1517. Several decrees were published, most for institutional reform and political peace rather than doctrinal clarification, including: Little

6890-464: The Mediterranean region, being used in religious ceremonies. However, the conversion of the Mediterranean world to Christianity had significantly reduced the demand for these commodities, causing a major economic slump in southern Arabia which helped to create the impression that Arabia was a backward region. Little is known of the pre-Islamic religions of Arabia, but it is known that the Arabs worshipped gods such as al-Lat, Manat, al-Uzza and Hubal, with

7020-429: The Middle East, India and even from as far away as China. In turn, the Yemeni were great sailors, travelling up the Red Sea to Egypt and across the Indian Ocean to India and down the east African coast. Inland, the valleys of Yemen had been cultivated by a system of irrigation that had been set back when the Marib Dam was destroyed by an earthquake in about 450 AD. Frankincense and myrrh had been greatly valued in

7150-407: The Muslim shipwrights switched from the hull-first method of building ships to the frame-first method. After an Arab incursion into Sasanian territories, the shah Yazdgerd III , who had just ascended the Persian throne, raised an army to resist the conquerors, although many marzbans refused to help. The Persians suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636. Little

7280-456: The Muslims, while the people retreated into castles and fortified towns when the Muslims invaded; instead, Byzantine forces ambushed Muslim raiders as they returned to Syria carrying plunder and people they had enslaved . In the frontier area where Anatolia met Syria, the Byzantine state evacuated the entire population and laid waste to the countryside, creating a no man's land where any invading army would find no food. For decades afterwards,

7410-415: The Nile Delta and laid siege to Alexandria. The last major center to fall into Arab hands was Alexandria, which capitulated in September 642. According to Hugh Kennedy , "Of all the early Muslim conquests, that of Egypt was the swiftest and most complete. [...] Seldom in history can so massive a political change have happened so swiftly and been so long lasting." In 644, the Arabs suffered a major defeat by

7540-479: The Papal States, to abandon appeal to a future general council against the papal bans and to concede free navigation of the Adriatic Sea to Papal States subjects. The first stages of conflict between the Papal States and France began in 1510. King Louis XII of France demanded that the Republic of Florence declare definitively its allegiance. However, declaring allegiance to France would expose Florence to an immediate attack, and alienate its citizens, who dreaded

7670-434: The Persian state collapsed with Yezdegird III fleeing further east and various marzbans surrendering to the Arabs. As the conquerors slowly covered the vast distances of Iran punctuated by hostile towns and fortresses, Yazdgerd III retreated, finally taking refuge in Khorasan , where he was assassinated by a local satrap in 651. In the aftermath of their victory over the imperial army, the Muslims still had to contend with

7800-412: The Persians exposed and over-extended, helping to set the stage for the collapse of Persia later that century. Southern Arabia, especially what is now Yemen, had for thousands of years been a wealthy region that had been a center of the spice trade . Yemen had been at the center of an international trading network linking Eurasia to Africa, and Yemen had been visited by merchants from East Africa, Europe,

7930-425: The Quran were accepted in Damascus , Basra , Hims , and Kufa . To settle the dispute, the Caliph Uthman had proclaimed the version of the Quran possessed by one of Muhammad's widows, Hafsa , to be the definitive and correct version, which offended some Muslims who held to the rival versions. This, together with the favoritism shown by 'Uthman to his own clan, the Banu Umayya , in government appointments, led to

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8060-504: The Synods of Orleans and Tours, in 1510, the French decided to convoke a general council. In view of the Council of Constance decree Frequens and the delay of Julius II to convoke a general council as he had sworn in the papal conclave , the schismatic conciliabulum convened at Pisa in 1511. Florence permitted the conciliabulum to use Pisa as the location; this estranged Julius II, and both Florence and Pisa were placed under an interdict. According to Marco Pellegrini,

8190-399: The Turkic peoples of Central Asia the "most formidable foes" faced by the Muslims. The Jewish Turkic Khazar khanate , based in what is now southern Russia and Ukraine, had a powerful heavy cavalry. The Turkic heartland of Central Asia was divided into five khanates whose khans variously recognized the shahs of Iran or the emperors of China as their overlords. Turkic society was feudal with

8320-413: The Umayyad period, the caliphate had a standing army, including the elite Ahl al-Sham ("people of Syria"), raised from the Arabs who settled in Syria. The caliphate was divided into jund , or regional armies, stationed in the provinces being made of mostly Arab tribes who were paid monthly by the Diwan al-Jaysh (War Ministry). The infantry of the Byzantine army continued to be recruited from within

8450-577: The administration of vacant sees of other dioceses, or with assisting in such government of a see which already had a residential bishop. In later days it was deemed fitting to preserve the memory of ancient Christian churches which no longer existed; this was done by giving their names to auxiliary bishops or bishops in missionary countries. These bishops did not reside in the sees whose titles they bore, nor could they exercise any power over them, and are not entrusted with their care. They are therefore called titular bishops, as opposed to diocesan bishops, and

8580-426: The archangel Gabriel had told him that he was the last of the prophets continuing the work of Jesus Christ and the prophets of Tanakh . After coming into conflict with the elite of Mecca, Muhammad fled to the city of Yathrib, which was renamed Medina . At Yathrib, Muhammad founded an Islamic state and by 630 conquered Mecca. The prolonged and escalating Byzantine–Sasanian wars of the 6th and 7th centuries and

8710-487: The arms race, both sides sought new technology to improve their warships. The Muslim warships had a larger forecastle , which was used to mount a stone-throwing engine. The Byzantines invented Greek fire , an incendiary weapon that led the Muslims to cover their ships with water-soaked cotton. A major problem for the Muslim fleet was the shortage of timber, which led the Muslims to seek qualitative instead of quantitative superiority by building bigger warships. To save money,

8840-441: The beginning, the alliance included only the Papal States, Venice and Spain, but in November, England joined and was soon followed by the emperor and by Switzerland. The Papal States marched against Mirandola , which was captured on 20 January 1511. On 23 May 1511, contingents of the French army captured Bologna from the papal troops and reinstated Annibale II Bentivoglio . Under the leadership of Gaston of Foix, Duke of Nemours ,

8970-399: The bishops of those dioceses, who could give rise, even after long interruption (exile and/or vacancy), to a 'restored' line of apostolic succession on each see. The Ordinary or hierarch of a Catholic titular see may be styled a "Titular Metropolitan" (highest rank), "Titular Archbishop" (intermediary rank) or " titular bishop " (lowest rank), which normally goes by the status conferred on

9100-415: The capital city of the Sassanids. The Persians lacked sufficient forces to make use of the Zagros Mountains to stop the Arabs, having lost the prime of their army at al-Qadisiyyah. The Persian forces withdrew over the Zagros, and the Arab army pursued them across the Iranian plateau, where the fate of the Sasanian Empire was sealed at the Battle of Nahavand in 642. The crushing Muslim victory at Nahavand

9230-417: The cavalry, the paighan infantry came from the peasantry and most of the greater Persian nobility had slave soldiers, this last being based on the Persian example. Much of the Persian army consisted of tribal mercenaries recruited from the plains south of the Caspian Sea and from what is now Afghanistan. The Persian tactics were cavalry based with the Persian forces usually divided into a center, based upon

9360-411: The collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC with the Battle of Opis , that Mesopotamia and Levant were ruled again by neighboring Semitic -speaking people, after centuries of Persian ( Achaemenid , Parthian and Sasanian empires), and Roman-Greek ( Macedonian , Seleucid the Roman and Byzantine empires) ruling periods. And the first time since the fall of Ancient Carthage in 146 BC with

9490-409: The collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, that the Levant was ruled again by Semitic-speaking people, after centuries of Persian ( Achaemenid Empire ), and Roman-Greek ( Macedonian , the Roman and Byzantine empires) ruling periods. In the mountains of Asia Minor, the Muslims enjoyed less success, with the Byzantines adopting the tactic of "shadowing warfare" — refusing to give battle to

9620-511: The conquests started as initially disorganized pillaging raids launched partly by non-Muslim Arab tribes in the aftermath of the Ridda Wars and were soon extended into a war of conquest by the Rashidun caliphs , although other scholars argue that the conquests were a planned military venture already underway during Muhammad's lifetime. Fred Donner writes that the advent of Islam "revolutionized both

9750-874: The context of improved relations with the Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy after the Second Vatican Council , the Holy See, while continuing to appoint bishops to titular sees in North Africa , ceased to make such appointments to sees that were historically part of the Eastern patriarchates of Constantinople , Alexandria , Antioch , and Jerusalem . It began instead to treat as titular sees also those Catholic dioceses in any country no longer used as titles of diocesan bishops because of having been absorbed into other dioceses or having been renamed due to

9880-707: The control of the Latin Empire , which took Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Parthenia , in north Africa, was abandoned and swallowed by desert sand. During the Muslim conquests of the Middle East and North Africa, some bishops fled to Christian-ruled areas. Even if they did not return and the Christian population of their dioceses dispersed, were killed or abandoned the Catholic faith, they continued to be seen as

10010-750: The countries in which they were ambassadors . The foundation of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith , in 1622, gave a great impetus to the missionary work of the Church in China and Japan, and elsewhere a great increase in the number of bishops became necessary and those received their titles from the ancient abandoned sees. Only about 1850, was any attempt made to compile a list of such sees. Gaetano Moroni had already, in 1840, began publication of his 103 volume Dizionario di erudizione storico-ecclesiastica with

10140-615: The deserts to Syria to attack the Byzantines from the rear. In the Battle of the Mud fought at or near Pella (Fahl) and nearby Scythopolis (Beisan) , both in the Jordan Valley , in December 634 or January 635, the Arabs scored another victory. After a siege of six months the Arabs took Damascus, but Emperor Heraclius later retook it. At the battle of Yarmuk (636), the Arabs were victorious, defeating Heraclius. Ibn al-Walid appears to have been

10270-518: The diaries of Paride De Grassi himself. The Council finally met on 3 May 1512 at the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran. The scholar and preacher Cardinal Egidio da Viterbo (Giles of Viterbo) gave an inspiring opening address on the need for urgent reform, which was widely printed and puts many of the concerns of Catholic reformists and humanists, such as Ximenez , von Staupitz , John Colet and Erasmus . Participants included fifteen cardinals,

10400-447: The diocesan bishops in their labors. After the 14th century the large increase of population in the great centers rendered such assistance particularly necessary. In the 16th century the Holy See inaugurated the policy of consecrating nuncios and other prelates, delegated to represent the Pope in his relations with the different nations, so that they would be equals with the diocesan bishops of

10530-535: The early Muslim polities at the conquests' peak have been as high as 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi). Most historians also agree that, as another primary factor determining the early Muslim conquests' success, the Sasanians and the Byzantines were militarily and economically exhausted from decades of warfare against each other . It has been suggested that Jews and some Christians in Sasanian and Byzantine territory were dissatisfied and welcomed

10660-468: The ecclesiastical jurisdiction of Julius II in other ways. In 1509, Julius II joined the League of Cambrai , a coalition formed to restore lands that had been recently conquered by Venice to their original owners. Julius II censured Venice with an interdict and deployed the armies of the Papal States , along with the combined forces of the League of Cambrai, to Venetian-occupied Romagna . There, Venice suffered

10790-521: The edge of the Nile River valley, and then defeated a Byzantine counter-attack at Bibays . Contrary to expectations, the Arabs did not head for Alexandria , the capital of Egypt, but instead for a major fortress known as Babylon located at what is now Cairo. Amr was planning to divide the Nile River valley in two. The Arab forces won a major victory at the Battle of Heliopolis in 640, but they found it difficult to advance further because major cities in

10920-674: The first Arab conquests were matched only by those of Alexander the Great , and they were more lasting." At their height, the territory that was conquered by the Arab Muslims stretched from Iberia (at the Pyrenees ) in the west to India (at Sind ) in the east; Muslim control spanned Sicily , most of the Middle East and North Africa , and the Caucasus and Central Asia . It was the first time since

11050-477: The frontier to provide a "shield" to counter raiding by the Muslims into the empire. Overall, the Byzantine army remained a small but professional force of foederati . Unlike the foederati who were sent where they were needed, the stradioti lived in the frontier provinces. During the last decades of the Sasanian empire, the frequent use of royal titles by Persian governors in Central Asia, especially in what

11180-518: The horse and camel but seemed to have been hampered by a lack of weapons or protection, with both Byzantine and Arab sources mentioning the Berbers lacked armour and helmets. The Berbers went to war with their entire communities, and the presence of women and children both slowed down the Berber armies and tied down Berber tribesmen who tried to protect their families. The British historian David Nicolle called

11310-524: The ideological bases and the political structures of the Arabian society, giving rise for the first time to a state capable of an expansionist movement." According to Chase F. Robinson, it is likely that Muslim forces were often outnumbered, but unlike their opponents, they were fast, well coordinated and highly motivated. Fifth Lateran Council The Fifth Council of the Lateran , held between 1512 and 1517,

11440-484: The immediately previous Councils, its institutional reforms were ineffectively implemented at that time. When elected pope in 1503, Pope Julius II promised under oath to convoke a general council, but his promise was not fulfilled. The Republic of Venice had encroached on papal rights in Venetian territories by independently filling vacant episcopal sees, subjecting clergy to secular tribunals and generally disregarding

11570-459: The invading Muslim troops, largely because of religious conflict in both empires. However, confederations of Arab Christians , including the Ghassanids , initially allied themselves with the Byzantines. There were also instances of alliances between the Sasanians and the Byzantines, such as when they fought together against the Rashidun army during the Battle of Firaz . Some of the lands lost by

11700-464: The khans only being pater primus among the aristocracy of dihquans who lived in castles in the countryside, with the rest of Turkic forces being divided into kadivar (farmers), khidmatgar (servants) and atbai (clients). The heavily armored Turkic cavalry played a significant role in influencing subsequent Muslim tactics and weapons; the Turkic peoples, who were mostly Buddhists at

11830-441: The king's banner were paid a regular salary. Those called up for service had to provide their own weapons and horses, which contributed to the "militarisation of Frankish society". At least part of the reason for the victories of Charles Martel was he could call up a force of experienced warriors when faced with Muslim raids. The province of Syria was the first to be wrested from Byzantine control. Arab-Muslim raids that followed

11960-512: The leaders of both sides. However, the fitna ended in January 661 when Ali was killed by a kharaji assassin, allowing Mu'awiya to become caliph and found the Umayyad dynasty . The fitna also marked the beginning of the split between Shia Muslims who supported Ali, and Sunni Muslims who opposed him. Mu'awiya moved the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Damascus, which had a major effect on

12090-537: The likelihood of having to divide the jurisdiction in the near future, and so on. In these circumstances the Catholic Church establishes sometimes not a diocese but a canonical jurisdiction of another kind. This may be, for example, a Mission sui iuris , an Apostolic Administration (permanently constituted), an Ordinariate, a Prefecture Apostolic, a territorial Abbey, a Vicariate Apostolic, or a Prelature. The ecclesiastic placed in charge of one of these jurisdictions has

12220-464: The most important being Allah (God). There were also Jewish and Christian communities in Arabia, and aspects of Arab religion reflected their influence. Pilgrimage was a major part of Arabian paganism, and one of the most important pilgrimage sites was Mecca , which housed the Kaaba , considered an especially holy place to visit. Muhammad, a merchant of Mecca, started to have visions in which he claimed that

12350-399: The number of abandoned sees. The final development of the list of sees, called in partibus infidelium , took shape, at first, from the attempt of the Holy See to keep up the succession of bishops in these dioceses, in the hope of reconquering their territory from the infidel. When all hope of such redemption was given up, these titles were still conferred on those who were chosen to assist

12480-450: The offensive — the mountainous terrain of Anatolia favored the defensive, and for centuries afterwards the line between Christian and Muslim lands ran along the border between Anatolia and Syria. The Byzantine province of Egypt held strategic importance for its grain production, naval yards, and as a base for further conquests in Africa. The Muslim general Amr ibn al-As began the conquest of

12610-434: The only partial defeat of the Byzantine Empire, the Muslims borrowed far more from the vanished Sassanian state than they ever did from the Byzantines. However, for the Persians the defeat remained bitter. Some 400 years later, the Persian poet Ferdowsi lets Yazdgerd III speak in his popular poem Shahnameh ( Book of Kings ): Damn this world, damn this time, damn this fate, That uncivilized Arabs have come to Make me

12740-426: The period. American scholar Fred McGraw Donner suggests that Muhammad's establishment of an Islamic polity in Arabia coupled with ideological (i.e., religious) coherence and mobilization constituted the main factor that propelled the early Muslim armies to successfully establish, in the timespan of roughly a century, one of the largest empires in history . Estimates of the total area of the combined territory held by

12870-684: The places to which they had been appointed. The spread of Islam through Muslim conquests in Asia and Africa was responsible for hundreds of abandoned sees. During the Crusades , the Latins, who established new Christian communities, composed of Europeans and belonging to the Latin Church, procured the erection of new dioceses for their benefit, and these in turn, during the growth of the Ottoman Empire , increased

13000-408: The politics and culture of the caliphate. Mu'awiya followed the conquest of Iran by invading Central Asia and trying to finish off the Byzantine Empire by taking Constantinople. In 670, a Muslim fleet seized Rhodes and then laid siege to Constantinople . Nicolle wrote the siege of Constantinople from 670 to 677 was "more accurately" a blockade rather than a siege proper, which ended in failure as

13130-527: The practice has become more widespread. Although the normal constitution of the hierarchy has always been built on the idea of local jurisdiction of the bishops, there are indications, in the early history of the Church, of many who did not enjoy what is usually called ordinary jurisdiction. Besides those who were endowed with the episcopal character, in order to assist the local bishops there were those who had been driven from their dioceses by infidels or by heretics , or who for other reasons could not reside in

13260-464: The proceeding and structures for previous councils, such as Constance and Florence. De Grassi constructed a main council chamber inside the nave of the Lateran Basilica . This chamber was surrounded by a wall to protect the privacy of the proceedings. Rooms for eating and latrines were constructed within it, as the participants could not leave the premises during the council. A second smaller room

13390-470: The profits of their trade out of Byzantine territory. As a result, the Arabs murdered a Byzantine official named Sergius whom they held responsible for convincing the Emperor Heraclius to impose the trade restrictions. Nikephoros relates that: The Saracens, having flayed a camel, enclosed him in the hide and sewed it up. As the skin hardened, the man who was left inside also withered and so perished in

13520-527: The province on his own initiative in 639. The majority of the Byzantine forces in Egypt were locally raised Coptic forces, intended to serve more as a police force; since the vast majority of Egyptians lived in the Nile River valley, surrounded on both the eastern and western sides by desert, Egypt was felt to be a relatively secure province. In December 639, Amr entered the Sinai with a large force and took Pelusium , on

13650-584: The recurring outbreaks of bubonic plague ( Plague of Justinian ) left both empires exhausted and weakened in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Arabs. The last of these wars ended with victory for the Byzantines: Emperor Heraclius regained all lost territories and restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in 629. The war against Zoroastrian Persia, whose people worshiped the fire god Ahura Mazda , had been portrayed by Heraclius as

13780-406: The rout of the imperial army and had to be conquered individually. Jerusalem fell in 638, Caesarea in 640, while others held out until 641. After a two-year siege, the garrison of Jerusalem surrendered rather than starve to death; under the terms of the surrender Caliph Umar promised to tolerate the Christians of Jerusalem and not to turn churches into mosques. True to his word, Umar allowed

13910-495: The schism, and they were restored by Leo X to their offices. Alessandro Geraldini , the first Archbishop of Santo Domingo , attended the eleventh session, likely making him to first prelate from the Western Hemisphere to attend an Ecumenical Council . The arrangements for the council were done by the papal master of ceremonies Paride de Grassi , who prepared by reaching out to several individuals who had knowledge of

14040-490: The sees themselves are called titular sees, as opposed to residential sees. The regular appointment of titular bishops is said to date back to the time of the Fifth Lateran Council , in 1514; cardinals alone were authorized to ask for titular bishops to be appointed to assist them in their dioceses. Pope Pius V extended the privilege to all sees in which it had become customary to have auxiliary bishops. Since then

14170-572: The session reports of the Council notes that while reform of the curia failed, suppression of the Pisa pseudo-council succeeded, though the small number of attending bishops had raised questions about its status as a true "ecumenical" council. The Pope's need for more money to finance military operations against the Turks in the Holy Lands and to re-establish Rome's prestige and centrality, which underpins several of

14300-509: The story goes that King George I of Greece (a Lutheran ) complained to Pope Leo XIII that he and his (mostly Eastern Orthodox ) people were injured by this appellation, saying to Leo XIII, "we are not infidels, we are Christians; we are Catholics." Leo XIII, through a Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith decree, in 1882, abolished the phrase in partibus infidelium and ordered that future appointments should be made as "titular bishops". The custom, when Boudinhon wrote his article,

14430-519: The three months of preparation for Pisa was not enough. Finally, he declared that no one should attach any significance to the statements made at Pisa. A war of polemics was waged about the councils, pitting Thomas Cajetan , the Dominican Master General, on the papal side against the conciliarist arguments of Jacques Almain , the spokesman of the University of Paris . France's victory over

14560-556: The time of the Islamic conquest, later converted to Islam and came to be regarded as the foremost Muslim warriors, to the extent of replacing the Arabs as the dominant peoples in the Dar al-Islam (House of Islam). During the migration period , the Germanic Visigoths had traveled from their homeland north of the Danube to settle in the Roman province of Hispania , creating a kingdom upon

14690-436: The titular see (mostly corresponding to its historical rank), but exceptions ad hoc are currently made on a regular basis, either above or below the titular see's rank, while titular sees have repeatedly been promoted or demoted. There are practical advantages in certain circumstances in not establishing a permanent diocese in a given territory, for reasons of the limited size of the Catholic population, its lack of permanence,

14820-433: The training and regulation of priests, to strengthen the position of bishops over friars, and to assert the independence of the church and clergy from lay control. The social welfare reform allowed no-interest microfinance lending by monti di pietà . These addressed some issues that had been raised by contemporary reformers, but were not the particular issues that the subsequent Protestant Reformation alighted on . As with

14950-583: The wreckage of the Western Roman Empire . The Visigothic state in Iberia was based around forces raised by the nobility whom the king could call out in the event of war. The king had his gardingi and fideles loyal to himself, while the nobility had their bucellarii . The Visigoths favored cavalry with their favorite tactics being to repeatedly charge a foe combined with feigned retreats . The Muslim conquest of most of Iberia in less than

15080-651: Was "killed by the Saracens" as related in the 7th century Doctrina Jacobi document. In Arabia, swords from India were greatly esteemed as being made of the finest steel and were the favorite weapons of the Mujahideen . The Arab sword known as the sayfy closely resembled the Byzantine gladius . Swords and spears were the major weapons of the Muslims, and armour was either mail or leather. In northern Arabia, Byzantine influence predominated; in eastern Arabia, Persian influence predominated; and in Yemen, Indian influence

15210-427: Was attended by only a few prelates including Cardinals Bernardino López de Carvajal , Guillaume Briçonnet , Francesco Borgia, Federico Sanseverino , and René de Prie . They were encouraged by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor , and Louis XII. According to Shahan, dissatisfaction with treatment by Julius II, as well as subserviency to the excommunicate Louis XII, led Carvajal to that rebellious attitude. The council

15340-509: Was constructed in the aula concilii in the Lateran Palace , and was designed for the purpose of having a smaller locations were the pope, cardinals, emperors, and other high-ranking members could enjoy more privacy. However, the aula concilii housed only one meeting and no formal sessions were conducted in it. The details of the room, measurements, structures, and facilities were reconstructed by scholar Nelson Minnich , who heavily relied on

15470-471: Was convoked by Pope Julius II with a political motive of restoring peace between warring Catholic rulers and to re-assert the authority of the Pope . After Pope Leo X took over in 1513, the Council attempted various institutional, dogmatic and social welfare reforms. Institutional reforms were intended to improve unity, reduce nepotism, absenteeism, disinterest, luxury and simony for high church officials, improve

15600-524: Was done to put the work of the council into practice. In the view of a Franciscan teacher: "Yet, for all its solemnity, five years’ labors, and many sincere and earnest speakers, the Fifth Lateran was not to achieve reform. [...]Few if any of the Council’s decrees ever left paper. A serious effort to put them into practice might have made an impression, but none was made." The Vatican website introduction to

15730-508: Was felt. As the caliphate spread, the Muslims were influenced by the peoples they conquered—the Turkic peoples in Central Asia, the Persians , and the Byzantines in Syria. The Bedouin tribes of Arabia favored archery, though contrary to popular belief Bedouin archers usually fought on foot instead of horseback. The Arabs usually fought defensive battles with their archers placed on both flanks. By

15860-473: Was followed by the temporary Muslim conquest of Cyprus . As Yemen had been a center of maritime trade, Yemeni sailors were brought to Alexandria to start building an Islamic fleet for the Mediterranean. The Muslim fleet was based in Alexandria and used Acre, Tyre and Beirut as its forward bases. The core of the fleet's sailors were Yemeni, but the shipwrights who built the ships were Iranian and Iraqi. In

15990-479: Was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were overrun by the advances of the Arabs (newly united by Islam), which, according to James Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami". According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam". In late 620s Muhammad had already managed to conquer and unify much of Arabia under Muslim rule, and it

16120-647: Was held first in the choir of the San Michele in Borgo and then in that of the Cathedral of Pisa . Maximilian I, who had planned since 1507 to procure his own election to the papacy after Julius died, at first gave his protection to the schismatic conciliabulum at Pisa. Then, he withdrew it, and the German bishops also refused to have anything to do with the schismatic tendencies of the French. On 18 July 1511, Julius II summoned

16250-495: Was largely replaced for the last categories by the present one of referring to a retired bishop as a bishop emeritus of the see that he held, and to a coadjutor bishop simply as coadjutor bishop of the see to which he has been appointed. This change too is reflected in editions of the Annuario Pontificio of the period, which include information on renunciation by retired and coadjutor bishops of titular sees to which they had been appointed. In 1995, when Jacques Gaillot , Bishop of

16380-517: Was quick to oppose the conciliabulum and convoked a general council by a papal bull of 18 July 1511, which was to meet on 19 April 1512 in the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran , in Rome. The bull not only was a canonical document but also was polemical in content. Julius refuted the allegation by the cardinals for their Pisa conciliabulum . He declared that his promise before his election as pope

16510-406: Was sincere; that since he became pope, he had always sought to call a general council; that to prepare the general council, he had endeavored to bring an end to quarrels between rulers; that subsequent wars had made calling the council inopportune. Julius then reproached the participants at Pisa for their lack of respect by calling a council without the pope, who was supposed to lead. He also said that

16640-573: Was the eighteenth ecumenical council of the Catholic Church and was the last council before the Protestant Reformation and the Council of Trent . This was the first time since 1213 that the Papal States would hoist an ecumenical council. It would be the last time that Rome ’s Lateran Palace (which had hoisted 4 ecumenical councils in the past) would be the venue for such a event. It

16770-472: Was to join to the name of the see that of the district to which it formerly belonged, or else merely to say "titular bishop". The Annuaire Pontifical Catholique published a very complete list of the titular sees and titular bishops. Although it did not claim to be perfect, it contained the names of the sees and the bishops who had held the titles as far back, in some cases, as the 14th century. Titular sees, according to Corrigan in 1920, were conferred on In

16900-406: Was under his leadership that the first Muslim-Byzantine skirmishes took place in response to Byzantine incursions. Just a few months after Heraclius and the Persian general Shahrbaraz agreed on terms for the withdrawal of Persian troops from occupied Byzantine eastern provinces in 629, Arab and Byzantine troops confronted each other at the Battle of Mu'tah as a result of Byzantine vassals murdering

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