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71-552: While it shares with ancient and medieval Hermetic texts a number of traits such as philosophical mentalism , the concept of ' as above, so below ', and the idea that everything consists of gendered polar opposites, as a whole it is more indebted to the ideas of modern occultist authors, especially those of the New Thought movement to which Atkinson belonged. A modern Hermetic tract, it has been widely influential in New Age circles since

142-664: A 13th- or 14th-century manuscript held at the Bodleian Library in Oxford . The texts, anthologized from much earlier materials, deal with the soul, the senses, law, psychology, and embryology. The Vienna Hermetica consists of four short fragments from what once was a collection of ten Hermetic treatises, one of which was called On Energies . The fragments are preserved on the back sides of two papyri, P. Graec. Vindob. 29456 recto and 29828 recto, now housed in Vienna . The front sides of

213-468: A Cairenes pharmacist named Abu ‘I-Munā al-Kuhín al-‘Attār published a 25-chapter manual, the Minhāj al-dukkān (How to run a pharmacy), wherein he documented: titles of drugs, their ingredients and quantities, preparation methods, and dosages. The manual noticeably lacks any chapters that highlight desirable characteristics and qualities aspiring physicians should display and Al Kuhín al-Attār covers very little of

284-674: A decree by which the physician's and the apothecary's professions were separated. Old pharmacies continue to operate in Dubrovnik, Croatia located inside the Franciscan monastery, opened in 1317 . The Town Hall Pharmacy in Tallinn, Estonia, which dates back to at least 1422, is the oldest continuously run pharmacy in the world still operating in the original premises. The trend towards pharmacy specialization started to take effect in Bruges, Belgium where

355-567: A dialogue between Thoth and a disciple, written in a format similar to the Hermetica . This text probably originated among the scribes of a "House of Life", an institution closely connected with major Egyptian temples . Christian Bull argued in 2018 that the Hermetica were in fact written by Egyptian priests in late Ptolemaic and Roman times who presented their traditions to Greek-speaking audiences in Greek philosophical terms. In contradistinction to

426-492: A huge Anthology of Greek poetical, rhetorical, historical, and philosophical literature in order to educate his son Septimius. Though epitomized by later Byzantine copyists, it still remains a treasure trove of information about ancient philosophy and literature which would otherwise be entirely lost. Among the excerpts of ancient philosophical literature preserved by Stobaeus are also a significant number of discourses and dialogues attributed to Hermes. While mostly related to

497-506: A manuscript "Recipes for 52 Ailments", found in the Mawangdui , sealed in 168 BC. Present-day Chinese pharmacy is a result of pharmaceutical exchanges between China and the rest of the world in the past centuries. The earliest known compilation of medicinal substances in Indian traditional medicine dates to the third or fourth century AD (attributed to Sushruta , who is recorded as a physician of

568-414: A modern and independent science dates back to the first third of the 19th century. Before then, pharmacy evolved from antiquity as part of medicine . Before the advent of pharmacists, there existed apothecaries that worked alongside priests and physicians in regard to patient care. Paleopharmacological studies attest to the use of medicinal plants in pre-history. For example, herbs were discovered in

639-560: A new law was passed that forbid physicians to prepare medications for patients. The oldest pharmacy is claimed to be set up in 1221 in the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Italy, which now houses a perfume museum. Florence is also the birthplace of the first official pharmacopeia , called the Nuovo Receptario, in which all pharmacies would use that document as guidance for caring for

710-544: A number of fragments (one of the larger of which is called Isis the Prophetess to Her Son Horus ) preserved in later alchemical works dating to the second and third centuries CE. Especially important is the use made of them by the Egyptian alchemist Zosimus of Panopolis (fl. c. 300 CE), who also seems to have been familiar with the religio-philosophical Hermetica . Hermes' name would become more firmly associated with alchemy in

781-461: A number of stark contrasts between the Kybalion and the traditional Hermetica , such as the Kybalion 's anti-theological stance versus the heavy emphasis on theology in the Hermetica , or the Kybalion 's focus on the practitioner's "mental transmutation" versus the traditional Hermetica 's preoccupation with reverence for and unification with the divine. Chapel concludes that as

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852-454: A position that received little support. Scholars in the middle of the century, such as Arthur Darby Nock , C. H. Dodd , and most influentially André-Jean Festugière , argued that the intellectual background of the Hermetica was overwhelmingly Greek, with possible influences from Iranian religions and Judaism, but little connection with authentic Egyptian beliefs. Festugière believed the philosophical Hermetica had only slight connections to

923-406: A seminal impetus in the development of Renaissance thought and culture , having a profound impact on the flourishing of alchemy and magic in early modern Europe, as well as influencing philosophers such as Ficino's student Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494), Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), Francesco Patrizi (1529–1597), Robert Fludd (1574–1637), and many others. The Asclepius (also known as

994-465: A sixth-century CE Armenian translation, but which likely goes back to the first century CE. The main argument for this early dating is the fact that some of its aphorisms are cited in multiple independent Greek Hermetic works. According to Jean-Pierre Mahé , these aphorisms contain the core of the teachings which are found in the later Greek religio-philosophical Hermetica . In fifth-century Macedonia , Joannes Stobaeus or "John of Stobi " compiled

1065-509: A strict adherence to tradition, although an area of Southern Italy near Salerno remained under Byzantine control and developed a hospital and medical school, which became famous by the 11th century. In the early 11th century, Salerno scholar Constantinos Africanus translated many Arabic books into Latin, driving a shift from Hippocratic medicine towards a pharmaceutical-driven approach advocated by Galen. In medieval Europe, monks typically did not speak Greek, leaving only Latin texts such as

1136-470: A supplement to the work of al-Maridini under the title De Veneris . Al-Muwaffaq's contributions in the field are also pioneering. Living in the tenth century, he wrote The Foundations of the True Properties of Remedies , amongst others describing arsenious oxide , and being acquainted with silicic acid . He made clear distinction between sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate , and drew attention to

1207-583: A whole volume to simple drugs in The Canon of Medicine . Of great impact were also the works by al-Maridini of Baghdad and Cairo , and Ibn al-Wafid (1008–1074), both of which were printed in Latin more than fifty times, appearing as De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus by ' Mesue ' the younger, and the Medicamentis Simplicibus by ' Abenguefit '. Peter of Abano (1250–1316) translated and added

1278-595: A whole, the Kybalion is too bound up with early 20th-century ideas emanating from the New Thought movement to be representative of the broader historical tradition of Hermetic philosophy. Works cited Hermetica The Hermetica are texts attributed to the legendary Hellenistic figure Hermes Trismegistus , a syncretic combination of the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian god Thoth . These texts may vary widely in content and purpose, but by modern convention are usually subdivided into two main categories,

1349-522: Is a list of authors in whose works such literal fragments have been preserved: Apart from literal fragments from Hermetic works, testimonies concerning the ideas of Hermes (likely deriving from Hermetic works but not quoted literally) have also been preserved in the works of various historical authors: During the Renaissance , all texts attributed to Hermes Trismegistus were still generally believed to be of ancient Egyptian origin and to date from before

1420-481: Is a very incomplete list of known works: Some of the earliest attested Arabic Hermetic texts deal with astrology: Contrary to the "technical" Hermetica , whose writing began in the early Hellenistic period and continued deep into the Middle Ages , the extant religio-philosophical Hermetica were for the most part produced in a relatively short period of time, i.e., between c. 100 and c. 300 CE. They regularly take

1491-592: Is always a correspondence between the laws and phenomena of the various planes of being and life. 3. The principle of vibration "Nothing rests; everything moves; everything vibrates." 4. The principle of polarity "Everything is dual; everything has poles; everything has its pair of opposites; like and unlike are the same; opposites are identical in nature, but different in degree; extremes meet; all truths are but half-truths; all paradoxes may be reconciled." 5. The principle of rhythm "Everything flows, out and in; everything has its tides; all things rise and fall;

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1562-422: Is in everything; everything has its masculine and feminine principles; gender manifests on all planes." According to occult writer Mitch Horowitz , the philosophical mentalism (the primacy of mind as the active cause of things) described by the Kybalion 's first principle was inspired by broadly similar notions in the ancient Greek Hermetica . Nicholas E. Chapel notes that while several aspects such as

1633-560: Is organized by subject matter, and contains in the same chapters many excerpts and doctrines attributed to others): Among the Coptic treatises which were found in 1945 in the Upper Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi , there are also three treatises attributed to Hermes Trismegistus. Like all documents found in Nag Hammadi, these were translated from the Greek. They consist of some fragments from

1704-547: The Corpus Hermeticum was translated into Latin by the Renaissance scholars Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) and Lodovico Lazzarelli (1447–1500). Though strongly influenced by Greek and Hellenistic philosophy (especially Platonism and Stoicism ), and to a lesser extent also by Jewish ideas, many of the early Greek Hermetic treatises also contain distinctly Egyptian elements, most notably in their affinity with traditional Egyptian wisdom literature . This used to be

1775-610: The Ebers Papyrus of 1550 BC and the Edwin Smith Papyrus of the 16th century BC. The very beginnings of pharmaceutical texts were written on clay tablets by Mesopotamians. Some texts included formulas, instructions via pulverization, infusion, boiling, filtering and spreading; herbs were mentioned as well. Babylon, a state within Mesopotamia, provided the earliest known practice of running an apothecary i.e. pharmacy. Alongside

1846-635: The Asclepius (VI,8; mainly preserved in Latin, see above ), The Prayer of Thanksgiving (VI,7) with an accompanying scribal note (VI,7a), and an important new text called The Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth (VI,6). They all share a bipartite rather than a tripartite anthropology. The Oxford Hermetica consists of a number of short fragments from some otherwise unknown Hermetic works. The fragments are preserved in pages 79–82 of Codex Clarkianus gr. II ,

1917-536: The Perfect Discourse , from Greek Logos teleios ) mainly survives in a Latin translation, though some Greek and Coptic fragments are also extant. It is the only Hermetic treatise belonging to the religio-philosophical category that remained available to Latin readers throughout the Middle Ages. The Definitions of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius is a collection of aphorisms that has mainly been preserved in

1988-516: The Shanidar Cave , and remains of the areca nut ( Areca catechu ) in the Spirit Cave . Prehistoric man learned pharmaceutical techniques through instinct, by watching birds and beasts, and using cool water, leaves, dirt, or mud as a soothing agent. Sumerian cuneiform tablets record prescriptions for medicine. Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyri, such as

2059-580: The Taihō Code (701) and re-stated in the Yōrō Code (718). Ranked positions in the pre- Heian Imperial court were established; and this organizational structure remained largely intact until the Meiji Restoration (1868). In this highly stable hierarchy, the pharmacists—and even pharmacist assistants—were assigned status superior to all others in health-related fields such as physicians and acupuncturists. In

2130-519: The "technical" and "religio-philosophical" Hermetica . The category of "technical" Hermetica encompasses a broad variety of treatises dealing with astrology , medicine and pharmacology , alchemy , and magic , the oldest of which were written in Greek and may go back as far as the second or third century BCE. Many of the texts belonging in this category were later translated into Arabic and Latin , often being extensively revised and expanded throughout

2201-480: The 1970s and 1980s, Jean-Pierre Mahé analyzed the Definitions of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius together with the recently published Hermetica from Nag Hammadi . Mahé pointed out that the earliest Greek Hermetic treatises contain many parallels with Egyptian prophecies and hymns to the gods, and that close comparisons can be found with Egyptian wisdom literature , which (like many of the early Greek Hermetica )

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2272-807: The Imperial household, the pharmacist was even ranked above the two personal physicians of the Emperor. In Baghdad the first pharmacies, or drug stores, were established in 754, under the Abbasid Caliphate during the Islamic Golden Age . By the ninth century, these pharmacies were state-regulated. The advances made in the Middle East in botany and chemistry led medicine in medieval Islam substantially to develop pharmacology . Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865–915), for instance, acted to promote

2343-537: The Middle East. It is also during the 13th and 14th centuries that Middle Eastern pharmacopoeias begin to resemble cookbooks more than medical encyclopedias, which Thomas Allsen attributes to the extensive cultural exchange between China, Iran, and the greater Mongol Empire. After the fifth century fall of the Western Roman Empire , medicinal knowledge in Europe suffered due to the loss of Greek medicinal texts and

2414-533: The apprenticeship not only experienced strict expectations and responsibilities, but also little pay. Apothecaries resigned and left for private practice. Private practices heavily advertised in newspapers. This was considered the first system of pharmacy operations. In the 1820s, James Isaiah, (J.I.) Woodford trained to be an apothecary in Penang . He later founded the Kampong Glam Dispensary. Another company

2485-575: The basis for many medieval texts, and was built upon by many Middle Eastern scientists during the Islamic Golden Age . The earliest known Chinese manual on materia medica is the Shennong Ben Cao Jing ( The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic ), dating back to the first century AD. It was compiled during the Han dynasty and was attributed to the mythical Shennong . Earlier literature included lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by

2556-588: The centuries. Some of them were also originally written in Arabic, though in many cases their status as an original work or translation remains unclear. These Arabic and Latin Hermetic texts were widely copied throughout the Middle Ages (the most famous example being the Emerald Tablet ). The "religio-philosophical" Hermetica are a relatively coherent set of religio-philosophical treatises that were written mostly in

2627-497: The early Greek religio-philosophical Hermetica , which have long been studied from a scholarly perspective, the "technical" Hermetica (both the early Greek treatises and the later Arabic and Latin works) remain largely unexplored by modern scholarship. Some pieces of Hermetica have been translated into English multiple times by modern Hermeticists . However, the following list is strictly limited to scholarly translations: History of pharmacy The history of pharmacy as

2698-403: The ethical dilemmas or basic concepts that most pharmacists would normally discuss during this time in his manual. This demonstrates that after 1260 CE, interests lessened in discussing the culture and values surrounding pharmacy and a growing interest in developing archives of pharmacy knowledge for the public. It is worth mentioning that written manuals were not commonly produced by pharmacists in

2769-520: The fifteenth century by Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) and Lodovico Lazzarelli (1447–1500). Ficino translated the first fourteen treatises (I–XIV), while Lazzarelli translated the remaining three (XVI–XVIII). The name of this collection is somewhat misleading, since it contains only a very small selection of extant Hermetic texts, whereas the word corpus is usually reserved for the entire body of extant writings related to some author or subject. Its individual treatises were quoted by many early authors from

2840-535: The first physician to initiate a pharmacopoeia, describing a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments. Al-Biruni (973–1050) wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works on pharmacology entitled Kitab al-Saydalah ( The Book of Drugs ), where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and duties of the pharmacist. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), too, described no less than 700 preparations, their properties, mode of action and their indications. He devoted in fact

2911-487: The form of a heavenly ascent. The treatises in this category were probably all originally written in Greek, although some of them survive only in Coptic , Armenian , or Latin translations. During the Middle Ages, most of them were only accessible to Byzantine scholars (an important exception being the Asclepius , which mainly survives in an early Latin translation), until a compilation of Greek Hermetic treatises known as

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2982-517: The form of dialogues between Hermes Trismegistus and his disciples Tat, Asclepius, and Ammon, and mostly deal with philosophical anthropology , cosmology , and theology . The following is a list of all known works in this category: Undoubtedly the most famous among the religio-philosophical Hermetica is the Corpus Hermeticum , a selection of seventeen Greek treatises that was first compiled by Byzantine editors, and translated into Latin in

3053-442: The ill person included a priest, physician, and a pharmacist to tend to their needs. In Ancient Greece , there existed a separation between physician and herbalist. The duties of the herbalist was to supply physicians with raw materials, including plants, to make medicines. According to Edward Kremers and Glenn Sonnedecker, "before, during and after the time of Hippocrates there was a group of experts in medicinal plants. Probably

3124-585: The last one was for civilian use. Medical staffing were ranked as Senior Surgeon, Assistant Surgeon, and Apothecaries. Apothecaries were medical subordinates; they were doctors that graduated from Indian Medical Colleges . To support staffing shortages at the General Hospital, a proposal to select local male students from Penang Free School to become assistant apothecaries were approved. The proposal outlined five years of training and rigorous requirements to be qualified as an apprenticeship. Those that complete

3195-405: The medical uses of chemical compounds. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936–1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation . His Liber servitoris is of particular interest, as it provides the reader with recipes and explains how to prepare the "simples" from which were compounded the complex drugs then generally used. Shapur ibn Sahl (d. 869), was, however,

3266-409: The medieval Arabic sources (see below ), of which it is not yet clear to what extent they drew on the earlier Greek literature. Many Arabic works attributed to Hermes Trismegistus still exist today, although the great majority of them have not yet been published or studied by modern scholars. For this reason too, it is often not clear to what extent they drew on earlier Greek sources. The following

3337-425: The most important representative of these rhizotomoi was Diocles of Carystus (4th century BC). He is considered to be the source for all Greek pharmacotherapeutic treatises between the time of Theophrastus and Dioscorides." Between 60 and 78 AD, the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides wrote a five-volume book, De materia medica , covering over 600 plants and coining the term materia medica . It formed

3408-485: The nature of the drug is public. In actuality, thirteen secrets survive which were offered to sale to the Venetian Republic. The 1800s brought increased technical sophistication. By the late 1880s, German dye manufacturers had perfected the purification of individual organic compounds from tar and other mineral sources and had also established rudimentary methods in organic chemical synthesis . Chloral hydrate

3479-584: The papyri contain fragments of Jannes and Jambres , a Jewish romance. Written in Arabic and probably dating from the twelfth century, the Kitāb fi zajr al-nafs ("The Book of the Rebuke of the Soul") is one of the few later Hermetic treatises belonging to the category of religio-philosophical writings. Fragments of otherwise lost Hermetic works have survived through their quotation by various historical authors. The following

3550-430: The pendulum-swing manifests in everything; the measure of the swing to the right is the measure of the swing to the left; rhythm compensates." 6. The principle of cause and effect "Every cause has its effect; every effect has its cause; everything happens according to law; chance is but a name for law not recognized; there are many planes of causation, but nothing escapes the law." 7. The principle of gender "Gender

3621-429: The philosophical mentalism, the concept of " as above, so below " as derived from the Emerald Tablet , and the idea that everything exists as pairs of gendered polar opposites, do have a background in ancient and medieval Hermetic texts, other aspects such as the principle of vibration (which originates in the philosophy of David Hartley , 1705–1757) are not related to Hermeticism. Chapel also points out that there are

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3692-479: The poisonous nature of copper compounds, especially copper vitriol , and also lead compounds. He also describes the distillation of sea-water for drinking. Middle Eastern pharmaceutical practitioners would experience an upheaval of their craft come the beginning of the 13th and 14th centuries as pharmacists realigned their interests from developing medicinal theories to establishing practical and therapeutic applications of pharmaceuticals. For example, in 1260 CE

3763-590: The prospects for all diabetics. Alexander Fleming developed the first antibiotic, penicillin , after discovering a fungus that was able to kill off bacteria. The first pharmaceutical infrastructure was the Medical Stores and Dispensary, organized by Sub-Assistant Surgeon Thomas Prendergast during Raffles ' expedition to Singapore . British settlement in Singapore led to establishing three General Hospitals . Two were for military and sailors respectively, while

3834-553: The religio-philosophical treatises as found in the Corpus Hermeticum , they also contain some material that is of a rather more "technical" nature. Perhaps the most famous of the Stobaean excerpts, and also the longest, is the Korē kosmou ("The Daughter of the Cosmos" or "The Pupil [of the eye] of the Cosmos"). The Hermetic excerpts appear in the following chapters of Stobaeus's Anthology (which

3905-516: The second and third centuries on, but the compilation as such is first attested only in the writings of the Byzantine philosopher Michael Psellus (c. 1017–1078). The most well known among the treatises contained in this compilation is its opening treatise, which is called the Poimandres . However, at least until the nineteenth century, this name (under various forms, such as Pimander or Pymander )

3976-536: The second and third centuries, though the very earliest one of them, the Definitions of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius , may go back to the first century CE. They are chiefly focused on the relationship between human beings, the cosmos, and God (thus combining philosophical anthropology , cosmology , and theology ). Many of them are also moral exhortations calling for a way of life (the "way of Hermes") leading to spiritual rebirth, and eventually to divinization in

4047-505: The sickly. The Royal College of Apothecaries of the City and Kingdom of Valencia was founded in 1441, considered the oldest in the world, with full administrative and legislative powers. The apothecaries of Valencia were the first in the world to elaborate their medicines, with the same criteria that are currently required in the official pharmacopoeias. The Republic of Venice was the first State with health modern policies which requires that

4118-564: The sixth century BC). There is a stone sign for a pharmacy with a tripod, a mortar, and a pestle opposite one for a doctor in the Arcadian Way in Ephesus , Turkey. In Japan, at the end of the Asuka period (538–710) and the early Nara period (710–794), the men who fulfilled roles similar to those of modern pharmacists were highly respected. The place of pharmacists in society was expressly defined in

4189-494: The subject of much doubt, but it is now generally admitted that the Hermetica as such did in fact originate in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, even if most of the later Hermetic writings (which continued to be composed at least until the twelfth century CE) did not. It may even be the case that the great bulk of the early Greek Hermetica were written by Hellenizing members of the Egyptian priestly class, whose intellectual activity

4260-486: The technical Hermetica , and that the former originated with a small philosophical school rather than a religious community. Birger A. Pearson has argued for the presence of Jewish elements in the Hermetica , while Peter Kingsley discounts Christian influence in favor of Greek and Jewish elements. More recent research suggests a greater continuity with the culture of ancient Egypt than had previously been believed. In

4331-413: The time of Moses , or even from before the biblical flood . In the early seventeenth century, the classical scholar Isaac Casaubon (1559–1614) demonstrated that some of the Greek texts betrayed too recent a vocabulary and must rather date from the early Christian period. Other authors made similar criticisms of the Hermetica , largely as a means of undermining various religious and esoteric movements of

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4402-467: The time that drew inspiration from them. By the end of the century most scholars had ceased to regard them as sources of primeval wisdom. Studies in the early twentieth century sought to discern who had written the Hermetica . Richard Reitzenstein first argued that the Hermetica were a product of a coherent religious community whose ideas derived from Egyptian religion, although in later years he thought Hermetic beliefs were largely Iranian in origin,

4473-466: The twentieth century. A central concept in the book is that there are "seven Hermetic principles, upon which the entire Hermetic philosophy is based". These are, as literally quoted from the book: 1. The principle of mentalism "The All is Mind; the Universe is Mental." 2. The principle of correspondence " As above, so below ; as below, so above.” [...] This principle embodies the truth that there

4544-464: The works of Pliny available until these translations by Constantinos. In addition, Arabic medicine became more widely known due to Muslim Spain . In the 15th century, the printing press spread medicinal textbooks and formularies; the Antidotarium was the first printed drug formulary. In Europe pharmacy-like shops began to appear during the 12th century. In 1240 emperor Frederic II issued

4615-724: Was Martin & Line of the Singapore Dispensary. Both establishments were considered as chemists and druggists. In addition to traditional Chinese medicine , Western medicine and practices were also established. Dr. Christopher Trebing arrived in Singapore and opened a dispensary called German Medicine Deity Medical Office. Following Dr. Trebing’s passing, the Medical Office continued to be operated by German owners until its demolition in 1970. Singaporean consumers suffered from misinformation of drug advertisements and lacked standards and qualifications for dispensing drugs. There

4686-480: Was also commonly used to designate the compilation as a whole. In 1462 Ficino was working on a Latin translation of the collected works of Plato for his patron Cosimo de' Medici , but when a manuscript of the Corpus Hermeticum became available, he immediately interrupted his work on Plato in order to start translating the works of Hermes, which were thought to be much more ancient, and therefore much more authoritative, than those of Plato. This translation provided

4757-543: Was also substance abuse with opium and poison accessibility for criminal attempt. This led to creating the Medical Ordinance in 1904 and Poisons Ordinance in 1905 to create standards for qualified chemists and druggists to handle these substances. The Poisons Ordinance established regulation for the retail of poisons. One criterion was possessing certificates from the Principal Civil Medical Officer. In

4828-420: Was centred in the environment of Egyptian temples . The oldest known texts associated with Hermes Trismegistus are a number of astrological works which may go back as far as the second or third century BCE: Other early Greek Hermetic works on astrology include: Starting in the first century BCE, a number of Greek works on alchemy were attributed to Hermes Trismegistus. These are now all lost, except for

4899-428: Was characteristically couched in words of advice from a "father" to a "son". Soon afterward, Garth Fowden argued that the philosophical and technical Hermetica were distinct but interdependent, and that both were products of complex interactions between Greek and Egyptian culture. Richard Jasnow and Karl-Theodor Zauzich have identified fragments of a Demotic (late Egyptian) text that contains substantial sections of

4970-648: Was discovered. The United States formed the American Pharmaceutical Association in 1852 with its main purpose to advance pharmacists' roles in patient care, assist in furthering career development, spread information about tools and resources, and raising awareness about the roles of pharmacists and their contribution to patient care. Frederick Banting and Charles Best found the hormone insulin to lower blood sugar of dogs in 1921. This inspired further work by James Collip who developed pure insulin used for human testing and dramatically changed

5041-475: Was introduced as a sleeping aid and sedative in 1869. Chloroform was first used as an anesthetic in 1847. Derivatives of phenothiazines had an important impact on various aspects of medicine, beginning with methylene blue which was originally used as a dye after its synthesis from aniline in 1876. Phenothiazines were used as antimalarials, antiseptics, and antihelminthics up to 1940. The "psychopharmacological revolution" began in 1950 when Chlorpromazine

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