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103-450: Like all Vincentian schools the students wear uniforms . The Thomas Saunders Secondary School students wear white shirts, black pants for boys and black skirts for girls, and a red and black striped tie. This Saint Vincent and the Grenadines article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Caribbean school-related, college or other education institution article

206-709: A Marxist framework, arguing that "Science is the ultimate legitimator of bourgeois ideology ... If biological determinism is a weapon in the struggle between classes, then the universities are weapons factories, and their teaching and research faculties are the engineers, designers, and production workers." The debate thus shifted away from whether heritable traits exist to whether it was politically or ethically permissible to admit their existence. The authors deny this, requesting that evolutionary inclinations be discarded in ethical and political discussions regardless of whether they exist or not. Heritability studies became much easier to perform, and hence much more numerous, with

309-434: A "secure attachment style," the propensity to develop close, trusting bonds with others) is proposed to be conditional on whether an individual's early childhood caregivers could be trusted to provide reliable assistance and attention. An example of a facultative physiological adaptation is tanning of skin on exposure to sunlight (to prevent skin damage). Facultative social adaptation have also been proposed. For example, whether

412-464: A best-seller, and was instrumental in bringing to the attention of a wider public the paradigm shift away from the behaviourist purism of the 1940s to 1970s that had taken place over the preceding decades. Pinker portrays the adherence to pure blank-slatism as an ideological dogma linked to two other dogmas found in the dominant view of human nature in the 20th century: Pinker argues that all three dogmas were held onto for an extended period even in

515-475: A child is born mute due to a genetic mutation , it will not learn to speak any language regardless of the environment; similarly, someone who is practically certain to eventually develop Huntington's disease according to their genotype may die in an unrelated accident (an environmental event) long before the disease will manifest itself. Steven Pinker likewise described several examples: [C]oncrete behavioral traits that patently depend on content provided by

618-569: A continuous distribution of a normal behavior and hence an extreme of a continuous distribution of genetic and environmental variation. Depression, phobias, and reading disabilities have been examined in this context. For a few highly heritable traits, studies have identified loci associated with variance in that trait, for instance in some individuals with schizophrenia . The budding field of epigenetics has conducted research showing that hereditable conditions like schizophrenia, which have an 80% hereditability with only 10% of those who have inherited

721-492: A day. The students felt even less of a sense of belonging at a school with uniforms. Kathleen Wade conducted an experiment to see if bullying and gang presence was higher in uniform or non-uniform schools. The research was done with multiple schools where she gave a questionnaire to both students and faculty to see if there was a significant difference. Her results showed that bullying and gang presence significantly decreases with students wearing school uniforms. For example, in

824-460: A dress code would be not allowing ripped clothing, no logos or limiting the amount of skin that can be shown. School uniforms are clothes that are usually used for school, each level of school has a different uniform. Each educational unit has its own distinctive school uniform. It is difficult to trace the origins of the uniform as there is no comprehensive written history, but rather a variety of known influences. School uniforms are believed to be

927-405: A given trait, anecdotally phrased by Donald Hebb as an answer to the question "which, nature or nurture, contributes more to personality?" by asking in response, "Which contributes more to the area of a rectangle, its length or its width?" In a comparable avenue of research, anthropologist Donald Brown in the 1980s surveyed hundreds of anthropological studies from around the world and collected

1030-586: A practice which dates to the 16th century in the United Kingdom. It is believed that the Christ's Hospital School in England in 1552 was the first school to use a school uniform. Students were given a uniform that most notably consisted of a long blue coat and yellow, knee-high socks. An almost identical uniform is still worn by students attending the school today. The earliest documented proof of institutionalized use of

1133-493: A religious shirt to school and got cited for uniform violations. Her family sued the Clark County School District under the claims that her First Amendment rights were being infringed upon and that the uniform policy was causing students to be deprived of due process . The plaintiff's requests were for injunctive relief, the expunging of suspensions from Jacob's school record and awarding of damages. The injunction

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1236-649: A safe learning environment for students to help them focus on school work and can lead them to great academic accomplishments. Students who wear school uniforms may not feel anxious or nervous about peer pressure in buying new clothes to fit in or being teased by other classmates. Proponents have found a significant positive impact on school climate, safety, and students' self-perception from the implementation of uniforms. However, though modern studies and tests prove uniforms did not increase test scores, behavior, bullying, focus and attendance barely increased. The opposing side of uniforms has claimed their ineffectiveness using

1339-656: A school setting for girls. Sometimes the desire to prevent overtly sexualized clothing through uniforms can fail. As an example, miniskirts have been very popular in Japan, where they are common parts of school uniforms and came to be worn within the Kogal culture. "The pleasure our culture derives from gazing at girls who look feminine conflicts with girls' freedom to run around unselfconsciously and to develop their gross motor talents as boys are encouraged to do" (Collins et al. 1996, p. 170). Schoolgirl uniforms are used in costumes in

1442-535: A set of cultural universals . He identified approximately 150 such features, coming to the conclusion there is indeed a "universal human nature", and that these features point to what that universal human nature is. At the height of the controversy, during the 1970s to 1980s, the debate was highly ideologised. In Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature (1984), Richard Lewontin , Steven Rose and Leon Kamin criticise " genetic determinism " from

1545-471: A significant drop in school discipline issues to the mandatory uniform policy. Wearing school uniforms was associated with fewer absences and truancies and fewer referrals to the office for behavior problems. Suspensions and expulsions were reduced by 28% (elementary) and 36% (middle school), crime and vandalism by 74% (elementary) and 18% (middle school). However the school district also added other security measures such as security guards, and metal detectors so

1648-449: A significant genetic component. A 2015 meta-analysis of over 14 million twin pairs found that genetics explained 57% of the variability in cognitive functions. Evidence from behavioral genetic research suggests that family environmental factors may have an effect upon childhood IQ , accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. The American Psychological Association 's report " Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns " (1995) states that there

1751-422: A significant heritable component. These results did not, in any way, point to overwhelming contribution of heritable factors, with heritability typically ranging around 40% to 50%, so that the controversy may not be cast in terms of purist behaviorism vs. purist nativism . Rather, it was purist behaviorism that was gradually replaced by the now-predominant view that both kinds of factors usually contribute to

1854-524: A society is warlike or peaceful has been proposed to be conditional on how much collective threat that society is experiencing. Quantitative studies of heritable traits throw light on the question. Developmental genetic analysis examines the effects of genes over the course of a human lifespan. Early studies of intelligence, which mostly examined young children, found that heritability measured 40–50%. Subsequent developmental genetic analyses found that variance attributable to additive environmental effects

1957-561: A standard academic dress dates back to 1222 when the then Archbishop of Canterbury ordered the wearing of the cappa clausa. This monastic and academic practice evolved into collegiate uniforms in England, particularly in charity schools where uniform dress was often provided for poor children. Universities, primary schools and secondary schools used uniforms as a marker of class and status. Although school uniforms can often be considered conservative and old-fashioned, uniforms in recent years have changed as societal dress codes have changed. In

2060-457: A student does not want to identify with a gender that does not align with their sex. There are rarely guidelines that allow for students to dress according to their performed gender, but almost always according to their sex assigned at birth. Around middle or junior school , students begin going through puberty. Uniforms can be seen as a way to restrict the sexualization of girls by taking the focus away from sexuality and focus it on academics in

2163-411: A uniform policy or were considering a policy, and two-thirds were implemented between 1995 and 1997. New York City's then-new schools chancellor, Rudy Crew , made it clear that he would not follow Clinton's idea. There is an abundance of theories and empirical studies looking at school uniforms, making statements about their effectiveness. These theories and studies elaborate on the benefits and also

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2266-406: A variety of justifications, a variety of which have research supporting them. Some of the cons to school uniforms include the following legal, financial, and questionable effectiveness concerns: The primary concern with school uniforms or strict dress codes is that it limits the ability of students to express themselves. While in countries where uniforms are the norm it simply isn't the case. Clothing

2369-628: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Student uniform A school uniform is a uniform worn by students primarily for a school or otherwise an educational institution . They are common in primary and secondary schools in various countries. An example of a uniform would be requiring button-down shirts , trousers for boys and blouses , pleated skirts for girls, with both wearing blazers . A uniform can even be as simple as requiring collared shirts, or restricting colour choices and limiting items students are allowed to wear. Although often used interchangeably, there

2472-509: Is a long-standing debate in biology and society about the relative influence on human beings of their genetic inheritance (nature) and the environmental conditions of their development ( nurture ). The alliterative expression "nature and nurture" in English has been in use since at least the Elizabethan period and goes back to medieval French . The complementary combination of the two concepts

2575-486: Is an ancient concept ( Ancient Greek : ἁπό φύσεως καὶ εὐτροφίας ). Nature is what people think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning on an individual. The phrase in its modern sense was popularized by the Victorian polymath Francis Galton ,

2678-410: Is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that none of these dimensions is reducible to another. John B. Watson in the 1920s and 1930s established the school of purist behaviorism that would become dominant over the following decades. Watson is often said to have been convinced of the complete dominance of cultural influence over anything that heredity might contribute. This is based on

2781-495: Is an important difference between dress codes and school uniforms: according to scholars such as Nathan Joseph, clothing can only be considered a uniform when it "(a) serves as a group emblem, (b) certifies an institution's legitimacy by revealing individual's relative positions and (c) suppresses individuality." Conversely, a dress code is much less restrictive, and focuses "on promoting modesty and discouraging anti-social fashion statements", according to Marian Wilde. Examples of

2884-452: Is associated with the dress of a professional business man, which, they claim, gives boys at a young age the impression that masculinity is gained through business success. For girls, many uniforms promote femininity by requiring girls to wear skirts. Skirts are seen by some critics as a symbol of femininity because they restrict movement and force certain ways of sitting and playing. Uniforms that include an apron for girls may suggest that

2987-409: Is less apparent in older individuals, with estimated heritability of IQ increasing in adulthood. Multivariate genetic analysis examines the genetic contribution to several traits that vary together. For example, multivariate genetic analysis has demonstrated that the genetic determinants of all specific cognitive abilities (e.g., memory, spatial reasoning, processing speed) overlap greatly, such that

3090-405: Is no doubt that normal child development requires a certain minimum level of responsible care. Here, environment is playing a role in what is believed to be fully genetic (intelligence) but it was found that severely deprived, neglectful, or abusive environments have highly negative effects on many aspects of children's intellect development. Beyond that minimum, however, the role of family experience

3193-424: Is not based in environmental factors related to family rearing. The same result was also found among middle-aged dizygotic twins. Furthermore, there was significantly more variance in the dizygotic twins' self-reported wellbeing than there was in the monozygotic group. Genetic similarity has thus been estimated to account for around 50% of the variance in adult happiness at a given point in time, and as much as 80% of

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3296-464: Is the result of having more psychological instincts, not fewer. The question of "innate ideas" or "instincts" was of some importance in the discussion of free will in moral philosophy . In 18th-century philosophy, this was cast in terms of "innate ideas" establishing the presence of a universal virtue, a prerequisite for objective morals. In the 20th century, this argument was in a way inverted, since some philosophers ( J. L. Mackie ) now argued that

3399-434: Is thus in no sense of the term "cultural". Many properties of the brain are genetically organized, and don't depend on information coming in from the senses. The interactions of genes with environment, called gene–environment interactions , are another component of the nature–nurture debate. A classic example of gene–environment interaction is the ability of a diet low in the amino acid phenylalanine to partially suppress

3502-446: Is viewed as a means of expression – making all students wear the same clothes or limit them to what they can wear can disrupt their sense of identity. One of the main controversies focuses on dress code policies versus freedom of speech. This establishes that students cannot wear the latest trends or clothes that the school finds that interrupt the learning environment. However, students can wear clothing that express their religion. "Both

3605-524: The United States , a movement toward using uniforms in state schools began when Bill Clinton addressed it in the 1996 State of the Union , saying: "If it means that teenagers will stop killing each other over designer jackets, then our public schools should be able to require their students to wear uniforms." As of 1998 approximately 25% of all U.S. public elementary, middle and junior high schools had adopted

3708-403: The heritability of a trait within a population. However, many non-scientists who encounter a report of a trait having a certain percentage heritability imagine non-interactional, additive contributions of genes and environment to the trait. As an analogy, some laypeople may think of the degree of a trait being made up of two "buckets," genes and environment, each able to hold a certain capacity of

3811-437: The "heritability index" statistically quantifies the extent to which variation between individuals on a trait is due to variation in the genes those individuals carry. In animals where breeding and environments can be controlled experimentally, heritability can be determined relatively easily. Such experiments would be unethical for human research. This problem can be overcome by finding existing populations of humans that reflect

3914-407: The 1970s, notably led by E. O. Wilson ( On Human Nature , 1979). The tool of twin studies was developed as a research design intended to exclude all confounders based on inherited behavioral traits . Such studies are designed to decompose the variability of a given trait in a given population into a genetic and an environmental component. Twin studies established that there was, in many cases,

4017-436: The 21st century. The strong dichotomy of nature versus nurture has thus been claimed to have limited relevance in some fields of research. Close feedback loops have been found in which nature and nurture influence one another constantly, as seen in self-domestication . In ecology and behavioral genetics , researchers think nurture has an essential influence on the nature of an individual. Similarly in other fields,

4120-627: The Australian state of Queensland, Ombudsman Fred Albietz ruled in 1998 that state schools may not require uniforms. In the Philippines , the Department of Education abolished the requirement of school uniforms in public schools. In England and Wales , technically a state school may not permanently exclude students for "breaching school uniform policy", under a policy promulgated by the Department for Children, Schools and Families but students not wearing

4223-769: The Constitution and most state laws protect students' rights to wear religious attire... such as the wearing of a turban, yarmulke, or headscarf." Another negative aspect of school uniforms is that the policy can be sexist. Boys and girls are often not disciplined in the same ways when it comes to dress codes. Girls are more commonly disciplined for certain articles of clothing that are prohibited because they "distract" boys. "Transgender students have been sent home for wearing clothing different from what's expected of their legalness, while others have been excluded from yearbooks." Uniforms also generally disadvantage students, especially girls, in freedom of movement and comfort. The research

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4326-610: The Long Beach Unified School District was the study of the first large, urban school in the United States to implement a uniform policy. In 1994, mandatory school uniforms were implemented for the districts elementary and middle schools as a strategy to address the students' behavior issues. The district simultaneously implemented a longitudinal study to research the effects of the uniforms on student behavior. The study attributed favorable student behavioral changes and

4429-572: The U.S., over half of public schools have a dress code, which frequently outline gender-specific policies." Students that do not wear uniforms can be just as successful as students who do wear school uniforms. The amount of effort and participation a student does during class determines their academic success, regardless of what they are wearing. Students who wear school uniforms does not grant them academic achievement. According to Marian Wilde, additional opponent arguments include that school uniforms: Nature vs. nurture Nature versus nurture

4532-466: The United States have policies dictating what a student wears to school. The school code within states' constitutions typically asserts that it allows the board of school directors to make reasonable rules and regulations as they see fit in managing the school's affairs. As of 2008, there are currently 23 states that allow school districts to mandate school uniforms. The constitutional objections usually brought upon school districts tend to fall into one of

4635-477: The advances of genetic studies during the 1990s. By the late 1990s, an overwhelming amount of evidence had accumulated that amounts to a refutation of the extreme forms of "blank-slatism" advocated by Watson or Montagu. This revised state of affairs was summarized in books aimed at a popular audience from the late 1990s. In The Nurture Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do (1998), Judith Rich Harris

4738-401: The advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years. During the 1940s to 1960s, Ashley Montagu was a notable proponent of this purist form of behaviorism which allowed no contribution from heredity whatsoever: Man is man because he has no instincts, because everything he is and has become he has learned, acquired, from his culture ... with the exception of

4841-448: The appropriate feminine societal role is a primarily domestic one. Some girls' school uniforms have been criticized as having an uncomfortable design, which prevents girls from freedom of movement and exposes girls to cold during winter. School uniforms are embedded with gender symbolism. Schools that require students to wear a formal uniform almost universally provide trousers for boys and skirts or dresses for girls . Skirts differentiate

4944-635: The beginning of their schooling experience. In some cultures, the topic of school uniforms has sparked a multitude of controversies and debates over the years. Debates concerning the constitutionality and economic feasibility of uniforms also contribute to the controversy. In the United States, the implementation of school uniforms began following ten years of research indicating the effectiveness of private schools . Some state-school reformers cited this research to support policies linked to private and Catholic school success. Some public-school administrators hence began implementing uniform policies to improve

5047-428: The case. The court ruled to reverse the previous decision of dismissing the case, and also questioned the apparent policy for students that were part of a nationally recognised group such as Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts who were able to wear the uniforms in place of the school ones on regular meeting days. The 9th circuit panel ruled that the school had not provided enough evidence for why it instituted this policy, and that

5150-411: The children questioned in the survey said they have experienced "unwanted sexual attention" in public, and 35 per cent said they have been touched, groped or grabbed without their consent. These experiences teach girls that being harassed by men is just a part of growing up. The perception of schoolgirl uniforms allows for men to harass girls at a young age, causing girls to self-objectify their bodies from

5253-545: The context of "Sexy Schoolgirl" and are sold on costume sites year round. The idea of the female school uniform has become sexual and in Britain a new survey from Plan International UK found that a third of girls have been sexually harassed while wearing their school uniform. School uniforms can encourage harassment as children, as some cultures can define the "schoolgirl look" as sexual. Children as young as 8 years old report being victims of, or witnesses to, harassment. Two-thirds of

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5356-472: The correct uniform are asked to go home and change. In Scotland, some local councils (that have responsibility for delivering state education) do not insist on students wearing a uniform as a precondition to attending and taking part in curricular activities. Turkey abolished mandatory uniforms in 2010. In the Canady v. Bossier Parish School Board lawsuit in 2000, a Louisiana district court ruled in favour of

5459-460: The definition of "nature" in this context is tied to "heritability", the definition of "nurture" has consequently become very wide, including any type of causality that is not heritable. The term has thus moved away from its original connotation of "cultural influences" to include all effects of the environment, including; indeed, a substantial source of environmental input to human nature may arise from stochastic variations in prenatal development and

5562-499: The degree of genetic variation between people on a trait. It does not refer to the degree to which a trait of a particular individual is due to environmental or genetic factors. The traits of an individual are always a complex interweaving of both. For an individual, even strongly genetically influenced, or "obligate" traits, such as eye color, assume the inputs of a typical environment during ontogenetic development (e.g., certain ranges of temperatures, oxygen levels, etc.). In contrast,

5665-406: The degree of heritability and environmentality is measured in its reference to a particular phenotype in a chosen group of a population in a given period of time. The accuracy of the calculations is further hindered by the number of coefficients taken into consideration, age being one such variable. The display of the influence of heritability and environmentality differs drastically across age groups:

5768-683: The disassociation of genes and environment is adoption . In one kind of adoption study , biological siblings reared together (who share the same family environment and half their genes) are compared to adoptive siblings (who share their family environment but none of their genes). In many cases, it has been found that genes make a substantial contribution, including psychological traits such as intelligence and personality. Yet heritability may differ in other circumstances, for instance environmental deprivation. Examples of low, medium, and high heritability traits include: Twin and adoption studies have their methodological limits. For example, both are limited to

5871-476: The dividing line between an inherited and an acquired trait becomes unclear, as in epigenetics or fetal development . According to Records of the Grand Historian (94 BC) by Sima Qian , during Chen Sheng Wu Guang uprising in 209 B.C., Chen Sheng asked the rhetorical question as a call to war: "Are kings, generals, and ministers merely born into their kind?" ( Chinese : 王侯將相寧有種乎 ). Though Chen

5974-406: The evolutionary origins of human behavioral traits forces us to concede that there is no foundation for ethics, while others ( Thomas Nagel ) treated ethics as a field of cognitively valid statements in complete isolation from evolutionary considerations. In the early 20th century, there was an increased interest in the role of one's environment, as a reaction to the strong focus on pure heredity in

6077-658: The experimental setting the researcher wishes to create. One way to determine the contribution of genes and environment to a trait is to study twins . In one kind of study, identical twins reared apart are compared to randomly selected pairs of people. The twins share identical genes, but different family environments. Twins reared apart are not assigned at random to foster or adoptive parents. In another kind of twin study, identical twins reared together (who share family environment and genes) are compared to fraternal twins reared together (who also share family environment but only share half their genes). Another condition that permits

6180-467: The face of evidence because they were seen as desirable in the sense that if any human trait is purely conditioned by culture, any undesired trait (such as crime or aggression) may be engineered away by purely cultural (political means). Pinker focuses on reasons he assumes were responsible for unduly repressing evidence to the contrary, notably the fear of (imagined or projected) political or ideological consequences. The term heritability refers only to

6283-645: The family was never given a chance to argue. There are several positive and negative social implications of uniforms on both the students wearing them and society as a whole. One of the criticisms of uniforms is that it imposes standards of masculinity and femininity from a young age. Uniforms are considered a form of discipline that schools use to control student behavior and often promote conventional gendered dress. Boys often are required to wear trousers, belts, and closed-toe shoes and have their shirts tucked in at all times. They are also often required to have their hair cut short. Some critics allege that this uniform

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6386-452: The female from the male, thereby confirming traditional gender identities for students who must wear the correct attire corresponding to their sex. Skirts and dresses demand a particular type of feminine gender performance, whereas trousers demand a particular masculine gender performance. By forcing students to wear attire that corresponds with their sex inherently assigns the ways a student must perform their gender. This causes controversy when

6489-646: The first year of the mandatory uniform policy in Long Beach, California, officials reported that fighting in schools decreased by more than 50%, assault and battery by 34%, sex offenses by 74%, and robbery by 66%. However the district also added other safety measures like security guards so the success cannot be attributed to the uniforms solely. Advocates also believe that uniforms increase student learning and positive attitudes toward school through: Currently, pros of school uniforms center around how uniforms affect school environments. Advocates say that uniforms may create

6592-590: The following quote which is frequently repeated without context, as the last sentence is frequently omitted, leading to confusion about Watson's position: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have

6695-619: The following two categories: (1) a violation of the students' First Amendment right to free expression (2) a violation of parents' right to raise their children without government interference. Although up until this point, The Supreme Court has not ruled on a case involving school uniforms directly, in the 1968 decision Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District , the Court ruled that upon entering school, students do not shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech. Internationally, there are differing views of school uniforms. In

6798-414: The genes associated with any specific cognitive ability will affect all others. Similarly, multivariate genetic analysis has found that genes that affect scholastic achievement completely overlap with the genes that affect cognitive ability. Extremes analysis examines the link between normal and pathological traits. For example, it is hypothesized that a given behavioral disorder may represent an extreme of

6901-458: The genetic disease phenylketonuria . Yet another complication to the nature–nurture debate is the existence of gene–environment correlations . These correlations indicate that individuals with certain genotypes are more likely to find themselves in certain environments. Thus, it appears that genes can shape (the selection or creation of) environments. Even using experiments like those described above, it can be very difficult to determine convincingly

7004-421: The girls wanted. When playing and moving around, for boys, the school tie was a choking hazard, and the trousers had no stretch. For girls, the dress/skirt caused modesty issues (e.g. hard to swing on monkey bars/run around while keeping her privacy, hence stop being active), and the kilts were too big and heavy. Research on how school uniforms and school dress codes influence the student can be inconclusive. "In

7107-448: The heritability index, as societies become more egalitarian (everyone has more similar experiences) the heritability index goes up (as environments become more similar, variability between individuals is due more to genetic factors). One should also take into account the fact that the variables of heritability and environmentality are not precise and vary within a chosen population and across cultures. It would be more accurate to state that

7210-420: The home or culture—which language one speaks, which religion one practices, which political party one supports—are not heritable at all. But traits that reflect the underlying talents and temperaments—how proficient with language a person is, how religious, how liberal or conservative—are partially heritable. When traits are determined by a complex interaction of genotype and environment it is possible to measure

7313-520: The incidence of the disease is due to genetic differences. Huntington's animal models live much longer or shorter lives depending on how they are cared for. At the other extreme, traits such as native language are environmentally determined: linguists have found that any child (if capable of learning a language at all) can learn any human language with equal facility. With virtually all biological and psychological traits, however, genes and environment work in concert, communicating back and forth to create

7416-474: The inconclusiveness of the effects of uniforms, they became more common because "this is an issue of children's rights, of social control, and one related to increasing racial, class and gender inequalities in our schools." As uniforms have become more normalised, there have also been an increasing number of lawsuits brought against school districts. According to David Brunsma, one in four public elementary schools and one in eight public middle and high schools in

7519-447: The individual, it would be incorrect to say that while the heritability index of personality is about 0.6, 60% of one's personality is obtained from one's parents and 40% from the environment. To help to understand this, imagine that all humans were genetic clones. The heritability index for all traits would be zero (all variability between clonal individuals must be due to environmental factors). And, contrary to erroneous interpretations of

7622-465: The individual. At a molecular level, genes interact with signals from other genes and from the environment. While there are many thousands of single-gene-locus traits, so-called complex traits are due to the additive effects of many (often hundreds) of small gene effects. A good example of this is height, where variance appears to be spread across many hundreds of loci. Extreme genetic or environmental conditions can predominate in rare circumstances—if

7725-677: The instinctoid reactions in infants to sudden withdrawals of support and to sudden loud noises, the human being is entirely instinctless. In 1951, Calvin Hall suggested that the dichotomy opposing nature to nurture is ultimately fruitless. In African Genesis (1961) and The Territorial Imperative (1966), Robert Ardrey argues for innate attributes of human nature, especially concerning territoriality . Desmond Morris in The Naked Ape (1967) expresses similar views. Organised opposition to Montagu's kind of purist "blank-slatism" began to pick up in

7828-709: The issue of gender. Nowadays, more teenagers are more frequently "dressing to articulate, or confound gender identity and sexual orientation ", which brings about "responses from school officials that ranged from indifferences to applause to bans". Advocates of uniforms have proposed several reasons supporting their implementation and claiming their success in schools. Advocates believe that uniforms affect student safety by decreasing student victimization, gang activity, and fights. There has been no concrete evidence of this, and studies by Ohio State University and others showed that uniforms did not increase test scores, grades, or focus. However, attendance increased by less than half of

7931-690: The modern founder of eugenics and behavioral genetics when he was discussing the influence of heredity and environment on social advancement. Galton was influenced by On the Origin of Species written by his half-cousin , the evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin . The view that humans acquire all or almost all their behavioral traits from "nurture" was termed tabula rasa ('blank tablet, slate') by John Locke in 1690. A blank slate view (sometimes termed blank-slatism ) in human developmental psychology , which assumes that human behavioral traits develop almost exclusively from environmental influences,

8034-448: The older the studied age is, the more noticeable the heritability factor becomes, the younger the test subjects are, the more likely it is to show signs of strong influence of the environmental factors. For example, one study found no statistically significant difference in self-reported wellbeing between middle-aged monozygotic twins separated at birth and those reared in the same household, suggesting that happiness in middle-aged adults

8137-483: The overall school environment and academic achievement of the students. This is based on the assumption that uniforms are the direct cause of behavioral and academic outcome changes. However, within the Catholic school literature, school uniforms have never been acknowledged as a primary factor in producing a Catholic school effect. Another area of controversy regarding school uniform and dress code policies revolve around

8240-504: The policy must be determined to support a fundamental interest of the board as a whole. Thirdly, the guidelines cannot have been set for the purpose of censorship. Finally, the limits on student expression cannot be greater than the interest of the board. As long as these four policies are in place, then no constitutional violation can be claimed. In the Forney Independent School District of Forney, Texas in 2001,

8343-456: The policy, but were denied. In response, the Littlefields filed a lawsuit against the school district, under the pretenses that this uniform mandate infringed on their rights as parents to control how they brought up their children and their education. They even went as far as to cite an infringement on religious freedom, claiming that opting out of the uniforms on the grounds of religion allowed

8446-514: The political rhetoric surrounding the uniform debate. One of these, the case study of the Long Beach Unified School District , is most often cited in support of school uniforms and their effectiveness whereas Effects of Student Uniforms on Attendance, Behavior Problems, Substance Use, and Academic Achievement is the most frequently cited research in opposition to the implementation of school uniform policies. The case study of

8549-485: The range of environments and genes which they sample. Almost all of these studies are conducted in Western countries, and therefore cannot necessarily be extrapolated globally to include non-western populations. Additionally, both types of studies depend on particular assumptions, such as the equal environments assumption in the case of twin studies, and the lack of pre-adoptive effects in the case of adoption studies. Since

8652-746: The relative contribution of genes and environment. The analogy "genetics loads the gun, but environment pulls the trigger" has been attributed to Judith Stern . Heritability refers to the origins of differences between people. Individual development, even of highly heritable traits, such as eye color, depends on a range of environmental factors, from the other genes in the organism, to physical variables such as temperature, oxygen levels etc. during its development or ontogenesis. The variability of trait can be meaningfully spoken of as being due in certain proportions to genetic differences ("nature"), or environments ("nurture"). For highly penetrant Mendelian genetic disorders such as Huntington's disease virtually all

8755-556: The religious freedom violation accusations, the court ruled that the policy did not have a religious goal, and thus did not infringe on religious freedom rights. In 2003, Liberty High School, a school of the Clark County School District in Henderson, Nevada , implemented a uniform policy of khakis and red, white or blue polo shirts. A junior by the name of Kimberly Jacobs was suspended a total of five times because she wore

8858-414: The rewarding sweet taste of sugar and the pain of bodily injury are obligate psychological adaptations—typical environmental variability during development does not much affect their operation. On the other hand, facultative adaptations are somewhat like "if-then" statements. An example of a facultative psychological adaptation may be adult attachment style . The attachment style of adults, (for example,

8961-463: The school board because it did not see how the free speech rights of the students were being violated due to the school board's uniform policy. Even though the plaintiff appealed the decision, the Fifth Circuit Court also ruled in favour of the school board after implementing a four-step system that is still used today. Firstly, a school board has to have the right to set up a policy. Secondly,

9064-466: The school board decided to implement a school uniform policy allowing the students to wear a polo shirt , oxford shirt or blouse in four possible colours, and blue or khaki trousers or shirts, a skirt or jumper. While there was some flexibility with shoes, certain types were prohibited along with any sort of baggy clothes. The parents of the Littlefield family requested that their son be exempt from

9167-495: The school to rank the validity of certain religions. Before trial, the District Court dismissed the case, so the family appealed. Ultimately, the Fifth Circuit Court ruled that the students' rights were not being violated even though the claims presented were valid. They ruled that school rules derived from the education would override the parents' right to control their children's upbringing in this specific situation. As far as

9270-525: The school's motto, Tomorrow's Leaders embroidered in small letters on the shirt. In response, Mary and John Frudden, parents of a student sued the school district on the basis of it violating the First Amendment . The court ultimately dismissed the case filed by the Fruddens over the uniforms. However, the family appealed, and two years later, a three-judge panel of the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals heard

9373-408: The shortcomings of uniform policies. The issue of nature vs. nurture comes into play, as uniforms affect the perceptions of masculinity and femininity , over-simplify issues of gender classification, and attempt to suppress students' sexuality. Uniforms bring a variety of pros, cons, and major legal implications and controversies. There are two main empirical findings that are most often cited in

9476-401: The success cannot be solely attributed to the uniforms. The district later removed the uniforms. Other research found that uniforms were not an effective deterrent to decrease truancy, did not decrease behavior problems, decrease substance use, and in fact may be associated with poorer student achievement relative to students not required to wear school uniforms. Brunsma stated that despite

9579-444: The trait actually displaying Schizophrenic traits. New research is showing that gene expression can happen in adults due to environmental stimuli. For example, people with schizophrenic gene have a genetic predisposition for this illness but the gene lays dormant in most people. However, if introduced to chronic stress or introducing some amphetamines it caused the methyl groups to stick to hippocampi histones. Cognitive functions have

9682-407: The trait. But even for intermediate heritabilities, a trait is always shaped by both genetic dispositions and the environments in which people develop, merely with greater and lesser plasticities associated with these heritability measures. Heritability measures always refer to the degree of variation between individuals in a population . That is, as these statistics cannot be applied at the level of

9785-416: The umbilical cord), byproducts of adaptations (the belly button) or due to random variation (convex or concave belly button shape). An alternative to contrasting nature and nurture focuses on " obligate vs. facultative" adaptations. Adaptations may be generally more obligate (robust in the face of typical environmental variation) or more facultative (sensitive to typical environmental variation). For example,

9888-405: The variance in long-term happiness stability. Other studies have similarly found the heritability of happiness to be around 0.35–0.50. Some have pointed out that environmental inputs affect the expression of genes . This is one explanation of how environment can influence the extent to which a genetic disposition will actually manifest. Traits may be considered to be adaptations (such as

9991-516: The wake of the triumphal success of Darwin's theory of evolution . During this time, the social sciences developed as the project of studying the influence of culture in clean isolation from questions related to "biology. Franz Boas 's The Mind of Primitive Man (1911) established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next 15 years. In this study, he established that in any given population , biology , language , material , and symbolic culture , are autonomous ; that each

10094-414: Was conducted on an Australian independent private school and its uniform. Comfort-wise, for boys, the blazer was too hot/cold and uncomfortable. For girls, the light coloured cotton school dress was restrictive, see-through, hot, uncomfortable, and impractical. Furthermore, the stockings were often cold, grey woolen kilt was too heavy and restrictive of movement, and the wind could cause it to reveal more than

10197-515: Was granted to the family meaning that the school could no longer discipline her for breaking the uniform policy. At this ruling, the school district appealed. The next court ruled on the side of the school district as it determined that the uniform policy was in fact neutral and constitutional, and it dismissed the claims of the plaintiff. In 2011, a Nevada public elementary school of the Washoe County School District decided to add

10300-524: Was harshly criticized in his own time. Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury , complained that by denying the possibility of any innate ideas, Locke "threw all order and virtue out of the world," leading to total moral relativism . By the 19th century, the predominant perspective was contrary to that of Locke's, tending to focus on " instinct ." Leda Cosmides and John Tooby noted that William James (1842–1910) argued that humans have more instincts than animals, and that greater freedom of action

10403-560: Was heralded by Steven Pinker as a book that "will come to be seen as a turning point in the history of psychology ." However, Harris was criticized for exaggerating the point of "parental upbringing seems to matter less than previously thought" to the implication that "parents do not matter." The situation as it presented itself by the end of the 20th century was summarized in The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature (2002) by Steven Pinker . The book became

10506-462: Was obviously negative to the question, the phrase has often been cited as an early quest into the nature versus nurture problem. John Locke 's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) is often cited as the foundational document of the blank slate view. In the Essay , Locke specifically criticizes René Descartes 's claim of an innate idea of God that is universal to humanity. Locke's view

10609-608: Was widely held during much of the 20th century. The debate between "blank-slate" denial of the influence of heritability , and the view admitting both environmental and heritable traits, has often been cast in terms of nature versus nurture. These two conflicting approaches to human development were at the core of an ideological dispute over research agendas throughout the second half of the 20th century. As both "nature" and "nurture" factors were found to contribute substantially, often in an inextricable manner, such views were seen as naive or outdated by most scholars of human development by

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