40-431: Agapophytinae Phycinae Therevinae Xestomyzinae The Therevidae are a family of flies of the superfamily Asiloidea commonly known as stiletto flies . The family contains about 1,600 described species worldwide, most diverse in arid and semiarid regions with sandy soils. The larvae are predators of insect larvae in soil. Adult Therevidae are small- to medium-sized with a body length of 2.4 to 18 mm and
80-661: A monophyletic clade that English-speaking dipterologists call the therevoid clade (clade of "Terevoidi"). This group has not been assigned a ranking at any taxonomic level above the rank of family, but for the present is recognised as a group of families within the superfamily Asiloidea. Therevoid clade Apsilocephalidae Evocoidae Scenopinidae Therevidae ? Scenopinidae and Therevidae ? Mydidae und Apioceridae ? Asilidae Bombyliidae Clade showing relationship of Asiloidea At present, over 1, 600 species are known. After taxonomic revisions by Lyneborg (1976) and Winterston et al. (2001),
120-469: A zeitgeber . Animals active during twilight are crepuscular , those active during the night are nocturnal and animals active at sporadic times during both night and day are cathemeral . Plants that open their flowers during the daytime are described as diurnal, while those that bloom during nighttime are nocturnal. The timing of flower opening is often related to the time at which preferred pollinators are foraging. For example, sunflowers open during
160-435: A balance between them if they are to survive and thrive. Ambient temperature has been shown to affect and even convert nocturnal animals to diurnality as it is a way for them to conserve metabolic energy. Nocturnal animals are often energetically challenged due to being most active in the nighttime when ambient temperatures are lower than through the day, and so they lose a lot of energy in the form of body heat. According to
200-495: A challenge, apart from the obvious increased activity levels during the day time light. Initially, most animals were diurnal, but adaptations that allowed some animals to become nocturnal is what helped contribute to the success of many, especially mammals. This evolutionary movement to nocturnality allowed them to better avoid predators and gain resources with less competition from other animals. This did come with some adaptations that mammals live with today. Vision has been one of
240-418: A hairy integument. The coloration ranges from shades of yellow to black, but commonly the background colour is masked by the tomentum . The compound eyes are generally larger in males, which in many species are actually holoptic . Females have well-developed compound eyes, but are clearly dichoptic . There are three ocelli. The antennae are relatively short. The scape is elongated, the pedicel very short, and
280-603: A lower frequency in the eastern region . The Phycinae have spread to the Afrotropical and the Holarctic . The Xestomyzinae are mainly Afrotropical. The Agapophytinae are endemic to the Australasian realm . In Europe, only the subfamilies are represented:- Phycinae, with two genera, and Therevinae, with 15 genera. A total of 98 species are reported, two-thirds of which belong to the genus Thereva . Cole, F.R., 1923. A revision of
320-499: A period of sleeping or other inactivity at night . The common adjective used for daytime activity is " diurnal ". The timing of activity by an animal depends on a variety of environmental factors such as the temperature, the ability to gather food by sight, the risk of predation, and the time of year. Diurnality is a cycle of activity within a 24-hour period; cyclic activities called circadian rhythms are endogenous cycles not dependent on external cues or environmental factors except for
360-497: Is a subfamily of stiletto flies in the family Therevidae . More than 20 genera and 470 described species are placed in the Therevinae. These 26 genera belong to the subfamily Therevinae: This article related to members of the fly superfamily Asiloidea is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Diurnality Diurnality is a form of plant and animal behavior characterized by activity during daytime , with
400-455: Is also limited, meaning the risks of predation are less than the risk of freezing or starving to death. Many plants are diurnal or nocturnal, depending on the time period when the most effective pollinators, i.e., insects, visit the plant. Most angiosperm plants are visited by various insects, so the flower adapts its phenology to the most effective pollinators. Thus, the effectiveness of relative diurnal or nocturnal species of insects affects
440-490: Is little known and it resembles many other Brachycera , both in morphology and ethology . The taxonomic history of the Therevidae accordingly has undergone repeated revisions; in the past, many therevids were assigned to other families, and many other Brachycera were assigned to the Therevidae. Since the 1970s however, there has been a great deal of rationalisation of the taxonomy, particularly by Lyneborg and Irwin. Revision of
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#1732884671593480-505: Is one of the strongest influences of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which is part of the hypothalamus in the brain that controls the circadian rhythm in most animals. This is what determines whether an animal is diurnal or not. The SCN uses visual information like light to start a cascade of hormones that are released and work on many physiological and behavioural functions. Light can produce powerful masking effects on an animal's circadian rhythm, meaning that it can "mask" or influence
520-493: Is relatively complex but without a particular conformation to distinguish the Therevidae from other families of Asiloidea. The radius is divided into four branches, with R 2 +3 undivided. The branch R 4 is long and winding and reaches the costal margin, the branch R 5 terminates on the posterior border, so the second submarginal cell is open at the apex of the wing. The media is divided into four branches, all independent but with M 3 and M 4 convergent. The transverse medial vein closes
560-459: Is smooth, white, or pink. The head capsule is well developed, but narrower than the other regions. Knowledge of the biology of the Therevidae is limited and fragmented. The lifecycle is usually carried out in a single generation per year, although some European Therevidae have a cycle of two or more years. The overwintering stage is represented by the mature larva. The postembryonic development in known forms, five instars and pupation takes place in
600-520: The Gran Chaco in South America showed that increased amounts of moonlight at night increased their activity levels through the night which led to a decrease of daytime activity. Meaning that for this species, ambient moonlight is negatively correlated with diurnal activity. This is also connected with the foraging behaviours of the monkeys, as when there were nights of little to no moonlight, it affected
640-516: The British Museum (Natural History). Part V. Fascicle 3. - Rhagionidae (Leptidae), Therevidae, Scenopenidae, Mydaidae, Asilidae, Lonchopteridae. pp. 199–293. Keys genera, species. Mann, JS.1928-1933 Revisional notes on Australian Therevidae. Part 1. Australian Zoologist , 5, 151–. 194 (1928); Part 2 6:17-49 (1929); Part 3 7:325-344. (1933). [REDACTED] Media related to Therevidae at Wikimedia Commons Therevinae Therevinae
680-619: The Early Cretaceous ( Aptian ) Crato Formation of Brazil. The habitat of the Therevidae is more varied than that of other Asiloidea, but as in Asiloidea, preferred ecosystems better suit the larvae, so these insects are more common in thickets of xerophilous plants ( garrigue and maquis , in deserts and on sandy beaches. The Therevidae are represented in all zoogeographical regions of the Earth. The Therevinae are present in all continents, with
720-1243: The Linnean Society , 129, 129-240. Irwin, M.E., & L. Lyneborg, 1981. The genera of Nearctic Therevidae. Illinois Natural History Bulletin, (1980) 32, 193-277. Irwin, M.E., & D.W. Webb, 1992. Brasilian Therevidae (Diptera): a checklist and descriptions (sic) of species. Acta Amazonica , (1991) 21, 85-121. Kröber , O., 1911. Die Thereviden Süd- und Mittelamerikas. Annales Musei Nationalis Hungarici , 9, 475-529. Keys genera, species. Kröber, O., 1912. Die Thereviden der indo-australischen Region. Keys genera, species. Kröber, O., 1913. Therevidae.Genera.Ins. Keys (then) world genera. Keys genera, species. Kröber, O., 1914. Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Thereviden und Omphraliden . Jahrbuch der Hamburgischen Wissenschaftlichen Anstalten, (1913) 31, 29-74. Kröber, O., 1924_1925. Therevidae. Fiegen palaerakt. Reg. 4 (26):1-60 Kröber, O., 1928. Neue und wenig bekannte Dipteren aus den Familien Omphralidae, Conopidae, und Therevidae. Konowia Zeitschrift für Systematische Insektenkunde , 7, 113-134. Kröber, O., 1931. The Therevidae (Diptera) of South Africa. Ann. Transv. Mus. . 14:103-134. (see also Lyneborg). Lyneborg, L. 1972. A revision of
760-559: The North American two-winged flies of the family Therevidae. Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum , 62(4), 1-140. Cole, F.R., 1960 Stiletto-flies of the genus Furcifera Kröber (Diptera: Therevidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America , 53, 160-169. Gaimari, S.D., & M.E. Irwin, 2000. Phylogeny, classification, and biogeography of the cycloteline Therevinae (Insecta: Diptera: Therevidae). Zoological Journal of
800-731: The Xestomyza-group of Therevidae. (Diptera). Annals of the Natal Museum 21: 297–376. Keys African genera, species. Lyneborg, L. 1976. A revision of the Therevine stiletto-flies (Diptera: Therevidae) of the Ethiopian Region. Bull. British Mus. (Nat. Hist. ). Entomology 33 (3): 191-346. Keys subfamilies and genera of Thervinae. Malloch, J. R. 1932. Rhagionidae, Therevidae. British Museum (Natural History). Dept. of Entomology [eds] Diptera of Patagonia and South Chile, based mainly on material in
840-454: The circadian thermos-energetics (CTE) hypothesis, animals that are expending more energy than they are taking in (through food and sleep) will be more active in the light cycle, meaning they will be more active in the day. This has been shown in studies done on small nocturnal mice in a laboratory setting. When they were placed under a combination of enough cold and hunger stress, they converted to diurnality through temporal niche switching, which
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#1732884671593880-463: The day to attract bees, whereas the night-blooming cereus opens at night to attract large sphinx moths . Many types of animals are classified as being diurnal, meaning they are active during the day time and inactive or have periods of rest during the night time. Commonly classified diurnal animals include mammals , birds , and reptiles . Most primates are diurnal, including humans . Scientifically classifying diurnality within animals can be
920-400: The day, and therefore conserve more energy, especially when colder seasonal temperatures hit. Light is one of the most defining environmental factors that determines an animal's activity pattern. Photoperiod or a light dark cycle is determined by the geographical location, with day time being associated with much ambient light, and night time being associated with little ambient light. Light
960-471: The discal cell. This has an elongated shape and terminates at the apex with three angles from which the first three branches of media spring. The fourth branch, M 4 (or CuA 1 according to a different interpretation), originates from the apex of the posterior basal discal cell. The cubit and anal converge on a short common branch before reaching the apex. The larva is apodous and eucephalic , cylindrical, very long and thin, and with tapered ends. The integument
1000-420: The diurnal or nocturnal nature of the plants they pollinate, causing in some instances an adjustment of the opening and closing cycles of the plants. For example, the baobab is pollinated by fruit bats and starts blooming in late afternoon; the flowers are dead within twenty-four hours. Services that alternate between high and low utilization in a daily cycle are described as being diurnal. Many websites have
1040-439: The evolution of diurnality. With about 20 transitions counted for the gecko lineages, it shows the significance of diurnality. Strong environmental influences like climate change, predation risk, and competition for resources are all contributing factors. Using the example of geckos, it is thought that species like Mediodactylus amictopholis that live at higher altitudes have switched to diurnality to help gain more heat through
1080-458: The family is divided into four subfamilies, among which the most representative in size and diffusion is the Therevinae: In addition to the 121 living genera are several extinct genera known from Cenozoic deposits including Dasystethos , Glaesorthactia , Kroeberiella , and Palaeopherocera , in doubt is Helicorhaphe . The oldest known member of the family is Cretothereva from
1120-445: The first flagellomere is conical and elongated, the apex bearing a compound stylus with one to three segments. The scape and pedicel are pubescent; In contrast to the related and confusingly similar family Asilidae , the labium in the Therevidae is not a piercing, predatory organ, but ends in two fleshy labella adapted to the sucking of liquid foods. Another difference is that, though Therevidae commonly have fluffy setae above
1160-519: The higher taxa, based on the phylogenetic cladistic relationships between various groups of Asiloidea has led to a better understanding of their ranks and interrelationships. Originally the Therevidae sensu lato , were polyphyletic . It required the reassignment of some subfamilies to other families, together with adjustments to closely related families in the Asiloidea , to establish consistent phylogenetic relationships. The Therevidae now constitute
1200-416: The internal clock, changing the activity patterns of an animal, either temporarily or over the long term if exposed to enough light over a long period of time. Masking can be referred to either as positive masking or negative masking, with it either increasing an diurnal animals activity or decreasing a nocturnal animal's activity, respectively. This can be depicted when exposing different types of rodents to
1240-427: The larvae of the Therevidae dig back into the substrate with rapid movements. Adults feed mainly on nectar, honeydew, and pollen, but they occasionally feed on liquid secretions of animal or vegetable origin. They are found in various environments and can be found in streams, meadows, open woodlands, or, like many other Asiloidea, in dry and sandy places or on beaches. At rest, they choose various substrates according to
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1280-604: The monkey's ability to forage efficiently, so they were forced to be more active in the day to find food. Diurnality has shown to be an evolutionary trait in many animal species, with diurnality mostly reappearing in many lineages. Other environmental factors like ambient temperature, food availability, and predation risk can all influence whether an animal will evolve to be diurnal, or if their effects are strong enough, then mask over their circadian rhythm, changing their activity patterns to becoming diurnal. All three factors often involve one another, and animals need to be able to find
1320-568: The most common transitions. Still today, diurnality seems to be reappearing in many lineages of other animals, including small rodent mammals like the Nile grass rat and golden mantle squirrel and reptiles. More specifically, geckos, which were thought to be naturally nocturnal have shown many transitions to diurnality, with about 430 species of geckos now showing diurnal activity. With so many diurnal species recorded, comparative analysis studies using newer lineages of gecko species have been done to study
1360-767: The most greatly affected senses from switching back and forth from diurnality to nocturnality, and this can be seen using biological and physiological analysis of rod nuclei from primate eyes. This includes losing two of four cone opsins that assists in colour vision , making many mammals dichromats . When early primates converted back to diurnality, better vision that included trichromatic colour vision became very advantageous, making diurnality and colour vision adaptive traits of simiiformes , which includes humans. Studies using chromatin distribution analysis of rod nuclei from different simian eyes found that transitions between diurnality and nocturnality occurred several times within primate lineages, with switching to diurnality being
1400-463: The mouthparts, the setae are not stiff bristles like the protective chaetae comprising the mystax of most species of Asilidae. Furthermore, in the Asilidae the depression on the vertex between the eyes, tends to be more obvious than in the Therevidae. The thorax is broad and moderately convex, with long bristles ( macrotrichae ). The legs are long and slender, with femora and tibiae bearing bristles;
1440-439: The same photoperiods. When a diurnal Nile grass rat and nocturnal mouse are exposed to the same photoperiod and light intensity, increased activity occurred within the grass rat (positive masking), and decreased activity within the mouse (negative masking). Even small amounts of environmental light change have shown to have an effect on the activity of mammals. An observational study done on the activity of nocturnal owl monkeys in
1480-430: The species: some species rest on the ground, others on rocks, vegetation, or intertidal debris. They are generally diurnal and move in short, quick flights. Although inhabiting semiarid regions, or possibly for that very reason, since that is where prey for their larvae are likely to be plentiful, adults are particularly attracted to water, generally remaining near pools or other sources of moisture. The family Therevidae
1520-482: The spring. The larvae, like those of other Asiloidea, have an entomophagous diet and they live as predators. They are generally found on dry, sandy soils and dry litter. Larvae also are located in other substrates such as decomposing organic matter and under the bark of trees. Among the prey are the larvae and pupae of Diptera, Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera. The observation of the behaviour of known forms highlights voracious feeding and agile movements. When exposed to light,
1560-492: The tibiae are without apical spurs and the tarsi are provided with empodia or without the median pretarsal. The wings are well developed, hyaline or opaque, often with pigmentation of the veins located at the termination of the transverse and longitudinal veins. The abdomen is tapered and elongated, typically 3 to 4 times as long as its broadest width when not extended for activities such as oviposition. Eight abdominal segments ( uriti ) are externally visible. The wing venation
1600-407: Was expected. Another similar study that involved energetically challenging small mammals showed that diurnality is most beneficial when the animal has a sheltered location to rest in, reducing heat loss. Both studies concluded that nocturnal mammals do change their activity patterns to be more diurnal when energetically stressed (due to heat loss and limited food availability), but only when predation
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