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49-480: The Seventh Letter of Plato is an epistle that tradition has ascribed to Plato . It is by far the longest of the epistles of Plato and gives an autobiographical account of his activities in Sicily as part of the intrigues between Dion and Dionysius of Syracuse for the tyranny of Syracuse . It also contains an extended philosophical interlude concerning the possibility of writing true philosophical works and

98-778: A guest in Dionysius' house and that he did not relish the problems that would be caused by a civil war. Dion invaded anyway and was successful. Plato eulogizes Dion, claiming that he sought power only for the common good. Dion fell, he says, because he underestimated the viciousness of the men he was opposing. Plato explains why he went into such detail about his third visit, despite having already given his advice as to how Dion's followers should proceed. He desired, he says, to defend himself against slanders that had circulated about his motives and actions. Epistle The ancient Egyptians wrote epistles, most often for pedagogical reasons. Egyptologist Edward Wente (1990) speculates that

147-425: A bad pupil, Plato claims. Plato claims that Dionysius was an impostor, for he had written a metaphysical treatise that he claimed was superior to Plato's lectures. Plato can claim that Dionysius was an impostor because the truth about metaphysics cannot be expressed in writing and all those who know the truth know this; hence, if Dionysius thought he had expressed the truth about metaphysics in writing, he did not know

196-450: A book or to the public at large. Dionysius' motivation for having written a philosophic text must have been a desire for glory. Indeed, he had received only one lecture on metaphysics from Plato. Dionysius abused Plato in several ways during his third visit to Syracuse. He had promised to send Dion the revenues of his property in Sicily, but reneged. Plato in response threatened to leave and

245-559: A divide, barely present in Antiquity or the Middle Ages , opened between menial servants and other classes at court, although Alexandre Bontemps , the head valet de chambre of Louis XIV , was a late example of a "menial" who managed to establish his family in the nobility. The key commodities for a courtier were access and information, and a large court operated at many levels: many successful careers at court involved no direct contact with

294-572: A long digression on the theory of forms. These problems lead R. G. Bury to conclude that the letter was an open letter intended to defend Plato in the eyes of his fellow Athenians rather than to be sent to Dion's followers in Sicily; there probably never was any letter from them to Plato, he says. In recent times the Seventh Letter has been argued to be spurious by prominent scholars such as Malcolm Schofield , Myles Burnyeat , George Boas , Terence Irwin , and Julia Annas . According to Annas,

343-426: A philosopher king is now impossible, he says, let the second-best of rule by law come about. Plato resumes his historical narrative where he had left off. War compelled Plato to leave Sicily during his second visit there. Before permitting him to leave, however, Dionysius had extracted a promise that he would return when hostilities ceased and Plato had agreed on the condition that Dion be recalled from exile. Dion

392-522: A result, Dionysius found a pretext for expelling Plato from the palace (where he had been housed) and lodging him in the soldiers' quarters. He then claimed that Theodotes' visits to him there were a sign that he was conspiring with his enemies. Plato pleaded with Archytas, who persuaded Tarentum to send a vessel for him. After leaving Sicily for the third and final time, Plato traveled to Olympia , where he met Dion preparing for war. Dion asked Plato for his support, but he refused, claiming that he had been

441-515: A result, the student who attempts to understand the Fifth through name, account, image, and knowledge is confused; he seeks the essence, but always finds the quality intruding. Only certain kinds of student can scrutinize the Four, and even then the vision of the Fifth comes by a sudden flash. Since this is how philosophy is conducted, no serious person would ever attempt to teach serious philosophic doctrines in

490-655: A thousand courtiers. The court's systems became prevalent in other courts such as those in the Balkan states, the Ottoman Empire and Russia . Byzantinism is a term that was coined for this spread of the Byzantine system in the 19th century. In modern English, the term is often used metaphorically for contemporary political favourites or hangers-on. In modern literature, courtiers are often depicted as insincere, skilled at flattery and intrigue, ambitious and lacking regard for

539-414: Is a person who attends the royal court of a monarch or other royalty . The earliest historical examples of courtiers were part of the retinues of rulers. Historically the court was the centre of government as well as the official residence of the monarch, and the social and political life were often completely mixed together. Monarchs very often expected the more important nobles to spend much of

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588-516: Is always linked to a reading from the Gospel , though some services, such as Matins , will have a Gospel lesson, but no Epistle ( Vespers on a number of feast days (typically for Apostles) will also have three epistle readings but no Gospel). A number of services besides the Divine Liturgy will have an Epistle and Gospel reading. Such services often include a Prokeimenon and Alleluia as well. The Epistle

637-507: Is chanted by the reader , though at a Hierarchical Liturgy (a Divine Liturgy celebrated by a bishop ), it is read by a deacon . The one who chants the Epistle also reads the verses of the Prokeimenon . During the Middle Ages , the art of letter writing was taught in numerous manuals, and the ars dictaminis became an important genre of instructional discourse. The necessity for letter writing

686-719: The Acts of the Apostles and the Catholic epistles in modern editions. Most Greek manuscripts, however, place the General epistles first, and a few minuscules ( 175 , 325 , 336 , and 1424 ) place the Pauline epistles at the end of the New Testament. The catholic epistles (also called the general epistles ) are seven epistles of the New Testament. Listed in order of their appearance in the New Testament,

735-770: The Collect and the Gospel reading. The corresponding Gregorian chants have a special tone ( tonus epistolae ). When the epistle is sung or chanted at Solemn Mass it is done so by the subdeacon . Epistles are also read by an Elder or Bishop in the Lutheran Divine Service , between the gradual and the Gospel. In the Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Byzantine Rite Catholics

784-759: The Fifth-dynasty Pharaoh Djedkare Isesi —in his many letters sent to his viziers —was a pioneer in the epistolary genre. Its existence is firmly attested during the Sixth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom , and is prominently featured in the educational guide The Book of Kemit written during the Eleventh Dynasty . A standardized formulae for epistolary compositions existed by the time of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt . The epistolary formulae used in

833-739: The Ramesside Period found its roots in the letters composed during the Amarna Period of the Twentieth Dynasty . Wente describes the "Satirical Letter" found on the Papyrus Anastasi ;I of the Nineteenth Dynasty as an epistle which was commonly copied as a writing exercise by Egyptian schoolchildren on ceramic ostraca (over eighty examples of which have been found so far by archaeologists). Epistle letters were also written to

882-424: The Seventh Letter is "such an unconvincing production that its acceptance by many scholars is best seen as indicating the strength of their desire to find, behind the detachment of the dialogues, something, no matter what, to which Plato is straightforwardly committed." The Seventh Letter touches upon a variety of themes, not always in an organized fashion. This article follows Bury in dividing its summary into

931-592: The canon of the New Testament, they are foundational texts for both Christian theology and ethics . The Epistle to the Hebrews , although it does not bear his name, was traditionally considered Pauline (although Origen questioned its authorship in the 3rd century CE), but from the 16th century onwards opinion steadily moved against Pauline authorship and few scholars now ascribe it to Paul, mostly because it does not read like any of his other epistles in style and content. Most scholars agree that Paul actually wrote seven of

980-596: The theory of forms . Assuming that the letter is authentic, it was written after Dion was assassinated by Calippus in 353 BC and before the latter was in turn overthrown a year later. Of all the letters attributed to Plato, the Seventh Letter is widely considered the only one that might be authentic. R. Ledger defends its authenticity on the basis of computer analysis. Anthony Kenny is likewise inclined to accept it as genuine. The main objections to its authenticity involve its statement that there are forms or ideas of artificial things, whereas Aristotle attributes to Plato

1029-577: The Divine Liturgy is not celebrated. These daily Epistle readings are a part of the Paschal cycle , being ultimately dependent upon the date of Pascha (Easter). There are also lessons appointed for the feast days of numerous saints and commemorations. There may be one, two, or three readings from the Apostol during a single Liturgy. The Epistle is read between the Prokeimenon and the Alleluia . The Epistle reading

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1078-584: The Elder died after Plato had returned home and Dion urged him to educate the younger Dionysius, who had ascended to the tyranny, with the aim of transforming him into a philosopher king . Plato explains that he agreed to Dion's proposal lest he seem to be a bad friend and to care nothing for philosophy 's reputation, but the visit turned out to be a failure. Dion fell from Dionysius' good graces due to courtiers' slanders; Plato himself fell under suspicion of seeking to overthrow Dionysius. He continued to attempt to give

1127-725: The Epistle reading is called the Apostol (the same name is given to the lectionary from which it is read). The Apostol includes the Acts of the Apostles as well as the Epistles, but never the Apocalypse (Revelation of John). Unlike in the Latin liturgical rites , there are never readings from the Old Testament . There are Epistle lessons for every day of the year, except for weekdays during Great Lent , when

1176-473: The New Testament and among the early Christian Fathers, were written in accordance with the formalized, Hellenistic tradition. This reflects the amount of Hellenistic influence upon the epistle writers, especially in the case of Paul. Classicist Steve Reece has compared thousands of Greek, Roman, and Jewish letters contemporary with Paul and observes that Paul follows many of the normal epistolary conventions. In contrast to modern letters, epistles usually named

1225-525: The Pauline epistles, but that four of the epistles in Paul's name are pseudepigraphic ( Ephesians , First Timothy , Second Timothy , and Titus ) and that two other epistles are of questionable authorship ( Second Thessalonians and Colossians ). According to some scholars, Paul wrote these letters with the help of a secretary, or amanuensis , who would have influenced their style, if not their theological content. The Pauline epistles are usually placed between

1274-703: The Younger likewise are studied as both examples of Latin prose with self-conscious literary qualities and sources for historical information. Ovid produced three collections of verse epistles, composed in elegiac couplets : the Heroides , letters written in the person of legendary women to their absent lovers; and the Tristia and Ex Ponto , written in first person during the poet's exile . The epistles of Seneca , with their moral or philosophical ruminations, influenced later patristic writers. Christian epistles, both those in

1323-418: The author at the very beginning, followed by the recipient (for example, see Philippians 1:1 ). The scribe (or more correctly, the amanuensis ) who wrote down the letter may be named at the end of the epistle (e.g., Romans 16:22 ). In the absence of a postal system , the courier may also be named (e.g. Ephesians 6:21–22 ). After the names of the author and recipient, Pauline epistles often open with

1372-571: The catholic epistles are: These are letters written by some very early Christian leaders, in the 1st or 2nd century, which are not part of the New Testament . They are generally considered to form part of the basis of Christian tradition. The ennobling word "epistle" is used partly because these were all written in Greek, in a time period close to when the epistles of the New Testament were written, and thus "epistle" lends additional weight of authority. In

1421-682: The context of a liturgy , epistle may refer more specifically to a particular passage from a New Testament epistle (the Pauline epistles and the General epistles )—sometimes also from the Book of Acts or the Revelation of John , but not the Four Gospels —that is scheduled to be read on a certain day or at a certain occasion. In the Roman Catholic Mass and Anglican Eucharist , epistles are read between

1470-583: The courts of the Akkadian Empire where there is evidence of court appointments such as that of cup-bearer which was one of the earliest court appointments and remained a position at courts for thousands of years. Two of the earliest titles referring to the general concept of a courtier were likely the ša rēsi and mazzāz pāni of the Neo-Assyrian Empire . In Ancient Egypt a title has been found that translates to high steward or great overseer of

1519-641: The dead, and, by the Ramesside Period, to the gods ; the latter became even more widespread during the eras of Persian and Greek domination. Epistles in prose and verse were a major genre of literature among the Greeks and particularly the Romans . The letters of Cicero are one of the most important sources on the history of the late Roman Republic and preserve features of colloquial Latin not always in evidence in his speeches and treatises. The letters of Pliny

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1568-429: The despotism in Sicily and establish a constitutional government in each city with just laws. He claims that Dionysius lives an ignoble life because he did not heed this advice, while Dion died a noble death because he followed it. Dion would have ruled by law. Plato counsels his followers to avoid partisan strife, live moderately, and seek no reprisals in their hour of victory. Since the ideal political order of rule by

1617-513: The entire body. The epistles of the New Testament canon are usually divided as follows: The Pauline epistles, also called Epistles of Paul or Letters of Paul, are the thirteen books of the New Testament attributed to Paul the Apostle , although the authorship of some is in dispute. Among these epistles are some of the earliest extant Christian documents. They provide an insight into the beliefs and controversies of early Christianity . As part of

1666-472: The following sections. Plato opens by assuring Dion's followers that he shares Dion's political goals. He then says how he came to hold his opinions concerning politics by recounting his early life and political disillusionment following the Thirty Tyrants and the trial of Socrates . Plato tells of his first visit to Syracuse, where he befriended Dion during the reign of Dionysius the Elder . Dionysius

1715-448: The greeting, "Grace and peace to you." "Grace" was a common Hellenistic greeting, while "peace" ( shalom ) was the common Jewish greeting; this reflected Paul's dual identity in Jewish faith and Hellenistic culture. There may also be a word of thanks to the audience. In secular letters, a prayer or wish for health followed. The body begins with a brief statement introducing the main topic of

1764-464: The head of an army), but the Syracuseans themselves believed slanders that Dion was attempting to set himself up as a tyrant and supported Dion's murder. Because those who assassinated Dion were Athenians, Plato defends Athens, saying that Dion's best friend (himself) was also Athenian. Plato admonishes the addressees with the same advice that he and Dion had given Dionysius the Younger, viz. to abolish

1813-740: The house. The courts influenced by the court of the Neo-Assyrian Empire such as those of the Median Empire and the Achaemenid Empire had numerous courtiers After invading the Achaemenid Empire , Alexander the Great returned with the concept of the complex court featuring a variety of courtiers to the Kingdom of Macedonia and Hellenistic Greece . The imperial court of the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople would eventually contain at least

1862-512: The idea that there are forms or ideas only of natural things, as well as the fact that the letter's purported historical setting seems unlikely: the letter implies that Dion's followers wrote to Plato asking him for practical political advice while at the same time insinuating that he had not been loyal to Dion, that Calippus permitted the letter to get to Plato, and that Plato replied by recounting in detail recent history to people who were immediately involved in those events and included in his advice

1911-575: The image. One attains knowledge only from the combination of verbal description and sense perception, and one must have knowledge before one can attain the object of knowledge (which Plato calls simply "the Fifth," name, account, image, and knowledge being "the Four"). The Fifth, moreover, differs from what is sensible and verbal expressions of it. Name and account provide the "quality" of a thing ( to poion ), but not its "essence" or "being" ( to on ). They are, moreover, akin to sense perceptions in that they are ever shifting and relative, not fixed. As

1960-563: The meantime, Dionysius' attempts to cut the pay of the mercenaries who supported his rule provoked a mutiny that was blamed on Heracleides, the leader of the democratic party in Syracuse. Theodotes persuaded Dionysius in Plato's presence to permit Heracleides to leave the city in peace, but Dionysius used this merely to flush him out of hiding. When Dionysius claimed never to have made any promise to let him go, Plato spoke up and affirmed that he had. As

2009-487: The monarch as they travelled. This was particularly the case in the early French court. But, the European nobility generally had independent power and was less controlled by the monarch until around the 18th century, which gave European court life greater complexity. The earliest courtiers coincide with the development of definable courts beyond the rudimentary entourages or retinues of rulers. There were probably courtiers in

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2058-734: The monarch. The largest and most famous European court was that of the Palace of Versailles at its peak, although the Forbidden City of Beijing was even larger and more isolated from national life. Very similar features marked the courts of all very large monarchies, including in India , Topkapı Palace in Istanbul , Ancient Rome , Byzantium or the Caliphs of Baghdad or Cairo . Early medieval European courts frequently travelled from place to place following

2107-455: The same way that he and Dion had advised Dionysius the Younger. They had attempted to remind him of his father's unhappiness, counseling him to lead a moderate personal life and make friends with good men. This advice would have required him to renounce the company of those courtiers who benefited from his immoderation, so these conspired to slander Dion such that he was exiled again. Dion returned to admonish Dionysius "by deed" (333b; i.e., at

2156-405: The truth. Plato's explanation of why the deepest truths cannot be expressed in written form is famously abstruse. Before one attains the "thing which is cognizable and true" ( gnōston te kai alēthes ), one must have apprehended the "name," "account" ( logos ), "image," and "knowledge" ( epistēmē ). Name and account are approached through verbal description, while sense perception perceives

2205-419: The tyrant good counsel, however. Plato leaves off the historical narrative, but before giving his advice to Dion's friends and followers he notes that one should not attempt to advise those who will not heed good advice. One should not tell those who do not wish to be virtuous how best to satisfy their vicious desires, nor should one compel those who are not willing to listen. Plato advises Dion's followers in

2254-463: The year in attendance on them at court. Not all courtiers were noble , as they included clergy , soldiers , clerks , secretaries , agents and middlemen with business at court. All those who held a court appointment could be called courtiers but not all courtiers held positions at court. Those personal favourites without business around the monarch, sometimes called the camarilla , were also considered courtiers. As social divisions became more rigid,

2303-436: Was assuaged only when Dionysius proposed a compromise; Plato agreed to remain only until Dion had replied. Before that could happen, however, Dionysius sold Dion's property on the cheap, appointed himself the warden of half of the proceeds on behalf of Dion's son, and would let Plato take only the other half to Dion in exile. Moreover, the sailing season had already ended and so Plato was forced to remain in Syracuse anyway. In

2352-463: Was in large part due to the general deterioration of civil life and the decay of the Roman road system in the early Middle Ages , factors that obliged literate people with business to transact to send letters instead of travel themselves. A vast number of letters and letter-writing manuals were written in the period's lingua franca , Latin . Courtier A courtier ( / ˈ k ɔːr t i ər / )

2401-496: Was not recalled and Plato was reluctant to return, but was persuaded by Dion and by Archytas of Tarentum of the prudence of doing so, especially as Dionysius himself was rumored to be interested in philosophy again. Upon his arrival, Plato decided to test whether Dionysius' attachment to philosophy was genuine by informing him of the various unexciting preparatory studies he would need to undertake. Dionysius claimed to already be an expert on philosophy and therefore turned out to be

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