119-404: " Rat Man " was the nickname given by Sigmund Freud to a patient whose "case history" was published as Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose ["Notes Upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis"] (1909). This was the second of six case histories that Freud published and the first in which he claimed that the patient had been cured by psychoanalysis . The nickname derives from the fact that among
238-461: A "neurasthenia" which he linked to the death of his father in 1896 and which prompted a "self-analysis" of his own dreams and memories of childhood. His explorations of his feelings of hostility to his father and rivalrous jealousy over his mother's affections led him to fundamentally revise his theory of the origin of the neuroses. Based on his early clinical work, Freud postulated that unconscious memories of sexual molestation in early childhood were
357-605: A French neurologist in Paris , Bernhard von Gudden , a German psychiatrist in Munich , and to London . After these trips, he returned to Zürich to briefly work as assistant to Auguste Forel while completing his psychiatric residency at the Burghölzli , a university hospital. Bleuler became the director of a psychiatric clinic in Rheinau , a hospital located in an old monastery on an island in
476-622: A brother were born: Rosa (b. 1860), Marie (b. 1861), Adolfine (b. 1862), Paula (b. 1864), Alexander (b. 1866). In 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium , a prominent high school. He proved to be an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors. He loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew , Latin and Greek . Freud entered
595-508: A career in neurology . Freud read William Shakespeare in English; his understanding of human psychology may have been partially derived from Shakespeare's plays. Freud's Jewish origins and his allegiance to his secular Jewish identity were of significant influence in the formation of his intellectual and moral outlook, especially concerning his intellectual non-conformism, as he pointed out in his Autobiographical Study . They would also have
714-495: A commission to translate four essays from John Stuart Mill 's collected works. He graduated with an MD in March 1881. In 1882 Freud began his medical career at Vienna General Hospital . His research work in cerebral anatomy led to the publication in 1884 of an influential paper on the palliative effects of cocaine, and his work on aphasia would form the basis of his first book On Aphasia: A Critical Study , published in 1891. Over
833-432: A critical review of existing theory, Freud gives detailed interpretations of his own and his patients' dreams in terms of wish-fulfillments made subject to the repression and censorship of the "dream-work". He then sets out the theoretical model of mental structure (the unconscious, pre-conscious and conscious) on which this account is based. An abridged version, On Dreams , was published in 1901. In works that would win him
952-413: A female friend (who later became his wife). His fear had grown out of an account he heard from a fellow army officer concerning a Chinese torture method in which a large pot containing a live rat was strapped to the buttocks of the victim, and the rat, encouraged by a red-hot poker, would gnaw its way out through the victim's anus. Lanzer claimed that he fantasized about murder and suicide, and he developed
1071-579: A handful of interesting deviations, the case history Freud published generally followed the process notes he made every night". Patrick Mahony, a psychoanalyst and professor of English at the University of Montreal , has highlighted such discrepancies in his detailed study Freud and the Rat Man, published in 1986 by the Yale University Press . Dr. Mahony said Freud seems to have consistently implied that
1190-467: A later footnote, Freud laments that although "the patient's mental health was restored to him by the analysis ... like so many young men of value and promise, he perished in the Great War ". A number of significant discrepancies between the published case history and Freud's process notes, which were discovered among his papers after his death, have been pointed out by Patrick Mahony. According to Mahony, who
1309-701: A means of "rearousing [Freud's] affection". Eckstein nonetheless continued her analysis with Freud. She was restored to full mobility and went on to practice psychoanalysis herself. Freud, who had called Fliess "the Kepler of biology", later concluded that a combination of a homoerotic attachment and the residue of his "specifically Jewish mysticism" lay behind his loyalty to his Jewish friend and his consequent overestimation of both his theoretical and clinical work. Their friendship came to an acrimonious end with Fliess angry at Freud's unwillingness to endorse his general theory of sexual periodicity and accusing him of collusion in
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#17328760945611428-585: A more general readership, Freud applied his theories outside the clinical setting in The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901) and Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious (1905). In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality , published in 1905, Freud elaborates his theory of infantile sexuality, describing its "polymorphous perverse" forms and the functioning of the "drives", to which it gives rise, in
1547-524: A necessary precondition for psychoneuroses (hysteria and obsessional neurosis), a formulation now known as Freud's seduction theory . In the light of his self-analysis, Freud abandoned the theory that every neurosis can be traced back to the effects of infantile sexual abuse, now arguing that infantile sexual scenarios still had a causative function, but it did not matter whether they were real or imagined and that in either case, they became pathogenic only when acting as repressed memories. This transition from
1666-509: A new discipline." Jacques Lacan built his early structuralist theory around the Rat Man case, in particular the polarity of father–rich wife/son–poor wife as an intergenerational force creating the individual neurosis. Freud's late note upon the Rat Man's acute sense of smell would later be developed into his theory of the process of civilisation and organic repression. Peter Gay concluded in Freud: A Life for Our Time (1988) that "apart from
1785-429: A number of verbal associations with the word " Ratten " ("rats"). Lanzer introduced Freud to Friedrich Nietzsche 's phrase (which Freud later cited) "'I did this,' says my Memory. 'I cannot have done this,' says my Pride, and remains inexorable. In the end – Memory yields." Freud retold the saying more than once, and it was used by later therapists such as Fritz Perls . Lanzer broke off his analysis with Freud after
1904-400: A number of compulsive irrational behavior patterns. For example, he mentioned his habit of opening the door to his flat between 12 midnight and 1:00 A.M., apparently so that his father's ghost could enter. Lanzer would then stare at his penis, sometimes using a mirror. Freud encouraged Lanzer to discuss details of his sex life (such as his first efforts at masturbation at age 20) and focused on
2023-491: A positive omen for the boy's future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg. Freud's half-brothers immigrated to Manchester , England, parting him from the "inseparable" playmate of his early childhood, Emanuel's son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children (Freud's sister, Anna, was born in 1858; a brother, Julius born in 1857, had died in infancy) firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and
2142-607: A regular schedule of biannual Congresses commenced after the end of World War I to coordinate their activities and as a forum for presenting papers on clinical and theoretical topics. Abraham and Eitingon founded the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society in 1910 and then the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute and the Poliklinik in 1920. The Poliklinik's innovations of free treatment, and child analysis, and
2261-529: A relatively brief period and well before his transference had been fully resolved. Just after Freud had completed the written version of the case history in October 1909, he confessed to Carl Jung that his patient was having ongoing problems. Lanzer was killed in World War I , and later researchers were unable to interview him. Freud was led to publish the Rat Man case history because he was feeling pressured to show
2380-688: A result of his reading The Interpretation of Dreams , to which he subsequently gave a positive review in the Viennese daily newspaper Neues Wiener Tagblatt . The other three original members whom Freud invited to attend, Alfred Adler , Max Kahane, and Rudolf Reitler, were also physicians and all five were Jewish by birth. Both Kahane and Reitler were childhood friends of Freud who had gone to university with him and kept abreast of Freud's developing ideas by attending his Saturday evening lectures. In 1901, Kahane, who first introduced Stekel to Freud's work, had opened an out-patient psychotherapy institute of which he
2499-414: A secret thought that he wished his father would die so he could inherit all of his money and become rich enough to marry, before shaming himself by fantasizing that his father would die and leave him nothing. The patient even goes so far as to fantasize about marrying Freud's daughter, believing (Freud writes) that "the only reason I was so kind and incredibly patient with him was that I wanted to have him for
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#17328760945612618-692: A series of confrontations between their respective viewpoints took place at the meetings of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society in January and February 1911. In February 1911, Adler, then the president of the society, resigned his position. At this time, Stekel also resigned from his position as vice president of the society. Adler finally left the Freudian group altogether in June 1911 to form his own organization with nine other members who had also resigned from
2737-409: A series of letters demonstrates, Bleuler performed a self-analysis with Freud, beginning in 1905. Bleuler laid the foundation for a less fatalistic view of the course and outcome of psychotic disorders along with C. G. Jung, who further used Bleuler's theory of ambivalence and association experiments to diagnose neurotic illnesses. Bleuler found Freud's movement to be overly dogmatic and resigned from
2856-503: A smoker, eventually developing buccal cancer . Freud suggested to Fliess in 1897 that addictions, including that to tobacco, were substitutes for masturbation , "the one great habit." Freud had greatly admired his philosophy tutor, Franz Brentano , who was known for his theories of perception and introspection. Brentano discussed the possible existence of the unconscious mind in his Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (1874). Although Brentano denied its existence, his discussion of
2975-547: A son-in-law" – a matter linked in the transference to his conflicts between his mother's wish for him to marry rich like his father and his fiancée's poverty. In addition, the symptoms were believed to keep the patient from needing to make difficult decisions in his current life, and to ward off the anxiety that would be involved in experiencing the angry and aggressive impulses directly. The patient's older sister and father had died, and these losses were considered, along with his suicidal thoughts and his tendency, to form part of
3094-440: A substantial effect on the content of psychoanalytic ideas, particularly in respect of their common concerns with depth interpretation and "the bounding of desire by law". During the formative period of his work, Freud valued and came to rely on the intellectual and emotional support of his friend Wilhelm Fliess , a Berlin-based ear, nose, and throat specialist whom he had first met in 1887. Both men saw themselves as isolated from
3213-470: A three-year period, Freud worked in various departments of the hospital. His time spent in Theodor Meynert 's psychiatric clinic and as a locum in a local asylum led to an increased interest in clinical work. His substantial body of published research led to his appointment as a university lecturer or docent in neuropathology in 1885, a non-salaried post but one which entitled him to give lectures at
3332-538: A wealthy farmer, and Pauline Bleuler-Bleuler (1829–1898). He married Hedwig Bleuler–Waser , one of the first women to receive her doctorate from the University of Zurich . Bleuler studied medicine in Zürich. He trained for his psychiatric residency at Waldau Hospital under Gottlieb Burckhardt, a Swiss psychiatrist, from 1881 to 1884. He left his job in 1884 and spent one year on medical study trips with Jean-Martin Charcot ,
3451-404: A wide variety of symptoms associated with schizophrenia that can lead to a potential diagnosis. Bleuler concluded that several aspects of the disease are not genetically inherited. These tend to be behavioral aspects and positive symptoms, including hallucinations, delusions, and strange ideas. He believed the disease's central characteristics were the product of splitting between the emotional and
3570-431: Is an analyst and sympathetic to the general goals of psychoanalysis, Freud's published case history is "muddled" and "inconsistent" on various matters of fact and also exhibits "glaring" omissions of information. In particular, there is an overemphasis on the father to the exclusion of the mother. Mahony states "Freud mixed momentous insights with exaggerated claims," some of which "were made in his zeal to protect and promote
3689-632: The Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse , also edited by Rank. Plans for an international association of psychoanalysts were put in place and these were implemented at the Nuremberg Congress of 1910 where Jung was elected, with Freud's support, as its first president. Freud turned to Brill and Jones to further his ambition to spread the psychoanalytic cause in the English-speaking world. Both were invited to Vienna following
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3808-616: The British Psychoanalytical Society , serving as its president until 1944. The Institute of Psychoanalysis was established in 1924 and the London Clinic of Psychoanalysis was established in 1926, both under Jones's directorship. The Vienna Ambulatorium (Clinic) was established in 1922 and the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1924 under the directorship of Helene Deutsch . Ferenczi founded
3927-564: The Galvanic Skin Response , and a lecturer at Zurich University , although still only an assistant to Eugen Bleuler at the Burghölzli Mental Hospital in Zürich. In March 1907, Jung and Ludwig Binswanger , also a Swiss psychiatrist, travelled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend the discussion group. Thereafter, they established a small psychoanalytic group in Zürich. In 1908, reflecting its growing institutional status,
4046-532: The German annexation of Austria in March 1938, Freud left Austria to escape Nazi persecution. He died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In founding psychoanalysis , Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference , establishing its central role in the analytic process. Freud's redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate
4165-541: The International Psychoanalytic Association in 1911, writing to Freud that "this 'all or nothing' is in my opinion necessary for religious communities and useful for political parties...but for science I consider it harmful". Bleuler remained interested in Freud's work, citing him favorably, for example, in his often reprinted Textbook of Psychiatry (1916). He also supported the nomination of Freud for
4284-596: The New York Psychoanalytic Society the same year. His English translations of Freud's work began to appear from 1909. Some of Freud's followers subsequently withdrew from the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) and founded their own schools. From 1909, Adler's views on topics such as neurosis began to differ markedly from those held by Freud. As Adler's position appeared increasingly incompatible with Freudianism,
4403-544: The Nobel Prize in the late twenties. Bleuler introduced the term "schizophrenia" in a Berlin lecture on 24 April 1908. However, he and his colleagues had been using the term in Zurich to replace Emil Kraepelin 's term dementia praecox since 1907. He revised and expanded his schizophrenia concept in his seminal study of 1911, Dementia Praecox, oder Gruppe der Schizophrenien ( Dementia Praecox, or Group of Schizophrenias ). This
4522-454: The Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfilments provided him with models for the clinical analysis of symptom formation and the underlying mechanisms of repression . On this basis, Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, ego and super-ego . Freud postulated
4641-446: The Rhine . At the time, the clinic was known for being functionally backward and largely ineffective. Because of this, Bleuler set about improving conditions for the patients residing there. In the year 1898, Bleuler returned to the Burghölzli and became a psychiatry professor at Burghölzli, the same university hospital at which he completed his residency. He was also appointed director of
4760-464: The humanities . It thus continues to generate extensive and highly contested debate concerning its therapeutic efficacy, its scientific status, and whether it advances or hinders the feminist cause. Nonetheless, Freud's work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. W. H. Auden 's 1940 poetic tribute to Freud describes him as having created "a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives". Sigmund Freud
4879-712: The psyche , through dialogue between patient and psychoanalyst, and the distinctive theory of mind and human agency derived from it. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg , in the Austrian Empire . He qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna . Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology and became an affiliated professor in 1902. Freud lived and worked in Vienna having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. Following
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4998-553: The Berlin Institute's standardisation of psychoanalytic training had a major influence on the wider psychoanalytic movement. In 1927, Ernst Simmel founded the Schloss Tegel Sanatorium on the outskirts of Berlin , the first such establishment to provide psychoanalytic treatment in an institutional framework. Freud organised a fund to help finance its activities and his architect son, Ernst, was commissioned to refurbish
5117-696: The Budapest Psychoanalytic Institute in 1913 and a clinic in 1929. Psychoanalytic societies and institutes were established in Switzerland (1919), France (1926), Italy (1932), the Netherlands (1933), Norway (1933), and in Palestine (Jerusalem, 1933) by Eitingon, who had fled Berlin after Adolf Hitler came to power. The New York Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1931. The 1922 Berlin Congress
5236-490: The Congress to advance the impact of Freud's work. A journal, the Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen , was launched in 1909 under the editorship of Jung. This was followed in 1910 by the monthly Zentralblatt für Psychoanalyse edited by Adler and Stekel, in 1911 by Imago , a journal devoted to the application of psychoanalysis to the field of cultural and literary studies edited by Rank and in 1913 by
5355-523: The Congress. There were, as Jones records, "forty-two present, half of whom were or became practising analysts." In addition to Jones and the Viennese and Zürich contingents accompanying Freud and Jung, also present and notable for their subsequent importance in the psychoanalytic movement were Karl Abraham and Max Eitingon from Berlin, Sándor Ferenczi from Budapest and the New York-based Abraham Brill . Important decisions were taken at
5474-693: The Nervous System at Harvard , who invited Freud to his country retreat where they held extensive discussions over a period of four days. Putnam's subsequent public endorsement of Freud's work represented a significant breakthrough for the psychoanalytic cause in the United States. When Putnam and Jones organised the founding of the American Psychoanalytic Association in May 1911 they were elected president and secretary respectively. Brill founded
5593-629: The Protestant 'Confession' to avoid one. A civil ceremony for Bernays and Freud took place on 13 September and a religious ceremony took place the following day, with Freud having been hastily tutored in the Hebrew prayers. The Freuds had six children: Mathilde (b. 1887), Jean-Martin (b. 1889), Oliver (b. 1891), Ernst (b. 1892), Sophie (b. 1893), and Anna (b. 1895). From 1891 until they left Vienna in 1938, Freud and his family lived in an apartment at Berggasse 19 , near Innere Stadt . On 8 December 1897 Freud
5712-602: The Salzburg Congress and a division of labour was agreed with Brill given the translation rights for Freud's works, and Jones, who was to take up a post at the University of Toronto later in the year, tasked with establishing a platform for Freudian ideas in North American academic and medical life. Jones's advocacy prepared the way for Freud's visit to the United States, accompanied by Jung and Ferenczi, in September 1909 at
5831-429: The Unconscious ) making it clear that his views were taking a direction quite different from those of Freud. To distinguish his system from psychoanalysis, Jung called it analytical psychology . Anticipating the final breakdown of the relationship between Freud and Jung, Ernest Jones initiated the formation of a Secret Committee of loyalists charged with safeguarding the theoretical coherence and institutional legacy of
5950-638: The University of Vienna at age 17. He had planned to study law, but joined the medical faculty at the university, where his studies included philosophy under Franz Brentano , physiology under Ernst Brücke , and zoology under Darwinist professor Carl Claus . In 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Claus's zoological research station in Trieste , dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. In 1877, Freud moved to Ernst Brücke's physiology laboratory where he spent six years comparing
6069-508: The University of Vienna. In 1886 Freud resigned his hospital post and entered private practice specializing in "nervous disorders". The same year he married Martha Bernays , the granddaughter of Isaac Bernays , a chief rabbi in Hamburg. Freud was, as an atheist , dismayed at the requirement in Austria for a Jewish religious ceremony and briefly considered, before dismissing, the prospect of joining
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#17328760945616188-610: The Wednesday group was reconstituted as the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society with Freud as president, a position he relinquished in 1910 in favor of Adler in the hope of neutralizing his increasingly critical standpoint. The first woman member, Margarete Hilferding , joined the Society in 1910 and the following year she was joined by Tatiana Rosenthal and Sabina Spielrein who were both Russian psychiatrists and graduates of
6307-625: The Zürich University medical school. Before the completion of her studies, Spielrein had been a patient of Jung at the Burghölzli and the clinical and personal details of their relationship became the subject of an extensive correspondence between Freud and Jung. Both women would go on to make important contributions to the work of the Russian Psychoanalytic Society founded in 1910. Freud's early followers met together formally for
6426-452: The achievement of a full psychoanalysis. Mark Kanzer/Jules Glenn, Freud and His Patients (1980) Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( / f r ɔɪ d / FROYD ; German: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfrɔʏt] ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud ; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis , a clinical method for evaluating and treating pathologies seen as originating from conflicts in
6545-1042: The approach of his friend and collaborator, Josef Breuer , in a type of hypnosis that was different from the French methods he had studied, in that it did not use suggestion. The treatment of one particular patient of Breuer's proved to be transformative for Freud's clinical practice. Described as Anna O. , she was invited to talk about her symptoms while under hypnosis (she would coin the phrase " talking cure "). Her symptoms became reduced in severity as she retrieved memories of traumatic incidents associated with their onset. The inconsistent results of Freud's early clinical work eventually led him to abandon hypnosis, having concluded that more consistent and effective symptom relief could be achieved by encouraging patients to talk freely, without censorship or inhibition, about whatever ideas or memories occurred to them. He called this procedure " free association ". In conjunction with this, Freud found that patients' dreams could be fruitfully analyzed to reveal
6664-410: The biological disease was much more prevalent in the population due to its "simple" and "latent" forms. Bleuler's changes to Kraepelin's dementia praecox were accepted by countries such as Switzerland and Britain. However, some countries, such as Germany, did not accept these changes at first. Bleuler's concept of schizophrenia was pushed aside due to its similarities to Kraepelin's dementia praecox. It
6783-420: The brains of humans with those of other vertebrates such as frogs, lampreys as well as also invertebrates, for example crayfish . His research work on the biology of nervous tissue proved seminal for the subsequent discovery of the neuron in the 1890s. Freud's research work was interrupted in 1879 by the obligation to undertake a year's compulsory military service. The lengthy downtimes enabled him to complete
6902-550: The break finally came in 1926 when Rank resigned from his official posts in the IPA and left Vienna for Paris. His place on the committee was taken by Anna Freud . Rank eventually settled in the United States where his revisions of Freudian theory were to influence a new generation of therapists uncomfortable with the orthodoxies of the IPA. After the founding of the IPA in 1910, an international network of psychoanalytical societies, training institutes, and clinics became well established and
7021-517: The building. It was forced to close in 1931 for economic reasons. The 1910 Moscow Psychoanalytic Society became the Russian Psychoanalytic Society and Institute in 1922. Freud's Russian followers were the first to benefit from translations of his work, the 1904 Russian translation of The Interpretation of Dreams appearing nine years before Brill's English edition. The Russian Institute was unique in receiving state support for its activities, including publication of translations of Freud's works. Support
7140-441: The case lasted longer than it actually did. He also said Freud claimed in a lecture to be able to guess the name of the Rat Man's girlfriend, Gisela, from an anagram, Glejisamen , which the patient had invented. Actually, the notes show Freud had learned her name first, and then used it to deduce the meaning of the anagram, although in the actual case study Freud merely states that "when he told it to me, I could not help noticing that
7259-419: The case study, he claimed of the Rat Man that "he is facing life with courage and ability. The one point that still gives him trouble ( father-complex and transference) has shown up clearly in my conversations with this intelligent and grateful man" – a not insignificant reservation. But while Freud in the case-history had certainly claimed that "the patient's rat delirium had disappeared", he had also pointed out
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#17328760945617378-442: The complex structuring of unconscious material and to demonstrate the psychic action of repression which, he had concluded, underlay symptom formation. By 1896 he was using the term " psychoanalysis " to refer to his new clinical method and the theories on which it was based. Freud's development of these new theories took place during a period in which he experienced heart irregularities, disturbing dreams and periods of depression,
7497-575: The death of her fiancé. The close relationship she formed with Freud led to rumours, started by Carl Jung , of an affair. The discovery of a Swiss hotel guest-book entry for 13 August 1898, signed by Freud whilst travelling with his sister-in-law, has been presented as evidence of the affair. Freud began smoking tobacco at age 24; initially a cigarette smoker, he became a cigar smoker. He believed smoking enhanced his capacity to work and that he could exercise self-control in moderating it. Despite health warnings from colleague Wilhelm Fliess , he remained
7616-437: The enhanced status of "professor ordinarius" in 1920). Despite support from the university, his appointment had been blocked in successive years by the political authorities and it was secured only with the intervention of an influential ex-patient, Baroness Marie Ferstel, who (supposedly) had to bribe the minister of education with a valuable painting. Freud continued with the regular series of lectures on his work which, since
7735-403: The etiology of what was then called the "actual neuroses," primarily neurasthenia and certain physically manifested anxiety symptoms. They maintained an extensive correspondence from which Freud drew on Fliess's speculations on infantile sexuality and bisexuality to elaborate and revise his own ideas. His first attempt at a systematic theory of the mind, his Project for a Scientific Psychology ,
7854-507: The existence of libido , sexualised energy with which mental processes and structures are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and a death drive , the source of compulsive repetition, hate, aggression, and neurotic guilt. In his later work, Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology , psychiatry , psychotherapy , and across
7973-417: The expense of analyzing the negative transference , Freud merely achieved a temporary transference cure. Lacan for his part concluded that although he did not "regard the Rat Man as a case that Freud cured", in it "Freud made the fundamental discoveries, which we are still living off, concerning the dynamics and structure of obsessional neurosis". In a letter Freud wrote to Jung , shortly after publication of
8092-503: The experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less financially promising career in neurology research. Charcot specialized in the study of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience. Once he had set up in private practice in Vienna in 1886, Freud began using hypnosis in his clinical work. He adopted
8211-503: The first time at the Hotel Bristol, Salzburg on 27 April 1908. This meeting, which was retrospectively deemed to be the first International Psychoanalytic Congress, was convened at the suggestion of Ernest Jones , then a London-based neurologist who had discovered Freud's writings and begun applying psychoanalytic methods in his clinical work. Jones had met Jung at a conference the previous year and they met up again in Zürich to organize
8330-431: The formation of sexual identity. The same year he published Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria , which became one of his more famous and controversial case studies . Known as the 'Dora' case study, for Freud it was illustrative of hysteria as a symptom and contributed to his understanding of the importance of transference as a clinical phenomena. In other of his early case studies Freud set out to describe
8449-406: The greatest regard for his fiancée and that his revered father had been dead for some years. Freud theorized that these obsessive ideas and similar thoughts were produced by conflicts consisting of the combination of loving and aggressive impulses relating to the people concerned – what Eugen Bleuler later called ambivalence . The Rat Man often defended himself against his own thoughts. He had had
8568-454: The group. This new formation was initially called Society for Free Psychoanalysis but it was soon renamed the Society for Individual Psychology . In the period after World War I, Adler became increasingly associated with a psychological position he devised called individual psychology . In 1912, Jung published Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido (published in English in 1916 as Psychology of
8687-532: The integrity of the study. While researching further, Bleuler made several conclusions that differed from Rudin's. First, that the schizophrenic gene was not a dominant trait. Second, the disease involves a dihybrid, complex gene and does not include a monohybrid gene. Bleuler also said that there may be a polymorphic aspect to schizophrenia, meaning it presents itself in different forms. Bleuler found that in order for schizophrenia to present itself in patients, several elements must come together. He found that there are
8806-414: The intellectual functions of the personality. He favored early discharge from hospital into a community environment to avoid institutionalization . Bleuler also explored the concept of moral idiocy , and the relationship between neurosis and alcoholism . He followed Freud's perspective of seeing sexuality as a potent influence upon anxiety , pondered on the origins of the sense of guilt, and studied
8925-418: The invitation of Stanley Hall , president of Clark University , Worcester, Massachusetts, where he gave five lectures on psychoanalysis. The event, at which Freud was awarded an Honorary Doctorate, marked the first public recognition of Freud's work and attracted widespread media interest. Freud's audience included the distinguished neurologist and psychiatrist James Jackson Putnam , Professor of Diseases of
9044-452: The limited time and depth of the analysis: "The patient recovered, and his ordinary life began to assert its claims...which were incompatible with a continuation of the treatment". As the average length of time expected of an analysis increased from months to years over the 20th century, so too the success of the Rat Man's case has perhaps come to resemble rather the symptomatic relief of brief psychotherapy or focal psychotherapy , more than
9163-496: The maintenance of others, if natural selection is generally suppressed, then unless we will get new measures our race must rapidly deteriorate. In 1917, Bleuler discussed the heredity involved in schizophrenia after psychiatrist Ernst Rudin published his findings. Bleuler agreed with Rudin that having a family member with schizophrenia increases an individual's chance of also having the disease. However, Bleuler found that Rudin's study did not use sufficient sampling methods, threatening
9282-400: The man's name was Paul Lorenz . Lanzer first came to Freud in October 1907 complaining of obsessive fears and compulsive impulses . Freud treated his patient for a little over three months on a regular daily basis. The treatment was irregular for the next three months and sporadic, at best, after that. Lanzer's principal fear was that something terrible was going to happen to his father and
9401-539: The mental asylum in Rheinau. He served as the director from the years 1898 to 1927. While working at this asylum, Bleuler cared for long-term psychiatric patients. He also implemented both psychoanalytic treatment and research, and was influenced by Sigmund Freud. During his time as the director of psychiatry at Burghölzli, Bleuler made great contributions to the field of psychiatry and psychology that made him known today. Given these findings, Bleuler has been described as one of
9520-412: The mid-1880s as a docent of Vienna University, he had been delivering to small audiences every Saturday evening at the lecture hall of the university's psychiatric clinic. From the autumn of 1902, a number of Viennese physicians who had expressed interest in Freud's work were invited to meet at his apartment every Wednesday afternoon to discuss issues relating to psychology and neuropathology. This group
9639-403: The most formidable intellect among the early Freud circle, was a socialist who in 1898 had written a health manual for the tailoring trade. He was particularly interested in the potential social impact of psychiatry. Max Graf , a Viennese musicologist and father of " Little Hans ", who had first encountered Freud in 1900 and joined the Wednesday group soon after its initial inception, described
9758-651: The most influential Swiss psychiatrists. Following his interest in hypnotism , especially in its "introspective" variant, Bleuler became interested in Sigmund Freud's work. He favorably reviewed Josef Breuer and Freud's Studies on Hysteria . Like Freud, Bleuler believed that complex mental processes could be unconscious. He encouraged his staff at the Burghölzli to study unconscious and psychotic mental phenomena. Influenced by Bleuler, Carl Jung and Franz Riklin used word association tests to integrate Freud's theory of repression with empirical psychological findings. As
9877-488: The nature of his disastrous role, and in subsequent letters maintained a tactful silence on the matter or else returned to the face-saving topic of Eckstein's hysteria. Freud ultimately, in light of Eckstein's history of adolescent self-cutting and irregular nasal (and menstrual) bleeding, concluded that Fliess was "completely without blame", as Eckstein's post-operative haemorrhages were hysterical "wish-bleedings" linked to "an old wish to be loved in her illness" and triggered as
9996-427: The patient's many compulsions was an obsession with nightmarish fantasies about rats. To protect the anonymity of patients, psychoanalytic case studies usually withheld or disguised the names of the individuals concerned ( Anna O. , Little Hans , Wolf Man , Dora , etc.). Recent researchers have determined that the "Rat Man" was in fact a lawyer named Ernst Lanzer (1878–1914)—though many other sources maintain that
10115-468: The patient. Bleuler defined primary symptoms as those that are directly related to neurobiological processes. He defined secondary symptoms as behavioral reactions to primary symptoms. Differentiating these symptoms contributed to an increased understanding of schizophrenia in general. Like Kraepelin, Bleuler argued that dementia praecox, or "the schizophrenias", was a physical disease process characterized by exacerbations and remissions. He argued that no one
10234-413: The plagiarism of his work. After Fliess failed to respond to Freud's offer of collaboration over the publication of his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in 1906, their relationship came to an end. In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a three-month fellowship to study with Jean-Martin Charcot , a renowned neurologist who was conducting scientific research into hypnosis . He was later to recall
10353-406: The prevailing clinical and theoretical mainstream because of their ambitions to develop radical new theories of sexuality. Fliess developed highly eccentric theories of human biorhythms and a nasogenital connection which are today considered pseudoscientific. He shared Freud's views on the importance of certain aspects of sexuality – masturbation , coitus interruptus , and the use of condoms – in
10472-406: The problem of paying for them, combined with the impact of a story he heard from a fellow officer about a torture wherein rats would eat their way into the anal cavity of the victim. The patient then felt a compulsion to imagine that this fate was befalling two people dear to him, specifically his father and his fiancée. The irrational nature of this obsession is revealed by the fact that the man had
10591-510: The process of what he defined as switching (the affective shift from love to hate, for example). Bleuler was known for his clinical observation and willingness to let symptoms speak for themselves. He was also known for his skillful expository writings. Bleuler has never been credited with healing his patients. Like Sigmund Freud he experimented on patients in his care; many were sterilised and many committed suicide. Later in his life, Bleuler studied and published works on psychoids. He defined
10710-460: The psychoanalytic movement. Formed in the autumn of 1912, the Committee comprised Freud, Jones, Abraham, Ferenczi, Rank, and Hanns Sachs . Max Eitingon joined the Committee in 1919. Each member pledged himself not to make any public departure from the fundamental tenets of psychoanalytic theory before he had discussed his views with the others. After this development, Jung recognised that his position
10829-406: The psychoid as the capacity to respond and adapt to stimuli, creating permanent changes in the brain and shaping future reactions. Bleuler believed the psychoid to be a cause of psychic development. He also proposed that social, mental, and physical aspects of life are not separate from each other but instead are seen as aspects of a sole life principle. These ideas were not particularly popular among
10948-474: The results of a successful psychoanalysis. The case study was published in 1909 in Germany. Freud saw the Rat Man patient for some six months despite later claiming the treatment lasted about a year. He considered the treatment a success. The patient presented with obsessional thoughts and with behaviors that he felt compelled to carry out, which had been precipitated by the loss/replacement of his pince-nez and
11067-409: The ritual and atmosphere of the early meetings of the society: The gatherings followed a definite ritual. First one of the members would present a paper. Then, black coffee and cakes were served; cigars and cigarettes were on the table and were consumed in great quantities. After a social quarter of an hour, the discussion would begin. The last and decisive word was always spoken by Freud himself. There
11186-453: The symptomatology of obsessional neurosis in the case of the Rat man , and phobia in the case of Little Hans . In 1902, Freud, at last, realised his long-standing ambition to be made a university professor. The title "professor extraordinarius" was important to Freud for the recognition and prestige it conferred, there being no salary or teaching duties attached to the post (he would be granted
11305-604: The theory of infantile sexual trauma as a general explanation of how all neuroses originate to one that presupposes autonomous infantile sexuality provided the basis for Freud's subsequent formulation of the theory of the Oedipus complex . Freud described the evolution of his clinical method and set out his theory of the psychogenetic origins of hysteria, demonstrated in several case histories, in Studies on Hysteria published in 1895 (co-authored with Josef Breuer ). In 1899, he published The Interpretation of Dreams in which, following
11424-482: The time, and also because he was overwhelmed by the "wealth of ideas" he encountered when he read Nietzsche. Freud sometimes would deny the influence of Nietzsche's ideas. One historian quotes Peter L. Rudnytsky, who says that based on Freud's correspondence with his adolescent friend Eduard Silberstein, Freud read Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy and probably the first two of the Untimely Meditations when he
11543-453: The tissue of phantasies, verbal associations and symbolic meanings in which he was trapped. Freud believed that they had their origin in the Rat Man's sexual experiences of infancy, in particular harsh punishment for childhood masturbation , and the vicissitudes of sexual curiosity. In the theoretical second part of the case study, Freud elaborates on such defence mechanisms as rationalization , doubt , undoing and displacement . In
11662-544: The tissue of the nose and genitalia were linked, was curable by removal of part of the middle turbinate . Fliess's surgery proved disastrous, resulting in profuse, recurrent nasal bleeding; he had left a half-metre of gauze in Eckstein's nasal cavity whose subsequent removal left her permanently disfigured. At first, though aware of Fliess's culpability and regarding the remedial surgery in horror, Freud could bring himself only to intimate delicately in his correspondence with Fliess
11781-402: The tradition, he came to be known for his Torah study . He and Freud's mother, Amalia Nathansohn , who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in a rented room, in a locksmith's house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul , which his mother saw as
11900-437: The unconscious probably helped introduce Freud to the concept. Freud owned and made use of Charles Darwin 's major evolutionary writings and was also influenced by Eduard von Hartmann 's The Philosophy of the Unconscious (1869). Other texts of importance to Freud were by Fechner and Herbart , with the latter's Psychology as Science arguably considered to be of underrated significance in this respect. Freud also drew on
12019-511: The withdrawal of Adler and Jung from it. The final defection from Freud's inner circle occurred following the publication in 1924 of Rank's The Trauma of Birth which other members of the Committee read as, in effect, abandoning the Oedipus Complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytic theory. Abraham and Jones became increasingly forceful critics of Rank and though he and Freud were reluctant to end their close and long-standing relationship
12138-503: The word was in fact an anagram of the name of his lady". Critics have objected to Freud's downplaying of the role of the Rat Man's mother, and for several deviations on his part from what later became standard psychoanalytic practice. Mahoney accepted that Freud obtained a degree of success in restoring his patient to functional life, though he considered Freud exaggerated the extent of this in his case study. Others have suggested that by concentrating on building rapport with his patient, at
12257-544: The work of Theodor Lipps , who was one of the main contemporary theorists of the concepts of the unconscious and empathy. Though Freud was reluctant to associate his psychoanalytic insights with prior philosophical theories, attention has been drawn to analogies between his work and that of both Schopenhauer and Nietzsche . In 1908, Freud said that he occasionally read Nietzsche, and was strongly fascinated by his writings, but did not study him, because he found Nietzsche's "intuitive insights" resembled too much his own work at
12376-502: The world that psychoanalysis could achieve successful therapeutic results. Because the Rat Man previously consulted Julius von Wagner-Jauregg , Freud's eminent psychiatric colleague at the University of Vienna , the case was a particularly critical test of Freud's therapeutic abilities. Before October 1908, when he communicated this case history at the first International Psychoanalytic Congress in Salzburg, Austria , Freud had yet to publish
12495-475: Was a Swiss psychiatrist and humanist most notable for his contributions to the understanding of mental illness . He coined several psychiatric terms including " schizophrenia ", " schizoid ", " autism ", depth psychology and what Sigmund Freud called "Bleuler's happily chosen term ambivalence ". Bleuler was born in Zollikon , a town near Zürich in Switzerland, to Johann Rudolf Bleuler (1823–1898),
12614-484: Was abruptly annulled in 1924, when Joseph Stalin came to power, after which psychoanalysis was denounced on ideological grounds. After helping found the American Psychoanalytic Association in 1911, Ernest Jones returned to Britain from Canada in 1913 and founded the London Psychoanalytic Society. In 1919, he dissolved this organisation and, with its core membership purged of Jungian adherents, founded
12733-434: Was advocated by Bleuler. He argued that racial deterioration would result from the propagation of "mental and physical cripples" In his Textbook of Psychiatry , Bleuler states, The more severely burdened should not propagate themselves...If we do nothing but make mental and physical cripples capable of propagating themselves, and the healthy stocks have to limit the number of their children because so much has to be done for
12852-455: Was born to Ashkenazi Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg , in the Austrian Empire (in Czech Příbor, now Czech Republic ), the first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia . His father, Jakob Freud , a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakob's family were Hasidic Jews and, although Jakob himself had moved away from
12971-476: Was called the Wednesday Psychological Society ( Psychologische Mittwochs-Gesellschaft ) and it marked the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement. Freud founded this discussion group at the suggestion of the physician Wilhelm Stekel . Stekel had studied medicine; his conversion to psychoanalysis is variously attributed to his successful treatment by Freud for a sexual problem or as
13090-806: Was developed as a metapsychology with Fliess as interlocutor. However, Freud's efforts to build a bridge between neurology and psychology were eventually abandoned after they had reached an impasse, as his letters to Fliess reveal, though some ideas of the Project were to be taken up again in the concluding chapter of The Interpretation of Dreams . Freud had Fliess repeatedly operate on his nose and sinuses to treat "nasal reflex neurosis", and subsequently referred his patient Emma Eckstein to him. According to Freud, her history of symptoms included severe leg pains with consequent restricted mobility, as well as stomach and menstrual pains. These pains were, according to Fliess's theories, caused by habitual masturbation which, as
13209-462: Was ever completely "cured" of schizophrenia; there was always some sort of lasting cognitive weakness or defect that was manifest in behavior. Unlike Kraepelin, Bleuler believed that the overall prognosis was not uniformly grim. He believed "dementia" was a secondary symptom not directly caused by the underlying biological process. There were three other "fundamental symptoms" that included deficits in associations, affectivity, and ambivalence. He believed
13328-473: Was initiated into the German Jewish cultural association B'nai B'rith , to which he remained linked for all his life. Freud gave a speech on the interpretation of dreams, which had an enthusiastic reception. It anticipated the book of the same name , which was published for the first time two years later. In 1896, Minna Bernays, Martha Freud's sister, became a permanent member of the Freud household after
13447-544: Was only widely accepted after Kraepelin's disease classification did not have direct evidence nor was it directly expressed in his patients. In 1911, Bleuler wrote, "When the disease process flares up, it is more correct, in my view, to talk in terms of deteriorating attacks, rather than its recurrence. Of course the term recurrence is more comforting to a patient and his relatives than the notion of progressively deteriorating attacks". The eugenic sterilization of persons diagnosed with (and viewed as predisposed to) schizophrenia
13566-452: Was seventeen. Freud bought Nietzsche's collected works in 1900; telling Wilhelm Fliess that he hoped to find in Nietzsche's works "the words for much that remains mute in me." Later, he said he had not yet opened them. Freud came to treat Nietzsche's writings, according to Peter Gay, "as texts to be resisted far more than to be studied." His interest in philosophy declined after he decided on
13685-473: Was the atmosphere of the foundation of a religion in that room. Freud himself was its new prophet who made the heretofore prevailing methods of psychological investigation appear superficial. By 1906, the group had grown to sixteen members, including Otto Rank , who was employed as the group's paid secretary. In the same year, Freud began a correspondence with Carl Gustav Jung who was by then already an academically acclaimed researcher into word-association and
13804-574: Was the director in Vienna. In the same year, his medical textbook, Outline of Internal Medicine for Students and Practicing Physicians , was published. In it, he provided an outline of Freud's psychoanalytic method. Kahane broke with Freud and left the Wednesday Psychological Society in 1907 for unknown reasons and in 1923 committed suicide. Reitler was the director of an establishment providing thermal cures in Dorotheergasse which had been founded in 1901. He died prematurely in 1917. Adler, regarded as
13923-617: Was the last Freud attended. By this time his speech had become seriously impaired by the prosthetic device he needed as a result of a series of operations on his cancerous jaw. He kept abreast of developments through regular correspondence with his principal followers and via the circular letters and meetings of the Secret Committee which he continued to attend. Eugen Bleuler Paul Eugen Bleuler ( / ˈ b l ɔɪ l ər / BLOY -lər , Swiss Standard German: [ˈɔʏɡeːn ˈblɔʏlər, ˈɔʏɡn̩ -] ; 30 April 1857 – 15 July 1939)
14042-576: Was translated into English in 1950 (by Joseph Zinkin). Bleuler distinguished between positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Positive symptoms include symptoms not found in unaffected people, such as hallucinations or delusions. Negative symptoms describe the absence of typical experiences such as social withdrawal or lack of pleasure. Bleuler also distinguished between basic and accessory symptoms as well as primary and secondary symptoms. Basic symptoms are those that are present in every case of schizophrenia, whereas accessory symptoms vary depending on
14161-534: Was untenable and resigned as editor of the Jahrbuch and then as president of the IPA in April 1914. The Zürich branch of the IPA withdrew from membership the following July. Later the same year, Freud published a paper entitled " The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement ", the German original being first published in the Jahrbuch , giving his view on the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic movement and
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