87-458: The Humours of an Election is a series of four oil paintings and later engravings by William Hogarth that illustrate the election of a member of parliament in Oxfordshire in 1754. The oil paintings were created in 1755. The first three paintings, An Election Entertainment , Canvassing for Votes and The Polling , demonstrate the corruption endemic in parliamentary elections in
174-423: A farthing of 1672 (see Depiction on British coinage and postage stamps below). With the constitutional unification of England with Scotland in 1707 and then with Ireland in 1800, Britannia became an increasingly important symbol and a strong rallying point among Britons. British power, which depended on a liberal political system and the supremacy of the navy , lent these attributes to the image of Britannia. By
261-571: A personification of Britain. In his 1576 "General and rare memorials pertayning to the Perfect Arte of Navigation", John Dee used a frontispiece figure of Britannia kneeling by the shore beseeching Elizabeth I, to protect her empire by strengthening her navy. With the death of Elizabeth in 1603 came the succession of her Scottish cousin, James VI, King of Scots, to the English throne. He became James I of England, and so brought under his personal rule
348-407: A " size " to isolate the canvas from the acidic qualities of the paint. Traditionally, the canvas was coated with a layer of animal glue (modern painters will use rabbit skin glue) as the size and primed with lead white paint, sometimes with added chalk. Panels were prepared with a gesso , a mixture of glue and chalk. Modern acrylic " gesso " is made of titanium dioxide with an acrylic binder. It
435-472: A canvas and can also be used for application. Oil paint remains wet longer than many other types of artists' materials, enabling the artist to change the color, texture, or form of the figure. At times, the painter might even remove an entire layer of paint and begin anew. This can be done with a rag and some turpentine for a time while the paint is wet, but after a while the hardened layer must be scraped off. Oil paint dries by oxidation , not evaporation , and
522-495: A complicated and rather expensive process with the panel constructed from several pieces of wood, although such support tends to warp. Panels continued to be used well into the 17th century, including by Rubens , who painted several large works on wood. The artists of the Italian regions moved towards canvas in the early 16th century, led partly by a wish to paint larger images, which would have been too heavy as panels. Canvas for sails
609-446: A difference. For example, a "round" is a pointed brush used for detail work. "Flat" brushes are used to apply broad swaths of color. "Bright" is a flat brush with shorter brush hairs, used for "scrubbing in". "Filbert" is a flat brush with rounded corners. "Egbert" is a very long, and rare, filbert brush. The artist might also apply paint with a palette knife, which is a flat metal blade. A palette knife may also be used to remove paint from
696-470: A medium of drying oil as the binder . It has been the most common technique for artistic painting on canvas , wood panel or copper for several centuries, spreading from Europe to the rest of the world. The advantages of oil for painting images include "greater flexibility, richer and denser color, the use of layers, and a wider range from light to dark". But the process is slower, especially when one layer of paint needs to be allowed to dry before another
783-419: A mount triangular, as the island of Britain itself is described to be, we seat in the supreme place, under the shape of a fair and beautiful nymph, Britannia herself... Britain's first road atlas was updated in a series of editions titled from the early 18th into the early 19th century using the title Britannia Depicta . During the reign of Charles II , Britannia made her first appearance on English coins on
870-581: A new definitive £2 coin was issued, with a new image of Britannia. She is also depicted in the Brit Awards statuette, the British Phonographic Industry 's annual music awards. The first writer to use a form of the name was the Greek explorer and geographer Pytheas in the 4th century BC. Pytheas referred to Prettanike or Brettaniai , a group of islands off the coast of North-Western Europe. In
957-545: A series of prints. The painting depicts a tavern dinner organised by the Whig candidates, while the Tories protest outside. The Tories are carrying an antisemitic caricature of a Jew, a reference to Jewish Naturalisation Act 1753 recently passed by the Whig government . A Tory banner containing the words " Give us our Eleven days ", a protest against the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 ,
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#17330855874571044-507: A studio, because while outside, an artist did not have the time to let each layer of paint dry before adding a new layer. Several contemporary artists use a combination of both techniques to add bold color (wet-on-wet) and obtain the depth of layers through glazing. When the image is finished and has dried for up to a year, an artist often seals the work with a layer of varnish that is typically made from dammar gum crystals dissolved in turpentine. Such varnishes can be removed without disturbing
1131-490: A surge of new restaurants and hotels. Cool Britannia represented late-1990s Britain as a fashionable place to be. Britannia is sometimes used in political cartoons to symbol the United Kingdom's relationship with other countries. Although the archetypical image of Britannia seated with a shield first appeared on Roman bronze coins of the 1st century AD struck under Hadrian , Britannia's first appearance on British coinage
1218-614: A tactile, almost sculptural quality, was groundbreaking at the time and had a lasting impact on 20th-century movements such as Expressionism and Fauvism. His iconic works like Starry Night and Sunflowers showcase his emotional intensity, using exaggerated colors and dramatic compositions to convey psychological depth. Early 20th-century Expressionists, such as Edvard Munch and Ernst Ludwig Kirchner , were inspired by Van Gogh’s ability to express inner turmoil and existential angst through distorted forms and vibrant hues. Britannia Britannia ( / b r ɪ ˈ t æ n i ə / )
1305-455: A white garment with her right breast exposed. She is usually shown seated on a rock, holding a trident, and with a spiked shield propped beside her. Sometimes she holds a standard and leans on the shield. On another range of coinage, she is seated on a globe above waves: Britain at the edge of the (known) world. Similar coin types were also issued under Antoninus Pius . After the Roman withdrawal ,
1392-636: A wide range of pigments and ingredients and even include the use of a final varnish layer. The application technique and refined level of the paint media used in the murals and their survival into the present day suggest that oil paints had been used in Asia for some time before the 7th century. The technique used, of binding pigments in oil, was unknown in Europe for another 900 years or so. In Northern Europe, practitioners of Early Netherlandish painting developed oil painting techniques which other Europeans adopted from around
1479-633: A wider hegemony in Britain and hyperbolic inscriptions on coins and titles in charters often included the equivalent title rex Britanniae . However, when England was unified the title used was rex Angulsaxonum ('king of the Anglo-Saxons'). After centuries of declining use, the Latin form was revived during the English Renaissance as a rhetorical evocation of a British national identity. Especially following
1566-518: A woman of colour. A figure of Britannia appeared on the "white fiver" (a five pound note printed in black and white) from 1855 for more than a century, until 1957. From 1928 "Britannia Series A" ten shilling and one pound notes were printed with a seated Britannia bearing both a spear and an olive branch. The 25 cents fractional paper currency of the Dominion of Canada (1870, 1900 and 1923 respectively) all depict Britannia. Britannia also featured on
1653-504: A youth, he also had taken the King's sons back to Rome as obsides and to be educated. The Roman conquest of the island began in AD 43, leading to the establishment of the Roman province known in Latin as Britannia . The Romans never successfully conquered the whole island, building Hadrian's Wall as a boundary with Caledonia , which covered roughly the territory of modern Scotland , although
1740-594: Is applied. The oldest known oil paintings were created by Buddhist artists in Afghanistan and date back to the 7th century AD. Oil paint was used by Europeans for painting statues and woodwork from at least the 12th century, but its common use for painted images began with Early Netherlandish painting in Northern Europe, and by the height of the Renaissance , oil painting techniques had almost completely replaced
1827-453: Is being challenged because he is placing his hook, rather than his hand, as legally prescribed, on the book as he swears to his voter identity. Meanwhile, the Tories are bringing a mentally disabled man to vote. A dying man is being carried in behind him. In the background a woman in a carriage with a broken axle stands for Britannia . Her coachmen are gambling, ignoring the fact that the carriage
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#17330855874571914-454: Is broken. One of the victorious Tory candidates is being carried through the streets on a chair in a traditional ceremony. He is about to tumble down because one of his carriers has just been accidentally hit on the head by a flail carried by a Tory-supporting rural labourer who is attempting to fight off a Whig supporter (an old sailor with a bear). The Whig supporters can be seen wearing orange cockades . A group of frightened pigs run across
2001-466: Is divided into separate "runs" for figures ( figure ), landscapes ( paysage ), and marines ( marine ) that more or less preserve the diagonal. Thus a 0 figure corresponds in height with a paysage 1 and a marine 2 . Although surfaces like linoleum , wooden panel , paper , slate , pressed wood , Masonite , and cardboard have been used, the most popular surface since the 16th century has been canvas , although many artists used panel through
2088-461: Is frequently used on canvas, whereas real gesso is not suitable for canvas. The artist might apply several layers of gesso, sanding each smooth after it has dried. Acrylic gesso is very difficult to sand. One manufacturer makes a "sandable" acrylic gesso, but it is intended for panels only and not canvas. It is possible to make the gesso a particular color, but most store-bought gesso is white. The gesso layer, depending on its thickness, will tend to draw
2175-689: Is made by mixing pigments of colors with an oil medium. Since the 19th century the different main colors are purchased in paint tubes pre-prepared before painting begins, further shades of color are usually obtained by mixing small quantities as the painting process is underway. An artist's palette , traditionally a thin wood board held in the hand, is used for holding and mixing paints. Pigments may be any number of natural or synthetic substances with color, such as sulfides for yellow or cobalt salts for blue. Traditional pigments were based on minerals or plants, but many have proven unstable over long periods. Modern pigments often use synthetic chemicals. The pigment
2262-417: Is made from linen , but less expensive cotton fabric has been used. The artist first prepares a wooden frame called a "stretcher" or "strainer". The difference between the two names is that stretchers are slightly adjustable, while strainers are rigid and lack adjustable corner notches. The canvas is then pulled across the wooden frame and tacked or stapled tightly to the back edge. Then the artist applies
2349-719: Is mixed with oil, usually linseed, but other oils may be used. The various oils dry differently, which creates assorted effects. A brush is most commonly employed by the artist to apply the paint, often over a sketched outline of their subject (which could be in another medium). Brushes are made from a variety of fibers to create different effects. For example, brushes made with hog bristles might be used for bolder strokes and impasto textures. Fitch hair and mongoose hair brushes are fine and smooth, and thus answer well for portraits and detail work. Even more expensive are red sable brushes ( weasel hair). The finest quality brushes are called " kolinsky sable "; these brush fibers are taken from
2436-403: Is on the tavern floor. In the tavern the two Whig candidates are ingratiating themselves with supporters. One candidate is kissing a conventionally unattractive woman, while a girl tries to steal his ring; the other is listening to a drunken bore. At the other end of the table the mayor is collapsing from over indulgence in oysters, while the election agent is knocked out by a brick thrown through
2523-614: Is sometimes identified as Roger of Helmarshausen ) gives instructions for oil-based painting in his treatise, De diversis artibus ('on various arts'), written about 1125. At this period, it was probably used for painting sculptures, carvings, and wood fittings, perhaps especially for outdoor use. Surfaces exposed to the weather or of items like shields—both those used in tournaments and those hung as decorations—were more durable when painted in oil-based media than when painted in traditional tempera paints. However, early Netherlandish paintings with artists like Van Eyck and Robert Campin in
2610-648: Is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used by the Romans in classical antiquity , the Latin Britannia was the name variously applied to the British Isles , Great Britain , and the Roman province of Britain during the Roman Empire . Typically depicted reclining or seated with spear and shield since appearing thus on Roman coins of
2697-593: Is usually dry to the touch within two weeks (some colors dry within days). The earliest known surviving oil paintings are Buddhist murals created c. 650 AD in Bamiyan , Afghanistan. Bamiyan is a historic settlement along the Silk Road and is famous for the Bamiyan Buddhas, a series of giant statues, behind which rooms and tunnels are carved from the rock. The murals are located in these rooms. The artworks display
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2784-543: The Acts of Union in 1707, which joined the Kingdoms of England and Scotland , the personification of the martial Britannia was used as an emblem of British maritime power and unity, most notably in the patriotic song " Rule, Britannia! ". A British cultural icon, she was featured on all modern British coinage series until the redesign in 2008, and still appears annually on the gold and silver " Britannia " bullion coin series. In 2015
2871-533: The British halfpenny coin throughout the rest of the 17th century and thereafter until 1936. The halfpennies issued during the reign of Queen Anne have Britannia closely resembling the queen herself. When the Bank of England was granted a charter in 1694, the directors decided within days that the device for their official seal should represent 'Brittannia sitting on looking on a Bank of Mony' (sic). Britannia also appeared on
2958-532: The British lion devouring the French fleur-de-lis . A woman sits on it looking at her bribes. The sailors on the right are re-enacting a naval victory using pieces of broken clay pipe. Voters are shown declaring their support for the Whigs (orange) or Tories (blue). Agents from both sides are using unscrupulous tactics to increase their votes or challenge opposing voters. A Whig voter with a hook instead of his amputated hand
3045-629: The Clandestine Marriages Act 1753 ) have been added to the second banner. In the foreground a maimed soldier sits on the floor whilst a patron pours gin into his head wound. Sir John Parnell, 1st Baronet is seen seated below the window, using his hand and a napkin as a puppet. The composition of the scene parodies traditional images of the Last Supper and other Biblical feasts. This scene depicts Tory and Whig agents, both attempting to bribe an innkeeper to vote for them. The crowd outside
3132-566: The High Middle Ages . Following the migration of Brythonic Celts, the term Britannia also came to refer to the Armorican peninsula (at least from the 6th century). The modern English, French, Breton and Gallo names for the area, all derive from a literal use of Britannia meaning "land of the Britons". The two "Britannias" gave rise to the term Grande Bretagne (Great Britain) to distinguish
3219-464: The flax seed, a common fiber crop . Linen , a "support" for oil painting (see relevant section), also comes from the flax plant. Safflower oil or the walnut or poppyseed oil or Castor Oil are sometimes used in formulating lighter colors like white because they "yellow" less on drying than linseed oil, but they have the slight drawback of drying more slowly and may not provide the strongest paint film. Linseed oil tends to dry yellow and can change
3306-565: The penny coin between 1797 and 1967 , occasional issues such as the fourpence under William IV between 1836 and 1837, and on the 50 pence coin between 1969 and 2008. See "External Links" below for examples of all these coins and others. In the spring of 2008, the Royal Mint unveiled new coin designs "reflecting a more modern twenty-first century Britain" which do not feature the image of Britannia. The government pointed out, however, that earlier-design 50p coins will remain in circulation for
3393-543: The "mosaic" is completed and then left to dry before applying details. Artists in later periods, such as the Impressionist era (late 19th century), often expanded on this wet-on-wet method, blending the wet paint on the canvas without following the Renaissance-era approach of layering and glazing. This method is also called " alla prima ". This method was created due to the advent of painting outdoors, instead of inside
3480-458: The 17th century and beyond. The panel is more expensive, heavier, harder to transport, and prone to warp or split in poor conditions. For fine detail, however, the absolute solidity of a wooden panel has an advantage. Some artists are now painting directly onto prepared Aluminium Composite Material (ACM) panels. Others combine the perceived benefits of canvas and panel by gluing canvas onto panels made from ACM, Masonite or other material. Oil paint
3567-745: The 18th century, before the Great Reform Act . The last painting, Chairing the Member , shows the celebrations of the victorious Tory candidates and their supporters. At this time each constituency elected two MPs, and there was a property qualification for voters, so only a minority of the male population was enfranchised. There was no secret ballot , so bribery and intimidation were rife. However, this traditional view has been questioned by recent historians who observed lively local political participation in this time. The originals are held by Sir John Soane's Museum , London. The works were also reproduced as
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3654-735: The 1st century BC, Diodorus Siculus referred to Pretannia , a rendering of the indigenous name for the Pretani people whom the Greeks believed to inhabit the British Isles . Following the Greek usage, the Romans referred to the Insulae Britannicae in the plural, consisting of Albion (Great Britain), Hibernia (Ireland), Thule (possibly Iceland or Orkney ) and many smaller islands. Over time, Albion specifically came to be known as Britannia , and
3741-457: The 1st century BC, Britannia replaced Albion as the prevalent Latin name for the island of Great Britain . After the Roman conquest in 43 AD, Britannia came to refer to the Roman province that encompassed the southern two-thirds of the island (see Roman Britain ). The remaining third of the island, known to the Romans as Caledonia , lay north of the River Forth in modern Scotland . It
3828-529: The 2021 Britannia bullion coin range. The original 1987 coin design by Philip Nathan was enhanced with new security features. The Royal Mint claims this makes the Britannia "the world's most visually secure bullion coin." The security features include a latent image, micro-text, surface animation and tincture lines. In 2021, the Royal Mint issued a new range of commemorative coins featuring a redesigned Britannia as
3915-507: The 2nd century AD, the classical national allegory was revived in the early modern period . On coins of the pound sterling issued by Charles II of England, Scotland, and Ireland , Britannia appears with her shield bearing the Union Flag . To symbolise the Royal Navy 's victories, Britannia's spear became the characteristic trident in 1797, and a helmet was added to the coinage in 1825. By
4002-510: The Kingdoms of England (and the dominion of Wales), Ireland and Scotland . On 20 October 1604, James VI and I proclaimed himself as "King of Great Brittaine, France and Ireland", a title that continued to be used by many of his successors. When James came to the English throne, some elaborate pageants were staged. One pageant performed on the streets of London in 1605 was described in Anthony Munday 's Triumphs of Reunited Britannia : On
4089-460: The artist sketching the subject onto the canvas with charcoal or thinned paint. Oil paint is usually mixed with linseed oil, artist grade mineral spirits , or other solvents to make the paint thinner, faster or slower drying. (Because the solvents thin the oil in the paint, they can also be used to clean paint brushes.) A basic rule of oil paint application is ' fat over lean ', meaning that each additional layer of paint should contain more oil than
4176-461: The boundaries of traditional representational painting. Artists like Jackson Pollock drew inspiration from Monet’s large-scale canvases and his focus on the physical process of painting, using techniques that emphasized the action of creating art over the final product. Vincent van Gogh's influence on modern art is equally significant, particularly through his emotive use of color and texture. His impasto technique, where thick layers of paint create
4263-409: The canvas and to cover the white of the gesso. Many artists use this layer to sketch out the composition. This first layer can be adjusted before proceeding further, an advantage over the "cartooning" method used in fresco technique. After this layer dries, the artist might then proceed by painting a "mosaic" of color swatches, working from darkest to lightest. The borders of the colors are blended when
4350-451: The canvas when necessary. A variety of unconventional tools, such as rags, sponges, and cotton swabs, may be used to apply or remove paint. Some artists even paint with their fingers . Old masters usually applied paint in thin layers known as "glazes" that allow light to penetrate completely through the layer, a method also simply called "indirect painting". This technique is what gives oil paintings their luminous characteristics. This method
4437-490: The early and mid-15th century were the first to make oil the usual painting medium and explore the use of layers and glazes , followed by the rest of Northern Europe, and then Italy. Such works were painted on wooden panels , but towards the end of the 15th century canvas began to be used as a support , as it was cheaper, easier to transport, allowed larger works, and did not require complicated preliminary layers of gesso (a fine type of plaster). Venice , where sail-canvas
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#17330855874574524-414: The foreseeable future. Also Britannia still appeared on the gold and silver " Britannia " bullion coins issued annually by the Royal Mint. A new definitive £2 coin was issued in 2015, with a new image of Britannia. In late 2015, a limited edition (100000 run) £50 coin was produced, bearing the image of Britannia on one side and Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse. In October 2020, The Royal Mint released
4611-408: The heel of the emperor. She appeared on coins issued under Hadrian , as a more regal-looking female figure. Britannia was soon personified as a goddess, looking fairly similar to the goddess Athena - Minerva - both are seated and replete with helmet, spear (trident) and shield. Early portraits of the goddess depict Britannia as a beautiful young woman, wearing a Corinthian helmet , and wrapped in
4698-554: The high value Great Britain definitive postage stamps issued during the reign of George V (known as ' seahorses ') and is depicted on the £10 stamp first issued in 1993. The Britannia watermark has been widely used in papermaking, usually showing her seated. An example can be found at papermoulds.typepad.com Britannia is depicted in the Brit Award statuette, the British Phonographic Industry 's annual music awards. The statuette of Britannia has been regularly redesigned by some of
4785-437: The hue of the color. In some regions, this technique is referred to as the drying oil technique. Recent advances in chemistry have produced modern water miscible oil paints that can be used and cleaned up with water. Small alterations in the molecular structure of the oil create this water miscible property. The earliest oil paintings were almost all panel paintings on wood, which had been seasoned and prepared in
4872-540: The island of Britain from the continental peninsula. Following the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain , the term "Briton" only referred to the native British , Celtic-speaking inhabitants of the province; this remained the case until the modern era. The use of the term as an inhabitant of the island of Great Britain or the UK is relatively recent. It was during the reign of Elizabeth I that "Britannia" again came to be used as
4959-474: The late 15th century. From the Renaissance on, oil painting technology had almost completely replaced the earlier use of tempera paints in the majority of Europe. Most European Renaissance sources, in particular Vasari , falsely credit northern European painters of the 15th century, and Jan van Eyck in particular, with the invention of oil paints. However, Theophilus Presbyter (a pseudonymous author who
5046-427: The layer below to allow proper drying. If each additional layer contains less oil, the final painting will crack and peel. The consistency on the canvas depends on the layering of the oil paint. This rule does not ensure permanence; it is the quality and type of oil that leads to a strong and stable paint film. Other media can be used with the oil, including cold wax, resins, and varnishes. These additional media can aid
5133-510: The name for the group was subsequently dropped. Although the creation and unification of the province of Britannia is commonly attributed to the emperor Claudius in 43 AD, Julius Caesar had already established Roman authority over the Southern and Eastern Britain dynasties during his two expeditions to the island in 55 and 54 BC. Just as Caesar himself had been an obside , hostage, in Bithynia as
5220-484: The oil paint into the porous surface. Excessive or uneven gesso layers are sometimes visible on the surface of finished paintings as a change that's not from the paint. Standard sizes for oil paintings were set in France in the 19th century. The standards were used by most artists, not only the French, as it was—and still is—supported by the main suppliers of artists' materials. Size 0 ( toile de 0 ) to size 120 ( toile de 120 )
5307-435: The oil painting itself, to enable cleaning and conservation . Some contemporary artists decide not to varnish their work, preferring the surface unvarnished to avoid a glossy look. Oil painters such as Claude Monet and Vincent van Gogh revolutionized the medium in ways that profoundly shaped the evolution of modern art. Their groundbreaking innovations in technique, color, and form redefined traditional oil painting and set
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#17330855874575394-536: The oil, are also visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use several different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium. The oil may be boiled with a resin , such as pine resin or frankincense , to create a varnish to provide protection and texture. The paint itself can be molded into different textures depending on its plasticity . Traditional oil painting techniques often begin with
5481-487: The painted surface. Among the earliest impasto effects, using a raised or rough texture in the surface of the paint, are those from the later works of the Venetian painter Giovanni Bellini , around 1500. This became much more common in the 16th century, as many painters began to draw attention to the process of their painting, by leaving individual brushstrokes obvious, and a rough painted surface. Another Venetian, Titian ,
5568-481: The painter in adjusting the translucency of the paint, the sheen of the paint, the density or 'body' of the paint, and the ability of the paint to hold or conceal the brushstroke. These aspects of the paint are closely related to the expressive capacity of oil paint. Traditionally, paint was most often transferred to the painting surface using paintbrushes , but there are other methods, including using palette knives and rags. Palette knives can scrape off any paint from
5655-450: The previous method for painting on panel (tempera) had become all but extinct, although Italians continued to use chalk-based fresco for wall paintings, which was less successful and durable in damper northern climates. Renaissance techniques used several thin almost transparent layers or glazes , usually each allowed to dry before the next was added, greatly increasing the time a painting took. The underpainting or ground beneath these
5742-627: The range of painting media . This made portability difficult and kept most painting activities confined to the studio . This changed when tubes of oil paint became widely available following the American portrait painter John Goffe Rand 's invention of the squeezable or collapsible metal tube in 1841. Artists could mix colors quickly and easily, which enabled, for the first time, relatively convenient plein air painting (a common approach in French Impressionism ) The linseed oil itself comes from
5829-460: The scene in a reference to the story of the Gadarene swine . The Whig leaders watch from a nearby house. At the right two young chimney sweeps urinate on the bear. A black Briton , somewhat aghast, holds her passed-out mistress who is being given smelling salts by another attendant. Oil painting Oil painting is a painting method involving the procedure of painting with pigments with
5916-506: The south and Britannia Inferior ( lit. ' Lower Britain ' ) to the north. The name Britannia long survived the end of Roman rule in Britain in the 5th century and yielded the name for the island in most European and various other languages, including the English Britain and the modern Welsh Prydain . In the 9th century the associated terms Bretwalda and Brytenwealda were applied to some Anglo-Saxon kings to assert
6003-506: The stage for various art movements that followed. Their influence extends through Expressionism, Fauvism, Abstract Expressionism, and beyond, fundamentally altering how modern artists approach color, texture, and emotional expression. Monet’s works, especially his later series like Water Lilies , are considered a precursor to abstract art. His emphasis on capturing the transient effects of light and his near-abstraction of form in his late works, such as Water Lilies: The Clouds (1920), pushed
6090-596: The tail of the Siberian weasel . This hair keeps a superfine point, has smooth handling, and good memory (it returns to its original point when lifted off the canvas), known to artists as a brush's "snap". Floppy fibers with no snap, such as squirrel hair, are generally not used by oil painters. In the past few decades, many synthetic brushes have been marketed. These are very durable and can be quite good, as well as cost efficient . Brushes come in multiple sizes and are used for different purposes. The type of brush also makes
6177-405: The tavern is visible in the background. In a reference to the antisemitism of the crowd behind, a Jewish peddler is being employed by another agent who is offering jewels and ribbons to the wives of voters. On the margins of the composition a soldier (left) and two old sailors (right) represent uncorrupted patriotism. The soldier peeps out from behind a now-impotently decorative figurehead depicting
6264-478: The term Cool Britannia (drawn from a humorous version by the Bonzo Dog Band of the song " Rule Britannia ", with words by James Thomson [1700–1748], which is often used as an unofficial national anthem ), was used to describe the contemporary United Kingdom. The phrase referred to the fashionable scenes of the era, with a new generation of pop groups and style magazines, successful young fashion designers, and
6351-585: The term "Britannia" remained in use in Britain and abroad. Latin was ubiquitous amongst native Brythonic writers and the term continued in the Welsh tradition that developed from it. Writing with variations on the term Britannia (or Prydein in the native language) appeared in many Welsh works such as the Historia Britonum , Armes Prydein and the 12th-century Historia Regum Britanniae , which gained unprecedented popularity throughout western Europe during
6438-485: The time of Queen Victoria , Britannia had been renewed. Still depicted as a young woman with brown or golden hair, she kept her Corinthian helmet and her white robes, but now she held Neptune's trident and often sat or stood before the ocean and tall-masted ships representing British naval power. She also usually held or stood beside a Greek hoplite shield, which sported the British Union Flag : also at her feet
6525-569: The turn of the 20th century and still features in the New Zealand Coat of Arms . Perhaps the best analogy is that Britannia is to the United Kingdom and the British Empire what Marianne is to France or perhaps what Columbia is to the United States. Britannia became a very potent and more common figure in times of war, and represented British liberties and democracy. During the 1990s
6612-488: The use of egg tempera paints for panel paintings in most of Europe, though not for Orthodox icons or wall paintings, where tempera and fresco , respectively, remained the usual choice. Commonly used drying oils include linseed oil , poppy seed oil , walnut oil , and safflower oil . The choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the paint , such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. The paint could be thinned with turpentine . Certain differences, depending on
6699-613: The whole of the boundary marked by Hadrian's Wall lies within modern-day Northern England . A southern part of what is now Scotland was occupied by the Romans for about 20 years in the mid-2nd century AD, keeping in place the Picts to the north of the Antonine Wall . People living in the Roman province of Britannia were called Britanni , or Britons . Ireland, inhabited by the Scoti , was never invaded and
6786-500: The window by the Tory mob. Other supporters throw furniture at the Tories. An Orange banner containing the words "Liberty and Loyalty" stands in the corner, while outside the window the Tories carry a banner with the word "Liberty". In an engraved version of the image, the words "and Property" have been appended [below "Liberty"]; the words "Marry and multiply in spite of the Devil" (referring to
6873-446: Was a leader in this. In the 17th century some artists, including Rembrandt , began to use dark grounds. Until the mid-19th century, there was a division between artists who exploited "effects of handling" in their paintwork, and those who continued to aim at "an even, glassy surface from which all evidences of manipulation had been banished". Before the 19th century, artists or their apprentices ground pigments and mixed their paints for
6960-448: Was called Hibernia . Thule , an island "six days' sail north of Britain, and [...] near the frozen sea", possibly Iceland , was also never invaded by the Romans. Claudius paid a visit while Britain was being conquered and was honoured with the agnomen Britannicus as if he were the conqueror; a frieze discovered at Aphrodisias in 1980 shows a bare breasted and helmeted female warrior labelled BRITANNIA , writhing in agony under
7047-461: Was easily available, was a leader in the move to canvas. Small cabinet paintings were also made on metal, especially copper plates. These supports were more expensive but very firm, allowing intricately fine detail. Often printing plates from printmaking were reused for this purpose. The increasing use of oil spread through Italy from Northern Europe, starting in Venice in the late 15th century. By 1540,
7134-537: Was first perfected through an adaptation of the egg tempera painting technique (egg yolks used as a binder, mixed with pigment), and was applied by the Early Netherlandish painters in Northern Europe with pigments usually ground in linseed oil . This approach has been called the "mixed technique" or "mixed method" in modern times. The first coat (the underpainting ) is laid down, often painted with egg tempera or turpentine-thinned paint. This layer helps to "tone"
7221-511: Was intermittently but not permanently occupied by the Roman army . The name is a Latinisation of the native Brittonic word for Great Britain, Pretanī , which also produced the Greek form Prettanike or Brettaniai . In the 2nd century, Roman Britannia came to be personified as a goddess, armed with a spear and shield and wearing a Corinthian helmet . When Roman Britain was divided into four provinces in 197 AD, two were called Britannia Superior ( lit. ' Upper Britain ' ) in
7308-471: Was made in Venice and so easily available and cheaper than wood. Smaller paintings, with very fine detail, were easier to paint on a very firm surface, and wood panels or copper plates, often reused from printmaking , were often chosen for small cabinet paintings even in the 19th century. Portrait miniatures normally used very firm supports, including ivory , or stiff paper card. Traditional artists' canvas
7395-778: Was often the British Lion, an animal found on the arms of England, Scotland and the Prince of Wales. Neptune is shown symbolically passing his trident to Britannia in the 1847 fresco "Neptune Resigning to Britannia the Empire of the Sea" by William Dyce , a painting Victoria commissioned for her Osborne House on the Isle of Wight . New Zealanders adopted a similar personification of their country in Zealandia , Britannia's daughter, who appeared on postage stamps at
7482-420: Was on the farthing in 1672, though earlier pattern versions had appeared in 1665, followed by the halfpenny later the same year. The figure of Britannia was said by Samuel Pepys to have been modelled on Frances Teresa Stuart, the future Duchess of Richmond , who was famous at the time for refusing to become the mistress of Charles II, despite the King's strong infatuation with her. Britannia then appeared on
7569-414: Was usually white (typically gesso coated with a primer), allowing light to reflect through the layers. But van Eyck, and Robert Campin a little later, used a wet-on-wet technique in places, painting a second layer soon after the first. Initially, the aim was, as with the established techniques of tempera and fresco , to produce a smooth surface when no attention was drawn to the brushstrokes or texture of
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