Misplaced Pages

#179820

150-404: Os Lusíadas ( Portuguese pronunciation: [uʒ luˈzi.ɐðɐʃ] ), usually translated as The Lusiads , is a Portuguese epic poem written by Luís Vaz de Camões ( c.  1524/5 – 1580) and first published in 1572. It is widely regarded as the most important work of Portuguese-language literature and is frequently compared to Virgil 's Aeneid (1st c. BC). The work celebrates

300-564: A Proto-Indo-European freshwater deity; since the Indo-Europeans lived inland and had little direct knowledge of the sea, the Romans may have reused the theology of a previous freshwater god in their worship of Neptune. Servius explicitly names Neptune as the god of rivers, springs, and waters; he may parallel the Irish god Nechtan , master of rivers and wells. This is in contrast to Poseidon, who

450-669: A nobility , which played a key social and political role during the Middle Ages . It was under the Visigoths that the Church began to play an important part within the state. As the Visigoths did not learn Latin from the local people, they had to rely on bishops to continue the Roman system of governance. The laws were made by councils of bishops, and the clergy emerged as a high-ranking class. Today's continental Portugal, along with most of modern Spain,

600-618: A transcontinental nation and not a colonial empire. Pro-Indian residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli , separated those territories from Portuguese rule in 1954. In 1961, Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá 's annexation by the Republic of Dahomey was the start of a process that led to the dissolution of the centuries-old Portuguese Empire. Another forcible retreat occurred in 1961 when Portugal refused to relinquish Goa . The Portuguese were involved in armed conflict in Portuguese India against

750-673: A Ilha angélica pintada, Outra cousa não é que as deleitosas Honras que a vida fazem sublimada That the Nymphs of the Ocean, so beautiful, Tethys and the angelic painted Island, Are none other than the delightful Honours that render life sublime The Canto is ended with the poet communicating to the reader: Impossibilidades não façais, Que quem quis sempre pôde: e numerados Sereis entre os heróis esclarecidos E nesta Ilha de Vénus recebidos. Impossiblities you cannot do, Who always wanted always could: and numbered You will be amongst

900-476: A Razão e a Ordem concertavam ", but it ends in insubordination, to which Mars brutally puts an end. Jupiter, after the end of his speech, entirely neglects the guidance of the other Gods, so two parties are formed: the party of Venus , favourable to the Portuguese, and the party of Bacchus, defending the interests of this god who wanted to stop the Portuguese from reaching their goal. The council ends by accepting

1050-456: A bigger thing than a storm?" (" Ó potestade – disse – sublimada, / que ameaço divino ou que segredo / este clima e este mar nos apresenta, / que mor cousa parece que tormenta? ") The "strange Colossus" (" estranhíssimo Colosso "): "Rude son of the Earth" (" Filho aspérrimo da Terra ") is described as having: "huge stature", "squalid beard", "earthy colour", "full of earth and crinkly of hairs / blacken

1200-764: A career as the Portuguese Ambassador in London, later in Vienna. King Joseph I was crowned in 1750 and made him his Minister of Foreign Affairs. As the King's confidence in Carvalho e Melo increased, he entrusted him with more control of the state. By 1755, Carvalho e Melo was made prime minister. Impressed by British economic success witnessed as Ambassador, he successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal. In 1761, during

1350-493: A different interpretation of Neptune's theology. Developing his understanding of the theonym as rooted in the Indo-European *nebh , he writes that the god would be an ancient deity of the cloudy, rainy sky in company with (and in opposition to) Zeus / Jupiter , the god of clear skies. Similar to Caelus , he would be the father of all earthly things through the fertilising power of rain. The hieros gamos of Neptune and Earth

1500-483: A distinct capital and governor. The main cities were in the southern half of the country: Beja , Silves , Alcácer do Sal , Santarém and Lisbon . The Muslim population consisted mainly of native Iberian converts to Islam and Berbers . The Arabs (mainly noblemen from Syria ) although a minority, constituted the elite. The Berbers who joined them, were nomads from the Rif Mountains of North Africa. Invasions from

1650-660: A federation contract with Emperor Honorius , many of these people settled in Hispania . An important group was made up of the Suebi and Vandals in Gallaecia , who founded a Suebi Kingdom with its capital in Braga . They came to dominate Aeminium ( Coimbra ) as well, and there were Visigoths to the south. The Suebi and the Visigoths were the Germanic tribes who had the most lasting presence in

SECTION 10

#1733085585180

1800-525: A line west of the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. In 1498 Vasco da Gama became the first European to reach India by sea, bringing economic prosperity to Portugal and helping to start the Portuguese Renaissance . In 1500, the Portuguese explorer Gaspar Corte-Real reached what is now Canada and founded the town of Portugal Cove-St. Philip's , one of many Portuguese colonies of

1950-485: A major economic and political power, largely through its maritime empire, which extended mostly along the South Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts. Portuguese explorers and merchants were instrumental in establishing trading posts and colonies that enabled control over spices and slave trades. While Portugal expanded its influence globally, its political and military power faced internal and external challenges towards

2100-541: A rock and creating a spring (Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale, Cabinet des Medailles . Another Etruscan artifact ( Nethunus , from the Luynes collection) depicts the god causing a horse to spring from the earth with a blow of his trident. A late-fourth-century bronze mirror in the Vatican Museums (Museo Gregoriano Etrusco: C.S.E. Vaticano 1.5a) depicts Neptune with Amymone (daughter of Danaus ), whom he saves from assault by

2250-566: A single railway. The government of Portugal quietly accepted the ultimatum and withdrew their forces from the disputed area, leading to a widespread backlash among the Portuguese public, who viewed acceptance of the British demands as a humiliation. On 5 October 1910, a coup d'état overthrew the near 800 year-old Monarchy and the Republic was proclaimed. During World War I, Portugal helped the Allies fight

2400-463: A surface phenomenon). He wrote elsewhere that Venilia would be the "hope that comes", an aspect (or power) of Jupiter understood as anima mundi . Servius, in his commentary on the Aeneid , wrote about Salacia and Venilia in V 724: " ( Venus ) dicitur et Salacia, quae proprie meretricum dea appellata est a veteribus "; "(Venus) is also called Salacia, who was particularly named goddess of prostitutes by

2550-528: A total of 8816 lines of verse. The poem is made up of four sections: The narration concludes with an epilogue, starting in stanza 145 of canto X. The most important part of Os Lusíadas , the arrival in India , was placed at the point in the poem that divides the work according to the golden section at the beginning of Canto VII. The heroes of the epic are the Lusiads ( Lusíadas ), the sons of Lusus —in other words,

2700-428: A variety of dangers and obstacles such as the hostility of natives in the episode of Fernão Veloso, the fury of a monster in the episode of the giant Adamastor , and the disease and death caused by scurvy . Canto V ends with the poet's censure of his contemporaries who despise poetry. After Vasco da Gama's narrative, the armada sails from Melinde guided by a pilot to teach them the way to Calicut . Bacchus, seeing that

2850-455: Is a crystalline seat of stars and the rest of the Olympian furniture is equally ornate: "In shiny seats, enamelled / of gold and pearls, under there were / the other gods (...)" (" Em luzentes assentos, marchetados / de ouro e perlas, mais abaixo estavam / os outros Deuses (...) "). During the council, the behaviour of the gods is described as disgraceful. It starts as "Reason and Order demanded" "

3000-718: Is a member of the United Nations , the European Union, the Schengen Area , and the Council of Europe , as well as a founding members of NATO , the eurozone , the OECD , and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries . The word Portugal derives from the combined Roman - Celtic place name Portus Cale (present-day's conurbation of Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia ). Porto stems from

3150-573: Is an added context of agricultural fertility in the festival, since Neptune received the sacrifice of a bull. Neptune had only one temple in Rome . It stood near the Circus Flaminius , the Roman racetrack in the southern part of the Campus Martius , and dates back to at least 206 BC. The temple was restored out by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus c.  40 BC , an event depicted on a coin struck by

SECTION 20

#1733085585180

3300-403: Is divided into three segments. The first, a theophany , goes from strophe 37 to 40; the second, which in chronological-narrative terms is a prolepsis , occupies strophes 41 to 48; finally, the third part, a marine eclogue with some points of contact with Écloga III of Camões, ends in strophe 59. The vigorous theophany that the first part describes is in the following verses: "Chill the flesh and

3450-613: Is moist"). Georges Dumézil said that words deriving from the root *nep- are not attested in Indo-European languages other than Vedic Sanskrit and Avestan . He proposed an etymology which joins Neptunus with the Indian and Iranian theonyms Apam Napat and Apam Napá and the Old Irish theonym Nechtan , all meaning "descendant of the waters". Using a comparative approach, the Indo-Iranian, Avestan and Irish figures have common features with

3600-408: Is one of the most famous of Os Lusíadas (canto iii, stanzas 118–135). It is normally classified as a lyric, thus distinguishing it from the more common war episodes. The episode discusses destiny , and leads the action to its tragic end, even something close to the coir ( apostrophes ). The nobility of the characters is also emphasised, in a way that is intended to create feelings of sympathy when

3750-591: Is reflected in Virgil's Aeneid V 14 ( pater Neptunus ). Neptune's power would be reflected by Salacia , one of his paredrae , who also denotes the overcast sky. His other paredra , Venilia , is associated with the wind as well as the sea. The theonym Venilia may be rooted in *venilis , a postulated adjective deriving from the IE root *ven(h) ("to love or desire") in the Sanskrit vánati, vanóti ("he loves"), German Wonne , and

3900-441: Is standing in the centre, holding Aplu 's bow in his right hand. Thesan is on the right, with her right hand on Uśil's shoulder; both are listening intently to Nethuns' words. The identification of Uśil with Aplu (and his association with Nethuns) is emphasised by an anguiped demon holding two dolphins on an exergue . The scene highlights the identities and association of Nethuns and Aplu (here identified as Uśil) as main deities of

4050-555: Is the 400,000-year-old Aroeira 3 H. Heidelbergensis skull discovered in the Cave of Aroeira in 2014. Later Neanderthals roamed the northern Iberian peninsula and a tooth has been found at Nova da Columbeira cave in Estremadura . Homo sapiens sapiens arrived in Portugal around 35,000 years ago and spread rapidly. Pre-Celtic tribes inhabited Portugal. The Cynetes developed a written language, leaving stelae , which are mainly found in

4200-467: Is told at this point. Finally, Tethys relates the voyage of Magellan . The epic concludes with more advice to young King Sebastião. This episode, which comes right after the first strophe of the narration (no. 19 of Canto I) and depicts the entry of the caravan of carracks in the poem, sailing into the unknown upon the sheet of white foam of the Indian Ocean, has huge significance in the organization of

4350-591: The feriae of Neptunus on July 23, between the Lucaria festival of the grove and the Furrinalia festival of July 25. All three festivals were connected to water during the period of summer heat ( canicula ) and drought, when freshwater sources were lowest. It has been speculated that the three festivals fall in a logical order. The Lucaria was devoted to clearing overgrown bushes and uprooting and burning excess vegetation. Neptunalia followed, devoted to conservation and

4500-851: The Age of Discovery under the sponsorship of Prince Henry the Navigator . Portugal explored the Atlantic, encountering the Azores , Madeira , and Portuguese Cape Verde , which led to the first colonization movements. The Portuguese explored the Indian Ocean , established trade routes in most of southern Asia, and sent the first direct European maritime trade and diplomatic missions to China ( Jorge Álvares ) and Japan ( Nanban trade ). In 1415, Portugal acquired its first colonies by conquering Ceuta , in North Africa. Throughout

4650-454: The Battle of Aljubarrota , is followed by the events of the reigns of Dom João II , especially those related to expansion into Africa. Following this incident, the poem narrates the maritime journey to India—an aim that Dom João II did not accomplish during his lifetime, but would come true with Dom Manuel, to whom the rivers Indus and Ganges appeared in dreams foretelling the future glories of

Os Lusíadas - Misplaced Pages Continue

4800-518: The Battle of Salado , and Inês de Castro during Dom Afonso IV 's reign. Vasco da Gama continues the narrative of the history of Portugal by recounting the story of the House of Aviz from the 1383–85 Crisis until the moment during the reign of Dom Manuel I when the armada of Vasco da Gama sails to India. The narrative of the Crisis of 1383–85, which focuses mainly on the figure of Nuno Álvares Pereira and

4950-400: The Battle of São Mamede , in the outskirts of Guimarães , in 1128, Afonso Henriques , Count of Portugal, defeated his mother Countess Teresa and her lover Fernão Peres de Trava , establishing himself as sole leader of the county . Afonso continued his father Henry of Burgundy's Reconquista wars. His campaigns were successful and in 1139, he obtained a victory in the Battle of Ourique , so

5100-480: The British government delivered an ultimatum to Portugal, demanding the withdrawal of Portuguese forces from the area between Portugal's colonies of Mozambique and Angola . The area had been claimed by Portugal as part of its colonialist Pink Map project, but Britain disputed these claims, mostly due to Cecil Rhodes ' aspirations to create a Cape to Cairo Railway , which was intended to link all British colonies via

5250-541: The Carnation Revolution of 1974 , and brought an end to the Portuguese Colonial War, allowing the last of Portugal’s African territories to achieve independence. Portugal's imperial history has left a cultural legacy , with around 300 million Portuguese speakers around the world. Today, it is a developed country with an advanced economy relying chiefly upon services, industry, and tourism. Portugal

5400-862: The Central Powers ; however the war hurt its weak economy. Political instability and economic weaknesses were fertile ground for chaos and unrest during the First Portuguese Republic . These conditions led to the failed Monarchy of the North , 28 May 1926 coup d'état , and creation of the National Dictatorship ( Ditadura Nacional ). This in turn led to the right-wing dictatorship of the Estado Novo (New State), under António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933. Portugal remained neutral in World War II . From

5550-466: The Companhia Geral de Pernambuco e Paraíba - whose main activity was the trafficking of slaves, mostly Africans, to Brazilian lands. He reorganized the army and navy and ended legal discrimination against different Christian sects. He created companies and guilds to regulate commercial activity and one of the first appellation systems by demarcating the region for production of Port to ensure

5700-687: The Continental System of embargo against the United Kingdom; a French invasion under General Junot followed, and Lisbon was captured in 1807. British intervention in the Peninsular War helped maintain Portuguese independence; the last French troops were expelled in 1812. Rio de Janeiro in Brazil was the Portuguese capital between 1808 and 1821. In 1820, constitutionalist insurrections took place at Porto and Lisbon. Lisbon regained its status as

5850-675: The European Union ; to the south and the west is the North Atlantic Ocean ; and to the west and southwest lie the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira , which are two autonomous regions of Portugal . Lisbon is the capital and largest city , followed by Porto , which is the only other metropolitan area . The western part of the Iberian Peninsula has been continuously inhabited since prehistoric times , with

6000-451: The Fados is the same one that the orator presented). There is then a confirmation of suggestions already put forth in the narration of the 4th strophe. This episode then ends with two strophes of peroration , where Jupiter appeals to the benevolence of the gods concerning the sons of Lusus, with Jupiter's speech eventually settling the debate. The episode, usually known as "of Inês de Castro ",

6150-486: The Falisci (who called themselves Neptunia proles ), joining Mars , Janus , Saturn , and Jupiter as the deific father of a Latin tribe. Neptunalia , the Roman festival of Neptune, was held at the height of summer (typically on July 23). The date of the festival and the construction of tree-branch shelters suggest that Neptune was a god of water sources in times of drought and heat. The most ancient Roman calendar set

Os Lusíadas - Misplaced Pages Continue

6300-667: The Flamen Quirinalis and the Vestal Virgins made sacrifices on the underground altar of Consus. The proximity of the two Consualia to the Opiconsivia (the latter were four days later, the winter festival on December 19) indicates the relationship between the two deities pertaining to agriculture. According to Dumézil, the horse has a much-different symbolic value in the theologies of Poseidon and Consus. Tertullian ( De Spectaculis V 7) wrote that according to Roman tradition, Consus

6450-715: The Indian Armed Forces . The operations resulted in the defeat and loss of the remaining Portuguese territories in the Indian subcontinent . The Portuguese regime refused to recognize Indian sovereignty over the annexed territories, which continued to be represented in the National Assembly until the coup of 1974. Also in the early 1960s the independence movements in the Portuguese provinces of Portuguese Angola , Portuguese Mozambique , and Portuguese Guinea in Africa, resulted in

6600-454: The Jesuits were suppressed and expelled . This crushed opposition by publicly demonstrating even the aristocracy was powerless before Pombal. Further titled "Marquês de Pombal" in 1770, he ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1777. The new ruler, Queen Maria I of Portugal , disliked Pombal because of his excesses, and upon her accession to the throne, withdrew all his political offices. Pombal

6750-660: The Moluccas . Although it was believed the Dutch were the first Europeans to arrive in Australia, there is evidence the Portuguese may have discovered it in 1521. Between 1519 and 1522 Ferdinand Magellan organized a Spanish expedition to the East Indies which resulted in the first circumnavigation of the globe. The Treaty of Zaragoza , signed in 1529 between Portugal and Spain, divided

6900-405: The Moors and Castilians , this tiny nation has gone on to discover new worlds and impose its law in the concert of the nations. At the end of the poem, on the Island of Love, the fictional finale to the glorious tour of Portuguese history, Camões writes that the fear once expressed by Bacchus has been confirmed: that the Portuguese would become gods. The extraordinary Portuguese discoveries and

7050-471: The Portuguese Colonial War (lasting from 1961 till 1974). The war mobilized around 1.4 million men for military or for civilian support service, and led to large casualties. Throughout the colonial war period Portugal dealt with increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by the international community. The authoritarian and conservative Estado Novo regime, first governed by Salazar and from 1968 by Marcelo Caetano , tried to preserve

7200-404: The Rutulians ). According to another source, Venilia would be the partner of Janus , with whom she mothered the nymph Canens (loved by Picus ). These mythical data underline the reproductive function envisaged in the figures of Neptune's paredrae , particularly that of Venilia, in childbirth and motherhood. A legendary king Venulus was remembered at Tibur and Lavinium . Before Poseidon

7350-434: The ager latiniensis . The Etruscans were also fond of horse races. The Etruscan name of Neptune is Nethuns . It had been believed that Neptune derived from Etruscan , but this view has been disputed. Nethuns was apparently important to the Etruscans . His name is found in two places on the Liver of Piacenza : on the outer rim of section seven, and on the gallbladder of section 28. This last location aligns with Pliny

7500-402: The "absolutist" faction of landowners and the church to proclaim Miguel king in February 1828. This led to the Liberal Wars , also known as the War of the Two Brothers or the Portuguese Civil War , in which Pedro forced Miguel to abdicate and go into exile in 1834 and place his daughter on the throne as Queen Maria II of Portugal . After 1815 the Portuguese expanded their trading ports along

7650-412: The "battle" of the Island of Mozambique , the battles of Ourique and Aljubarrota , and the storm. Camões is a master in these descriptions, marked by the verbs of movement, the abundance of visual and acoustic sensations, and expressive alliterations. There are also many lyrical moments. Those texts are normally narrative-descriptive. This is the case with the initial part of the episode of the Sad Inês,

SECTION 50

#1733085585180

7800-448: The "new kingdom that they exalted so much" (" novo reino que tanto sublimaram ") in the East, and certainly the recent and extraordinary deeds of the "strong Castro" (" Castro forte ", the viceroy Dom João de Castro ), who had died some years before the poet's arrival in Indian lands, were the decisive factors in Camões' completion of the Portuguese epic. Camões dedicated his masterpiece to King Sebastian of Portugal . The vast majority of

7950-442: The 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa, establishing trading posts for commodities , ranging from gold to slavery . Portugal sailed the Portuguese India Armadas to Goa via the Cape of Good Hope . The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 was intended to resolve a dispute created following the return of Christopher Columbus and divided the newly located lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain along

8100-421: The 1940s to 1960s, Portugal was a founding member of NATO , OECD , the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and joined the United Nations in 1955. New economic development projects and relocation of mainland Portuguese citizens into the overseas provinces in Africa were initiated, with Angola and Mozambique being the main targets of those initiatives. These actions were used to affirm Portugal's status as

8250-407: The 19th century. Portugal – in Europe  (green & dark grey) – in the European Union  (green) Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic , is a country in the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe . Featuring the westernmost point in continental Europe , to its north and east is Spain, with which it shares the longest uninterrupted border in

8400-414: The 7th and 8th centuries, and by the 9th century, it was used to refer to the region between the rivers Douro and Minho . By the 11th and 12th centuries, Portugale , Portugallia , Portvgallo or Portvgalliae was already referred to as Portugal . The region has been inhabited by humans since circa 400,000 years ago, when Homo heidelbergensis entered the area. The oldest human fossil found in Portugal

8550-440: The African coast, moving inland to take control of Angola and Mozambique. The slave trade was abolished in 1836. In Portuguese India , trade flourished in the colony of Goa , with its subsidiary colonies of Macau , near Hong Kong, and Timor , north of Australia. The Portuguese successfully introduced Catholicism and the Portuguese language into their colonies, while most settlers continued to head to Brazil. On 11 January 1890,

8700-440: The Americas . In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. Ten years later, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in India, Muscat and Ormuz in the Persian Strait , and Malacca , now in Malaysia. Thus, the Portuguese empire held dominion over commerce in the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic. Portuguese sailors set out to reach Eastern Asia, landing in Taiwan , Japan, Timor , Flores , and

8850-422: The Christian kingdoms of the north. Most of present-day Portugal fell into the hands of the Taifa of Badajoz of the Aftasid Dynasty , and in 1022 the Taifa of Seville of the Abbadids poets. The Taifa period ended with the conquest of the Almoravids in 1086, then by the Almohads in 1147. Al-Andaluz was divided into districts called Kura . Gharb Al-Andalus at its largest consisted of ten kuras, each with

9000-428: The Elder's belief that the gallbladder was sacred to Neptune. The name Nethuns occurs eight times in columns VII, IX, and XI of the Liber Linteus . On a mirror from Tuscania (E. S. 1. 76), Nethuns is represented talking to Uśil (the sun) and Thesan (the goddess of dawn). Nethuns is seated on the left, holding a double-ended trident in his right hand and with his left arm raised as if giving instructions. Uśil

9150-513: The Etruscan Penates were Fortuna , Ceres , Genius Iovialis and Pales . The etymology of the Latin Neptunus is unclear and disputed. The ancient grammarian Varro derived the name from nuptus ("covering", opertio ), alluding to nuptiae ("the marriage of Heaven and Earth"). Among modern scholars, Paul Kretschmer proposed a derivation from the Indo-European *neptu- ("moist substance"). Raymond Bloch similarly theorised that it might be an adjectival form ( -no ) of *nuptu- ("he who

SECTION 60

#1733085585180

9300-434: The Falisci (and others) to war in the Aeneid . Nepi and Falerii have been known since antiquity for the quality of their meadow springwater. Nepet might be considered a hydronymic toponym of pre-Indo-European origin from a noun meaning "damp wide valley, plain", a cognate of the proto-Greek νάπη ("wooded vale, chasm"). In lectures delivered during the 1990s, German scholar Hubert Petersmann proposed an etymology from

9450-411: The Far East, resulting in the loss of Portugal's Indian sea trade monopoly. In 1640 John IV of Portugal spearheaded an uprising backed by disgruntled nobles and was proclaimed king. The Portuguese Restoration War ended the 60-year period of the Iberian Union under the House of Habsburg . This was the beginning of the House of Braganza , which reigned until 1910. John V saw a reign characterized by

9600-578: The Gods walk on the "beautiful crystalline sky" (" cristalino céu fermoso "), to the Milky Way . In strophes 22 and 23 they are also said to be shining. Jupiter is described as the "Father" (" Padre " – archaic Portuguese for 'father') who "vibrates the fierce rays of Vulcan " (" vibra os feros raios de Vulcano ") and presides from a "crystalline seat of stars" (" assento de estrelas cristalino "), carrying "a gleaming crown and sceptre / of another rock clearer than diamond" (" hua coroa e ceptro rutilante / de outra pedra mais clara que diamante "). Jupiter's chair

9750-423: The Iberian Peninsula in the eighth century CE, but were gradually expelled by the Christian Reconquista over the next several centuries. Modern Portugal began taking shape during this period, initially as a county of the Christian Kingdom of León in 868, and ultimately as an independent Kingdom with the Treaty of Zamora in 1143. During the Age of Discovery , the Kingdom of Portugal established itself as

9900-503: The Indo-European root *nebh- ("damp, wet") with the suffix -tu (for an abstract verbal noun) and the adjectival suffix -no (domain of activity). The root *nebh- gives the Sanskrit nābhah , Hittite nepis , Latin nubs , nebula , German Nebel , and the Slavic nebo . The concept would be close to that expressed in the name of the Greek god Όυράνος ( Uranus ), derived from the root *h 2 wórso- ("to water or irrigate") and *h 2 worsó- ("the irrigator"). Petersmann proposes

10050-448: The Latin Venus , venia . Neptune's dual nature is found in Catullus 31. 3: " uterque Neptunus ". According to Petersmann, the ancient Indo-Europeans also venerated a god of wetness as the generator of life; this is indicated by the Hittite theonyms nepišaš (D)IŠKURaš or nepišaš (D)Tarhunnaš ("lord of sky wet"), the sovereign of Earth and humanity. Although this function was transferred to Zeus/Jupiter (the sovereigns of weather),

10200-407: The Latin Faliscans: the father of Messapus and Halesus, their heroic founders. William Warde Fowler considered Salacia the personification of the virile potency which generated a Latin people, parallel with Mars, Saturn, Janus and Jupiter. Etruscan representations of Neptune are rare but significant. The oldest may be a fourth-century BC carved carnelian scarab from Vulci of Nethuns kicking

10350-437: The Latin for port , portus ; Cale ' s meaning and origin is unclear. The mainstream explanation is an ethnonym derived from the Callaeci, also known as the Gallaeci peoples, who occupied the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula . One theory proposes Cale is a derivation of the Celtic word for 'port'. Another is that Cala was a Celtic goddess. Some French scholars believe it may have come from Portus Gallus ,

10500-427: The Moors. In 1249, the Reconquista ended with the capture of the Algarve and expulsion of the last Moorish settlements. With minor readjustments, Portugal's territorial borders have remained the same, making it one of the oldest established nations in Europe. After a conflict with the kingdom of Castile , Denis of Portugal signed the Treaty of Alcañices in 1297 with Ferdinand IV of Castile. This treaty established

10650-416: The North also occurred in this period, with Viking incursions raiding the coast between the 9th and 11th centuries, including Lisbon. This resulted in the establishment of small Norse settlements in the coastline between Douro and Minho . The Reconquista was a period when Christians reconquered the Iberian Peninsula from Moorish domination. An Asturian Visigothic noble named Pelagius of Asturias

10800-705: The Orient. This canto ends with the sailing of the Armada, the sailors in which are surprised by the prophetically pessimistic words of an old man who was on the beach among the crowd. This is the episode of the Old Man of the Restelo . The story moves on to the King of Melinde, describing the journey of the Armada from Lisbon to Melinde. During the voyage, the sailors see the Southern Cross , St. Elmo's Fire (maritime whirlwind), and face

10950-459: The Pacific Ocean between Spain and Portugal. Portugal voluntarily entered a dynastic union (1580–1640) because the last two kings of the House of Aviz died without heirs, resulting in the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580 . Philip II of Spain claimed the throne and was accepted as Philip I of Portugal. Portugal did not lose its formal independence, forming a union of kingdoms. But

11100-478: The Portuguese are about to arrive in India, asks for help of Neptune , who convenes a "Concílio dos Deuses Marinhos" (Council of the Sea Gods) whose decision is to support Bacchus and unleash powerful winds to sink the armada. Then, while the sailors are listening to Fernão Veloso telling the legendary and chivalrous episode of Os Doze de Inglaterra (The Twelve Men of England), a storm strikes. Vasco da Gama, seeing

11250-633: The Portuguese. The initial strophes of Jupiter 's speech in the Concílio dos Deuses Olímpicos (Council of the Olympian Gods), which open the narrative part, highlight the laudatory orientation of the author. In these strophes, Camões speaks of the first and second Viriathus and Quintus Sertorius , the people of Lusus , a people predestined by the Fates to accomplish great deeds. Jupiter says that their history proves it because, having emerged victorious against

11400-571: The Roman conquest. In southern Portugal, some small, semi-permanent commercial coastal settlements were also founded by Phoenician-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC. The Carthaginians, Rome's adversary in the Punic Wars , were expelled from their coastal colonies. During Julius Caesar 's rule, almost the entire peninsula was annexed to Rome. The conquest took two hundred years and many died, including those sentenced to work in slave mines or sold as slaves to other parts of

11550-405: The Roman legends about Neptune. Dumézil proposed to derive the nouns from the Indo-European root népōts- ("descendant, sister's son"). His former student, Indo-Europeanist Jaan Puhvel , theorises that the name might have meant "child ( neve , nephew) of the water" as part of an Indo-European fire-in-water myth . A different etymology, grounded in the legendary history of Latium and Etruria,

11700-495: The ancient". Elsewhere, he wrote that Salacia and Venilia are the same entity. Among modern scholars, Dumézil and his followers Bloch and Schilling centre their interpretation of Neptune on the direct, concrete, limited value and functions of water. Salacia would represent the forceful, violent aspect of gushing and overflowing water and Venilia the tranquil, gentle aspect of still (or slowly-flowing) water. According to Dumézil, Neptune's two paredrae (Salacia and Venilia) represent

11850-480: The appearance of Adamastor, and in the middle of the terror of the storm. The poet's invocations to the Tágides and nymphs of Mondego (Cantos I and VII) and to Calliope (beginning of Cantos III and X), in typological terms, are also orations. Each one of these types of speech shows stylistic peculiarities. The epic begins with a dedication section, with the poet paying homage to Virgil and Homer . The first line mimics

12000-482: The border between the kingdoms of Portugal and Leon. The reigns of Denis, Afonso IV , and Peter I mostly saw peace with the other kingdoms of Iberia. In 1348-49 Portugal, as with the rest of Europe, was devastated by the Black Death . In 1373, Portugal made an alliance with England , the oldest standing alliance in the world. In 1383 John I of Castile , Beatrice of Portugal , and Ferdinand I of Portugal claimed

12150-531: The capital of Portugal when Brazil declared its independence in 1822. The death of King John VI in 1826 led to a crisis of royal succession. His eldest son, Pedro I of Brazil , briefly became Pedro IV of Portugal , but neither the Portuguese nor Brazilians wanted a unified monarchy; consequently, Pedro abdicated the Portuguese crown in favor of his 7-year-old daughter, Maria da Glória , on the condition that when she came of age she would marry his brother, Miguel . Dissatisfaction at Pedro's constitutional reforms led

12300-559: The consul. Within the temple was a sculpture of a marine group by Scopas Minor. The Basilica Neptuni was later built on the Campus Martius, and was dedicated by Agrippa in honor of the naval victory of Actium . This basilica supplanted the older temple, which had replaced an ancient altar. Neptune is one of only four Roman gods to whom it was considered appropriate to sacrifice a bull. The other three were Apollo , Mars , and Jupiter , although Vulcan has also been depicted with

12450-417: The cutting bow, / (...)" ( "(...) / prosperamente os ventos assoprando, / quando hua noite, estando descuidados / na cortadora proa vigiando, / (...)" ). The final marine eclogue conforms to a pattern that is common to many of Camões' lyrical compositions: falling in love, forced separation, grieving over the frustrated dream. The locus amoenus : the strophes that come after strophe 52 of Canto IX, and some of

12600-408: The deeds of Tristão da Cunha , Pedro de Mascarenhas , Lopo Vaz de Sampaio and Nuno da Cunha ; and battles fought by Martim Afonso de Sousa and João de Castro. Tethys then guides da Gama to a summit and reveals to him a vision of how the ( Ptolemaic ) universe operates. The tour continues with glimpses of the lands of Africa and Asia. The legend of the martyrdom of the apostle St. Thomas in India

12750-401: The desire for reproduction. Ludwig Preller cited a significant aspect of Venilia; she was recorded in the indigitamenta as a deity of longing or desire. According to Preller, this would explain a theonym similar to that of Venus. Other data seem to agree; Salacia would parallel Thetis as the mother of Achilles, and Venilia would be the mother of Turnus and Iuturna by Daunus (king of

12900-669: The dinner in the palace of Thetis (Canto X), and Gama's cloth (end of Canto II). Sometimes these descriptions are like a slide show, in which someone shows each of the things described there; examples include the geographic start of Gama's speech to the king of Melinde , certain sculptures of the palaces of Neptune and the Samorim, the speech of Paulo da Gama to the Catual, and the Machine of the World ( Máquina do Mundo ). Examples of dynamic descriptions include

13050-471: The discovery of a sea route to India by the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama (1469–1524). The ten cantos of the poem are in ottava rima and total 1,102 stanzas . Written in Homeric fashion, the poem focuses mainly on a fantastic interpretation of the Portuguese voyages of discovery during the 15th and 16th centuries. Os Lusíadas is often regarded as Portugal's national epic , much as Virgil 's Aeneid

13200-506: The draining of superficial waters. These culminated in the Furrinalia , sacred to Furrina (the goddess of springs and wells). Neptunalia was spent under branch huts in a woods between the Tiber and the Via Salaria , with participants drinking spring water and wine to escape the heat. It was a time of merrymaking, when men and women could mix without the usual Roman societal constraints. There

13350-456: The earliest signs of settlement dating to 5500 BCE . Celtic and Iberian peoples arrived in the first millennium BCE , with Phoenician and later Punic influence reaching the south during the same period. The region came under Roman control in the second century BCE, followed by a succession of Germanic peoples and the Alans from the fifth to eighth centuries CE. Muslims conquered most of

13500-456: The earthquake, Joseph I gave his prime minister more power, and Carvalho de Melo became an enlightened despot . In 1758 Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination. The Marquis of Távora , several members of his family and even servants were tortured and executed in public with extreme brutality (even by the standards of the time), as alleged part of the Távora affair . The following year,

13650-490: The empire. Neptune (mythology) Depictions of Neptune in Roman mosaics , especially those in North Africa , were influenced by Hellenistic conventions. He was likely associated with freshwater springs before the sea; his festival, Neptunalia , took place on July 23, during the peak of summer when water was scarcest. Like Poseidon, he was also worshipped by the Romans as a god of horses, Neptunus equestris, who

13800-408: The empire. Roman occupation suffered a setback in 155 BC, when a rebellion began in the north. The Lusitanians and other native tribes, under the leadership of Viriathus , wrested control of all of western Iberia. Rome sent legions to quell the rebellion but were unsuccessful. Roman leaders bribed Viriathus's allies to kill him in 139 BC; he was replaced by Tautalus . In 27 BC, Lusitania gained

13950-498: The encroachment on his territory. We encounter Vasco da Gama's voyage in medias res as they have already rounded the Cape of Good Hope . At the urging of Bacchus, who is disguised as a Moor, the local Muslims plot to attack the explorer and his crew. Two scouts sent by Vasco da Gama are fooled by a fake altar created by Bacchus into thinking that there are Christians among the Muslims. Thus,

14100-482: The end of the 16th century. The dynastic crisis marked the beginning of the country's political decline that led to the Iberian Union (1580-1640), a period in which Portugal was united under Spanish rule. While maintaining a degree of self-governance, the union strained Portugal’s autonomy and drew it into conflicts with European powers which targeted Portuguese territories and trade routes. Portugal's prior opulence

14250-464: The explorers are lured into an ambush but successfully survive with the aid of Venus. Venus pleads with her father Jove , who predicts great fortunes for the Portuguese in the east. The fleet lands at Melinde where it is welcomed by a friendly Sultan. After an appeal by the poet to Calliope , the Greek muse of epic poetry, Vasco da Gama begins to narrate the history of Portugal . He starts by referring to

14400-471: The fact that Poseidon is nowhere worshipped at underground shrines or altars. Martianus Capella places Neptune and Consus together in region X of Heaven, possibly following an old interpretatio graeca of Consus or reflecting an Etruscan idea of a chthonic Neptune apparent in the recommendation of the De Haruspicum Responso for propitiating Neptune for the cracking sounds heard underground in

14550-449: The famous heroes And in this Isle of Venus received. In Canto X, before the sailors return home the Siren invites Gama to the spectacle of the Machine of the World ( Máquina do Mundo ) with these words: Faz-te mercê, barão, a sapiência Suprema de, cos olhos corporais, veres o que não pode a vã ciência dos errados e míseros mortais Your lordship's wish is now fulfilled to share

14700-663: The final part of the episode of the Adamastor , and the encounter on the Island of Love (Canto IX). All these cases resemble eclogues . On several occasions the poet assumes a tone of lamentation, as at the end of Canto I, in parts of the speech of the Old Man of the Restelo, the end of Canto V, the beginning and end of Canto VII, and the final strophes of the poem. Many times, da Gama bursts into oration at challenging moments: in Mombasa (Canto II), on

14850-588: The first cities he founded is Vimaranes, known today as Guimarães – "birthplace of the Portuguese nation" or the "cradle city". After annexing the County of Portugal into one of the counties that made up the Kingdom of Asturias , King Alfonso III of Asturias knighted Vímara Peres, in 868, as the First Count of Portus Cale (Portugal). The region became known as Portucale , Portugale , and simultaneously Portugália . With

15000-453: The forced abdication of Alfonso III in 910, the Kingdom of Asturias split into three separate kingdoms; they were reunited in 924 under the crown of León . In 1093 Alfonso VI of León bestowed the county to Henry of Burgundy and married him to his daughter, Teresa of León . Henry thus became Henry, Count of Portugal and based his newly formed county from Bracara Augusta (modern Braga ). At

15150-408: The goods on the ships brought to shore to be sold. The Muslims plot to detain the Portuguese until the annual trading fleet from Mecca can arrive to attack them, but Monçaide tells da Gama of the conspiracy, and the ships escape from Calicut. To reward the explorers for their efforts, Venus prepares an island for them to rest on and asks her son Cupid to inspire Nereids with desire for them. When

15300-515: The hairs/ to me and all [the others] only by listening and seeing him" (" Arrepiam-se as carnes e os cabelos / a mi e a todos só de ouvi-lo e vê-lo "). This is intended to convey pure fear, the imminent threat of annihilation. The evil demigod is preceded by a black cloud, which appears above the heads of the sailors. Expressing the surprise he experiences, Gama quotes himself: "Oh divine power – [I] said – sublimated, / what divine threat or what secret / this clime and this sea presents to us / that seems

15450-503: The influx of gold into the royal treasury, supplied largely by the royal fifth (tax on precious metals) from the Portuguese colonies of Brazil and Maranhão . Most estimates place the number of Portuguese migrants to Colonial Brazil during the gold rush of the 18th century at 600,000. This represented one of the largest movements of European populations to their colonies, during colonial times. In 1738 Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo , later ennobled as 1st Marquis of Pombal , began

15600-673: The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of an independent foreign policy, and led to its involvement in the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands. War led to a deterioration of relations with Portugal's oldest ally, England , and the loss of Hormuz , a strategic trading post located between Iran and Oman . From 1595 to 1663 the Dutch-Portuguese War primarily involved Dutch companies invading Portuguese colonies and commercial interests in Brazil, Africa, India and

15750-553: The liberation during the Peninsular War , Portugal endured a period marked by a civil war between liberals and absolutists from 1828 to 1834. The monarchy was overthrown in the 1910 revolution, which led to the establishment of the Portuguese First Republic . A phase of unrest ultimately led to the rise of authoritarian regimes of the Ditadura Nacional and the Estado Novo . Democracy was finally restored following

15900-687: The local inhabitants. St. Martin of Braga was a particularly influential evangelist. In 429, the Visigoths moved south to expel the Alans and Vandals and founded a kingdom with its capital in Toledo . From 470, conflict between the Suebi and Visigoths increased. In 585, the Visigothic King Liuvigild conquered Braga and annexed Gallaecia; the Iberian Peninsula was unified under a Visigothic Kingdom . A new class emerged, unknown in Roman times:

16050-548: The main parts that appear from strophe 68 to 95 describe the scenery where the love encountered between the sailors and the Nymphs take place. The poet also talks about the fauna that live there and of fruits produced instantly. It is portrayed as a paradise. The allegory in the second part of Canto IX sees Camões describing the scene between the sailors – whom the Nymphs were expecting – prepared by Venus. Given in an allegoric sense: Que as Ninfas do Oceano, tão fermosas, Tétis e

16200-463: The motion of the sea. Venilia brought waves to the shore, and Salacia caused their retreat out to sea. They were examined by the Christian philosopher St. Augustine , who devoted a chapter of De Civitate Dei to ridiculing inconsistencies in the theological definition of the entities; since Salacia personified the deep sea, Augustine wondered how she could also be the retreating waves (since waves are

16350-464: The mouth, yellow the teeth" (" disforme estatura ", " barba esquálida ", " cor terrena ", " cheios de terra e crespos os cabelos / a boca negra, os dentes, amarelos "). Such emphasis on the appearance of Adamastor is intended to contrast with the preceding scenery, which was expressed as: "seas of the South" (" mares do Sul "): "(...) / the winds blowing favourably / when one night, being careless/ watching in

16500-454: The movement is perceptible, although the visible surface is always the same. To be able to translate this by the "painting that talks" is to achieve one of the highest points in universal literature." Manuel de Faria e Sousa wrote a commentary about the work in the 17th century. Published after Sousa's death, the work was originally written in Spanish and eventually translated into Portuguese in

16650-612: The narration in Os Lusíadas consists of grandiloquent speeches by various orators: the main narrator; Vasco da Gama , recognized as "eloquent captain" (" facundo capitão "); Paulo da Gama ; Thetis ; and the Siren who tells the future in Canto X. The poet asks the Tágides (nymphs of the river Tagus) to give him "a high and sublime sound,/ a grandiloquent and flowing style" (" um som alto e sublimado, / Um estilo grandíloquo e corrente "). In contrast to

16800-468: The near destruction of his caravels , prays to his own God, but it is Venus who helps the Portuguese by sending the Nymphs to seduce the winds and calm them down. After the storm, the armada sights Calicut, and Vasco da Gama gives thanks to God. The canto ends with the poet speculating about the value of the fame and glory reached through great deeds. After condemning some of the other nations of Europe (who in his opinion fail to live up to Christian ideals),

16950-465: The new arrivals. The Catual then goes to the Portuguese ships himself to confirm what Monsayeed has told him and is treated well. The Catual sees a number of paintings that depict significant figures and events from Portuguese history, all of which are detailed by the author. Bacchus appears in a vision to a Muslim priest in Samorin's court and convinces him that the explorers are a threat. The priest spreads

17100-777: The offering of a red bull and a red-bull calf. If an incorrect offering was presented, either inadvertently or due to necessity, additional propitiation was required to avoid divine retribution. This type of offering implied a stricter connection between the deity and the world. Paredrae are entities who accompany a god, representing the fundamental aspects (or powers) of that god. With Hellenic influence, these paredrae came to be considered separate deities and consorts of their associated god. Earlier folk belief might have also identified paredrae as consorts of their god. Salacia and Venilia have been discussed by ancient and modern scholars. Varro connects Salacia to salum (sea), and Venilia to ventus (wind). Festus attributed to Salacia

17250-451: The old function survived in literature: the Aeneid V 13-14 reads, " Heu, quianam tanti cinxerunt aethera nimbi?/ quidve, pater Neptune, paras? " ("What, why have so many clouds enringed the sky? What are you preparing, father Neptune?") The indispensability of water and its connection to reproduction are universally known. Müller and Deeke interpreted Neptune's theology as a divine ancestor of

17400-416: The opening line of the Aeneid , and pays a hopeful tribute to the young King Sebastião. The story then (in imitation of the classical epics) portrays the gods of Greece watching over the voyage of Vasco da Gama. Just as the gods had divided loyalties during the voyages of Odysseus and Aeneas , here Venus , who favors the Portuguese, is opposed by Bacchus , who is here associated with the east and resents

17550-497: The overpowering and tranquil aspects of water, natural and domesticated: Salacia the gushing, overbearing waters, and Venilia the still (or quietly-flowing) waters. Preller, Fowler, Petersmann and Takács attribute to the theology of Neptune broader significance as a god of universal worldly fertility, particularly relevant to agriculture and human reproduction. They interpret Salacia as personifying lust, and Venilia as related to venia : ingratiating attraction, connected with love and

17700-562: The poem. The gods of the four corners of the world are reunited to talk about "the future matters of the East" (" as cousas futuras do Oriente "); in fact, what they are going to decide is whether the Portuguese will be allowed to reach India and what will happen next. The gods are described by Jupiter as residents of the "shiny, / starry Pole and bright Seat" (" luzente, estelífero Pólo e claro Assento "); this shiny, starry Pole and bright Seat or Olympus had already been described before as "luminous";

17850-403: The poet tells of the Portuguese fleet reaching the Indian city of Calicut . A Muslim named Monçaide greets the fleet and tells the explorers about the lands they have reached. The king, Samorin, hears of the newcomers and summons them. A governor and official of the king, called the Catual, leads the Portuguese to the king, who receives them well. The Catual speaks with Monçaide to learn more about

18000-399: The point of view earlier expressed by Jupiter; however, Bacchus will not accept this. The speech that Jupiter uses to start the meeting is a finished piece of oratory . It opens with an exordium (1st strophe), in which, after an original welcome, Jupiter briefly defines the subject. This is followed, in the ancient rhetorical fashion, by the narration (the past shows that the intention of

18150-635: The port of the Gauls. Around 200 BC, the Romans took Iberia from the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War . In the process they conquered Cale, renaming it Portus Cale ('Port of Cale') and incorporating it into the province of Gallaecia . During the Middle Ages , the region around Portus Cale became known by the Suebi and Visigoths as Portucale . The name Portucale changed into Portugale during

18300-529: The protagonist suffers. This technique is used most strongly when Inês fears the orphaning of her children more than losing her own life and she begs for the commutation of capital punishment for an exile in Siberia (Cítia) or in Libya in order to have an opportunity to raise her children, and she is compared with "the young beautiful Policena ". Strophes 134 and 135 are written to evoke this pity . The Adamastor episode

18450-542: The reign of King José I, he banned the import of black slaves into mainland Portugal and India, not for humanitarian reasons, but because they were a necessary work force in Brazil. At the same time, he encouraged the trade of black slaves ("the pieces", in the terms of that time) to that colony, and with the support and direct involvement of the Marquis of Pombal, two companies were founded - the Companhia do Grão-Pará e Maranhão and

18600-518: The sailors arrive on the Isle of Love, the ocean nymphs make a pretense of running but surrender quickly. During a sumptuous feast on the Isle of Love, Tethys , who is now the lover of da Gama, prophecies the future of Portuguese exploration and conquest. She tells of Duarte Pacheco Pereira 's defense of Cochin ( Battle of Cochin ); the Battle of Diu fought by Francisco de Almeida and his son Lourenço de Almeida against combined Gujarati-Egyptian fleets;

18750-510: The situation of Portugal in Europe and the legendary story of Lusus and Viriathus . This is followed by passages on the meaning of Portuguese nationality and then by an enumeration of the warrior deeds of the 1st Dynasty kings, from Dom Afonso Henriques to Dom Fernando . Episodes that stand out include Egas Moniz and the Battle of Ourique during Dom Afonso Henriques' reign, formosíssima Maria (the beautiful Maria, in 16th-century Portuguese) in

18900-430: The south. Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from Central Europe and intermarried with the local populations to form several different ethnic groups. The Celtic presence is patent in archaeological and linguistic evidence. They dominated most of northern and central Portugal, while the south maintained its older character (believed non-Indo-European, likely related to Basque ) until

19050-529: The status of Roman province . Later, a northern province was separated from the province of Tarraconensis , under Emperor Diocletian 's reforms, known as Gallaecia . There are still ruins of castros ( hill forts ) and remains of the Castro culture , like Conímbriga , Mirobriga and Briteiros . In 409, with the decline of the Roman Empire , the Iberian Peninsula was occupied by Germanic tribes . In 411, with

19200-461: The style of lyric poetry, or "humble verse" (" verso humilde "), he is thinking about this exciting tone of oratory. There are in the poem some speeches that are brief but notable, including Jupiter's and the Old Man of the Restelo's. There are also descriptive passages, like the description of the palaces of Neptune and the Samorim of Calicute , the locus amoenus of the Island of Love (Canto IX),

19350-438: The supreme knowledge; you with corporeal eyes may see what the vain science of erring and miserable mortals cannot The Machine of the World is presented as the spectacle unique, divine, seen by "corporeal eyes". In the words of literary historian António José Saraiva, "it is one of the supreme successes of Camões", "the spheres are transparent, luminous, all of them are seen at the same time with equal clarity; they move, and

19500-652: The territories corresponding to modern Portugal. As elsewhere in Western Europe, there was a sharp decline in urban life during the Dark Ages . Roman institutions disappeared in the wake of the Germanic invasions with the exception of ecclesiastical organizations, which were fostered by the Suebi in the fifth century and adopted by the Visigoths afterwards. Although the Suebi and Visigoths were initially followers of Arianism and Priscillianism , they adopted Catholicism from

19650-407: The third. The reason for Neptune's displacement to region X is unclear. It is consistent with the collocation in the third quadrant of the deities related to the human world. Arnobius provides information about the theology of Neptune. Neptune and Apollo were considered Etruscan Penates , and the deities were credited with giving Ilium its walls. In another tradition based on the same source,

19800-463: The throne of Portugal. John of Aviz, later John I of Portugal , defeated the Castilians in the Battle of Aljubarrota , and the House of Aviz became the ruling house. The new ruling dynasty led Portugal to the limelight of European politics and culture. They created and sponsored literature, such as a history of Portugal, by Fernão Lopes . Portugal spearheaded European exploration of the world and

19950-406: The unearthing of the altar, indicate the deity's antiquity and chthonic nature. From Augustine ( De Civitate Dei IV 8, about the role of Tutilina in assuring the safety of stored grain), Dumézil interprets its name as deriving from condere (to hide or store) as a verbal noun similar to Sancus and Janus : the god of stored grains. A direct identification of Consus with Poseidon is hindered by

20100-565: The vast Umayyad Caliphate's empire of Damascus , until its collapse in 750. That year the west of the empire gained its independence under Abd-ar-Rahman I with the establishment of the Emirate of Córdoba . The Emirate became the Caliphate of Córdoba in 929, until its dissolution in 1031, into 23 small kingdoms, called Taifa kingdoms. The governors of the taifas proclaimed themselves Emir of their provinces and established diplomatic relations with

20250-578: The war of Christian reconquest. At the end of the 9th century, the region of Portugal between the rivers Minho and Douro, was reconquered from the Moors by nobleman and knight Vímara Peres on the orders of King Alfonso III of Asturias . Finding many towns deserted, he decided to repopulate and rebuild them. Vímara Peres elevated the region to the status of County , naming it the County of Portugal after its major port city – Portus Cale or modern Porto . One of

20400-563: The warnings among the Catuals and the court, prompting Samorin to confront da Gama on his intentions. Da Gama insists that the Portuguese are traders, not buccaneers. The king then demands proof from da Gama's ships, but when he tries to return to the fleet, da Gama finds that the Catual, who has been corrupted by the Muslim leaders, refuses to lend him a boat at the harbor and holds him prisoner. Da Gama manages to get free only after agreeing to have all of

20550-437: The wine's quality. This was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He imposed strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society, along with a widespread review of the tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes. Lisbon was struck by a major earthquake on November 1st 1755 , magnitude estimated to have been between 7.7–9.0, with casualties ranging from 12,000 to 50,000. Following

20700-429: The worldly realm and the life cycle. Thesan and Uśil-Aplu, who has been identified with Śuri (Soranus Pater, the underworld sun god) clarify the transience of earthly life. Neptune is a god of fertility, including human fertility. According to Stephen Weinstock, Jupiter is present in each of the first three regions with different aspects related to each region; Neptune should have been in the second region, and Pluto in

20850-566: Was also a patron of horse-racing. The theology of Neptune is limited by his close identification with the Greek god Poseidon , one of many members of the Greek pantheon whose theology was later tied to a Roman deity . The lectisternium of 399 BC indicated that the Greek figures of Poseidon, Artemis , and Heracles had been introduced and worshipped in Rome as Neptune, Diana, and Hercules. It has been speculated that Neptune has been conflated with

21000-441: Was banished to his estate at Pombal , where he died in 1782. Historians argue that Pombal's "enlightenment," while far-reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial exploitation and consolidating personal control, and profit. In 1807 Portugal refused Napoleon 's demand to accede to

21150-628: Was elected leader in 718 by many of the ousted Visigoth nobles. Pelagius called for the remnants of the Christian Visigothic armies to rebel against the Moors and regroup in the unconquered northern Asturian highlands, known today as the Cantabrian Mountains , in north-west Spain. After defeating the Moors in the Battle of Covadonga in 722, Pelagius was proclaimed king, thus founding the Christian Kingdom of Asturias and starting

21300-639: Was for the Ancient Romans , or Homer 's Iliad and Odyssey for the Ancient Greeks . It was written when Camões was an exile in Macau and was first printed in 1572, three years after the author returned from the Indies . The poem consists of ten cantos , each with a different number of stanzas (1102 in total). It is written in the decasyllabic ottava rima , which has the rhyme scheme ABABABCC, and contains

21450-521: Was further exacerbated by a series of events, such as the Portuguese Restoration War and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake , which destroyed the city and damaged the empire's economy. The Napoleonic Wars motivated the Portuguese royal family to relocate to Brazil in 1807. This event reshaped the relationship between Portugal and Brazil, culminating in Brazilian independence in 1822 . Following

21600-631: Was in the valley of the Circus Maximus at the foot of the Palatine (the site of horse races). On the summer Consualia (August 21) it was customary to bring horses and mules, crowned with flowers, in procession and then hold equine races in the Circus. The festival also traditionally reenacted the abduction of the Sabine (and Latin) women, reflecting the sexual license characteristic of such festivals. On that day,

21750-576: Was invaded from the South and became part of al-Andalus between 726 and 1249, following the Umayyad Caliphate conquest of the Iberian Peninsula . This rule lasted decades in the North, up to five centuries in the South. After defeating the Visigoths in a few months, the Umayyad Caliphate started expanding rapidly in the peninsula. Beginning in 726, the land that is now Portugal became part of

21900-428: Was known as the god of the sea, he was connected to the horse and may have originally been depicted in equine form. This connection reflects the violent and brutal nature of Poseidon the earth-shaker, the linkage of horses and springs, and the animal's psychopompous character. Neptune, in contrast, has no such direct connection with horses. The Roman deity Consus was associated with the horse, and his underground altar

22050-399: Was primarily a god of the sea. Neptune has been associated with a number of other Roman deities. By the first century BC, he had supplanted Portunus as the god of naval victories; Sextus Pompeius called himself the "son of Neptune". For a time, Neptune was paired in his dominion of the sea with Salacia , the goddess of saltwater . Neptune was considered the legendary progenitor god of

22200-504: Was proclaimed King of Portugal by his soldiers. This is traditionally taken as the occasion when the County of Portugal became the independent Kingdom of Portugal and, in 1129, the capital city was transferred from Guimarães to Coimbra. Afonso was recognized as the first king of Portugal in 1143 by King Alfonso VII of León , and in 1179 by Pope Alexander III as Afonso I of Portugal. Afonso Henriques and his successors, aided by military monastic orders , continued pushing southwards against

22350-486: Was proposed by the 19th-century scholars Ludwig Preller , Karl Otfried Müller and Wilhelm Deeke . The name of the Etruscan deity Nethuns or Nethunus ( NÈDVNVZ ) would be an adjectival form of the toponym Nepe(t) or Nepete (present-day Nepi ), near Falerii . The district was traditionally connected to the cult of Neptune, and Messapus and Halesus (the eponymous hero of Falerii) were believed to be his sons. Messapus led

22500-510: Was the god who advised Romulus on the abduction of the Sabines. Perhaps influenced by Poseidon Ίππιος, Consus (whose festival included horse races) was reinterpreted as Neptunus equestris ; for his underground altar, he was identified with Poseidon Ένοσίχθων. The etymology of Poseidon , derived from Posis (lord or husband) and De (grain or earth) may have contributed to the identification of Consus with Neptune. His arcane cult, which required

#179820