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71-550: Sovremennik originated as a private enterprise of Alexander Pushkin who was running out of money to support his growing family. To assist him with the magazine, the poet asked Nikolai Gogol , Pyotr Vyazemsky and Vladimir Odoyevsky to contribute their works to the journal. It was there that the first substantial assortment of Fyodor Tyutchev 's poems was published. Soon it became clear that Pushkin's establishment could not compete with Faddey Bulgarin 's journal, which published more popular and less demanding literature. Sovremennik

142-435: A bed, and to be awakened in the morning. He then locks the door and is not heard from for the rest of the night. The waiter knocks on the man's door the following day to wake him but gets no response and eventually contacts the police. The policemen finally force the door only to find a room empty except for a note linking the man to Liteyny Bridge . The police inform the butler that at that bridge, at half past two that morning,

213-604: A critic and as a journalist marked the birth of Russian magazine culture which included him devising and contributing heavily to one of the most influential literary magazines of the 19th century, the Sovremennik ( The Contemporary , or Современник ). Pushkin inspired the folk tales and genre pieces of other authors: Leskov , Yesenin and Gorky . His use of Russian formed the basis of the style of novelists Ivan Turgenev , Ivan Goncharov and Leo Tolstoy , as well as that of subsequent lyric poets such as Mikhail Lermontov . Pushkin

284-516: A gift for the Ottoman Sultan and later transferred to Russia as a gift for Peter the Great . Abram wrote in a letter to Empress Elizabeth, Peter the Great's daughter, that Gannibal was from the town of "Lagon", largely on the basis of a mythical biography by Gannibal's son-in-law Rotkirch. Vladimir Nabokov , when researching Eugene Onegin , cast serious doubt on this origin theory. Later research by

355-502: A lawsuit from Viéra's parents by secretly eloping. They move into an apartment together on Vasilyevsky Island . Viéra and Lopukhóf intend to live in accordance with their beliefs and draw up a system of elaborate rules, such as not being able to enter each other's sleeping quarters without express permission, so as to give each other the utmost equality, privacy, freedom, and independence. Viéra aspires not only to have economic independence for herself but also to save other young women from

426-490: A letter that makes Viéra turn pale and weep. A young man enters and reads the letter, which states "‘‘I have disturbed your peace of mind. I leave these scenes. Don’t grieve; I love you both so much that I am very happy at my decision. Farewell." Viéra accuses the young man of having blood on his hands, then admits that she herself murdered for the sake of the young man. She tells the young man that they must part, and that she will be moving to Tver or Novgorod . The novel in

497-530: A literary journal widely viewed as Sovremennik ' s successor. Sovremennik inspired Al Nafais Al Asriyyah , an Arabic literary and political magazine which was published in Jerusalem between 1908 and 1923. Alexander Pushkin Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (6 June [ O.S. 26 May] 1799 – 10 February [ O.S. 29 January] 1837)

568-475: A lone gunshot was heard, and it was thought to be a suicide. But no body could be found, leading some to conclude it was a suicide, others a drunkard, and others a practical joker. The story then flashes back to the same morning, in a dacha in the Kamenny Islands (Stone Islands), where the protagonist Viéra Pavlovna is sewing a dress that she plans to wear to her maid, Masha's, wedding. Mash presents her with

639-425: A second. But in the meantime, Kirsanov has fallen in love with Viéra, and she has come to realize that she does not love Lopukhóf as much as she thought she did. Lopukhóf, whose ardour for his wife remains undimmed, recognises this too and tries to manipulate events in the background before eventually discussing the problem with a distraught Viéra. In secret, Lopukhóf disappears and fakes his own suicide, as described in

710-490: A short story frequently anthologized in English translation. Pushkin's works also provided fertile ground for Russian composers. Glinka 's Ruslan and Lyudmila is the earliest important Pushkin-inspired opera, and a landmark in the tradition of Russian music. Tchaikovsky 's operas Eugene Onegin (1879) and The Queen of Spades ( Pikovaya Dama , 1890) became perhaps better known outside of Russia than Pushkin's own works of

781-462: A variety of relationships later in the novel that do not conform to the monogamous and heterosexual social norms. Ultimately, Viéra's fourth dream constructs an agrarian utopia. Viéra's sees a crystal palace that is a technological and scientific marvel. The utopia in Viéra's dream is reminiscent of Charles Fourier 's phalanstères . Viéra's dream-guide champions equal rights between all women and men as

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852-486: A work of literary utopia through its alternating narrative style, wherein Chernyshevsky makes use of metaliterary techniques that implicate the reader through the author's interruptions and direct addresses to the reader. The reader's complicity with the author, who is presumably the narrator, further implicates them in the political act of engaging with Chernyshevsky's ideology. Viéra Pavlovna has four dreams throughout

923-410: Is a work of such complexity that, though it is only about a hundred pages long, translator Vladimir Nabokov needed two full volumes of material to fully render its meaning into English. Because of this difficulty in translation, Pushkin's verse remains largely unknown to English readers. Even so Pushkin has profoundly influenced western writers such as Henry James . Pushkin wrote The Queen of Spades ,

994-556: Is also known for his short stories. In particular his cycle The Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin , including The Shot , were well received. According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas, "the narrative logic and the plausibility of that which is narrated, together with the precision, conciseness – economy of the presentation of reality – all of the above is achieved in Tales of Belkin , especially, and most of all in

1065-540: Is an 1863 novel written by the Russian philosopher , journalist , and literary critic Nikolay Chernyshevsky , written in response to Fathers and Sons (1862) by Ivan Turgenev . The chief character is Viéra Pavlovna, a woman who escapes the control of her family and an arranged marriage to seek economic independence . When he wrote the novel, Chernyshevsky was imprisoned in the Peter and Paul fortress of St. Petersburg and

1136-488: Is now a museum . Pushkin had four children from his marriage to Natalia: Maria (b. 1832), Alexander (b. 1833), Grigory (b. 1835) and Natalia (b. 1836), the last of whom married morganatically Prince Nikolaus Wilhelm of Nassau of the House of Nassau-Weilburg and was granted the title of Countess of Merenberg . Her daughter Sophie married Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia , a grandson of Emperor Nicholas I . Only

1207-479: Is saved from this fate when she meets the medical student, Dmitri Sergéitch Lopukhóf, who has been tutoring her younger brother, Feódor. Lopukhóf and Viéra began meeting privately to avoid her mother's suspicion and to discuss Socialism, gender equality, science, and ways to save her from the arranged marriage. Over time they develop feelings for each another, and because of this and of Lopukhóf's desire to save her from what she describes as her "cellar" at home, they risk

1278-455: Is treating. This young woman is suffering partly because of a lack of freedom to marry as she pleases. Kirsanov not only solves this problem but helps her to realize that the man she wishes to marry is a licentious and lackluster partner. The woman eventually meets and falls in love with Charles Beaumont, a man who claims to have been an American industrialist partially raised in Russia. Charles steers

1349-554: The British Consulate-General in Saint Petersburg , to be his second. Magenis did not formally accept but on 26 January (7 February) approached Viscount d'Archiac to attempt a reconciliation; however d'Archiac refused to speak with him as he was not yet officially Pushkin's second. Magenis, unable to find Pushkin in the evening, sent him a letter through a messenger at 2 o'clock in the morning declining to be his second, as

1420-511: The Peter and Paul Fortress ), satires by Saltykov-Shchedrin, and works by the so-called plebeian authors ( Vasily Sleptsov , Fyodor Reshetnikov , Gleb Uspensky ). The magazine was closed down in June 1866, owing to the official panic that followed the first attempt on Alexander II's life . After that, Nekrasov and Saltykov-Schedrin acquired the rights to publish the Otechestvennye Zapiski ,

1491-485: The Russian invasion of Ukraine . These monuments, along with any toponymy named after him, are now illegal in Ukraine following the implementation of a law that bans symbols "dedicated to persons who publicly, including … in literary and other artistic works, supported, glorified, or justified Russian imperial policy". The centennial of Pushkin's death in 1937 was one of the most significant literary commemorations of

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1562-465: The 12th century. Pushkin's mother, Nadezhda (Nadya) Ossipovna Gannibal (1775–1836), was descended through her paternal grandmother from German and Scandinavian nobility . She was the daughter of Ossip Abramovich Gannibal (1744–1807) and his wife, Maria Alekseyevna Pushkina (1745–1818). Ossip Abramovich Gannibal's father, Pushkin's great-grandfather, was Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), an African page kidnapped and taken to Constantinople as

1633-472: The French Enlightenment , to which he would remain permanently indebted throughout his life, especially Voltaire , whom he described as "the first to follow the new road, and to bring the lamp of philosophy into the dark archives of history". Pushkin gradually became committed to social reform, and emerged as a spokesman for literary radicals. That angered the government and led to his transfer from

1704-516: The Gregorian calendar) 1837 Pushkin sent a "highly insulting letter" to Gekkern. The only answer to that letter could be a challenge to a duel, as Pushkin knew. Pushkin received the formal challenge to a duel through his sister-in-law, Ekaterina Gekkerna, approved by d'Anthès, on the same day through the attaché of the French Embassy, Viscount d'Archiac. Pushkin asked Arthur Magenis , then attaché to

1775-557: The Romantic" and that "he is simultaneously Romantic and not Romantic". Pushkin is usually credited with developing Russian literature. He is seen as having originated the highly nuanced level of language which characterizes Russian literature after him, and he is also credited with substantially augmenting the Russian lexicon. Whenever he found gaps in the Russian vocabulary, he devised calques . His rich vocabulary and highly-sensitive style are

1846-404: The Russian intelligentsia . Sovremennik' s circulation was 3,100 copies in 1848. During the reactionary reign of Nicholas I , the journal had to struggle against censorship and complaints of disgruntled aristocracy. Its position grew more complicated after Herzen's emigration (1847) and Belinsky's death (1848). Despite these hardships, Sovremennik published works by the best Russian authors of

1917-745: The Soviet era, second only to the 1928 centennial of Leo Tolstoy 's birth. Although Pushkin's image was prominently displayed in Soviet propaganda, from billboards to candy wrappers, it conflicted with the ideal Soviet persona. Pushkin was reputed as a libertine with aristocratic tendencies, which clashed with Soviet values and led to a form of repressive revisionism, akin to the Stalinist reworking of Tolstoy's Christian anarchism . [REDACTED] Category What Is to Be Done%3F (novel) What Is to Be Done? ( Russian : Что делать? , romanized :  Chto delat'? , lit.   'What to do?')

1988-487: The ability to become financially independent and self-sufficient. Viéra Pavlovna witnesses a theoretical conversation between Lopukhóf and Kirsanov about the philosophical constituents of dirt in her second dream. While this dream does not appear to directly spur Viéra into revolutionary action, the conversation is an allegory for Chernyshevsky's belief that socioeconomic conditions shape individuals. Wagner says of this dream: Chernyshevsky uses Liebig's theories regarding

2059-461: The book. Emma Goldman , a Russian-born anarchist , describes her intent to found a sewing cooperative based on Viéra Pavlovna's model found in the novel. The novel came to be officially regarded as a Russian classic in the Soviet period, as Chernyshevsky was celebrated as a forefather of the revolution. According to Joseph Frank , "Chernyshevsky's novel, far more than Marx 's Capital , supplied

2130-778: The capital in May 1820. He went to the Caucasus and to Crimea and then to Kamianka and Chișinău in Bessarabia . He joined the Filiki Eteria , a secret organization whose purpose was to overthrow Ottoman rule in Greece and establish an independent Greek state. He was inspired by the Greek Revolution and when the war against the Ottoman Empire broke out, he kept a diary recording the events of

2201-675: The course of the novel. Viéra's dreams ultimately work to transform her own desires into action. Viéra Pavlovna's dreams follow in the Russian literary tradition of the prophetic dream, having a predictive relationship from sleep to waking life. In her first dream, Viéra's "dream-guide" (a version of herself) introduces herself as "the bride of your [Viéra's] bridegroom," solidifying Viéra's intention to marry Lopukhóf and free herself from her cellar. In her dream, Viéra continues to free other young girls from their own cellars. Viéra does so in real life by forming her sewing co-operative and residential commune that affords both herself and other young girls

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2272-463: The day: Leo Tolstoy , Turgenev and Nekrasov. Timofey Granovsky , Sergey Solovyov and other leading historians were published as well. The period between 1852 and 1862 is considered to be the most brilliant in the history of the journal. Nekrasov managed to strike a deal with its leading contributors, whereby their new works were to be published exclusively by him. As regards ideology, Sovremennik grew more radical together with its audience. Belinsky

2343-591: The drama was not staged until 2007. Around 1825–1829 he met and befriended the Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz , during exile in central Russia. In 1829 he travelled through the Caucasus to Erzurum to visit friends fighting in the Russian army during the Russo-Turkish War . At the end of 1829 Pushkin wanted to set off on a journey abroad, the desire reflected in his poem Let's go, I'm ready . He applied for permission for

2414-642: The emotional dynamic that eventually went to make the Russian Revolution ." The novel was controversial upon its publishing and continues to be. Fyodor Dostoevsky mocked the utilitarianism and utopianism of the novel in his 1864 novella Notes from Underground , as well as in his 1872 novel Demons , as did Vladimir Nabokov in his final novel in Russian, The Gift . Leo Tolstoy wrote his own What Is to Be Done? , published in 1886, based on his own ideas of moral responsibility . Vladimir Lenin named his 1902 pamphlet What Is to Be Done? due to

2485-687: The emperor's Titular Counsel of the National Archives. However, because insurgents in the Decembrist Uprising (1825) in Saint Petersburg had kept some of Pushkin's earlier political poems, the emperor retained strict control of everything Pushkin published and he was banned from travelling at will. During that same year (1825) Pushkin also wrote what would become his most famous play, the drama Boris Godunov , while at his mother's estate. He could not, however, gain permission to publish it until five years later. The original and uncensored version of

2556-402: The fate she almost faced. She becomes a seamstress and starts a commune of seamstresses with other young women, many of whose stories are related in the novel. The commune evolves to include shared living arrangements, profit-sharing, and classes provided by educated individuals such as Lopukhóf and his best friend and classmate Alexander Kirsanov. The commune thrives, leading to the formation of

2627-420: The fertility of different types of soil... to expound his own idea that socioeconomic conditions shape an individual's character, and that therefore the revolutionary transformation of these conditions will ensure social justice and prosperity by fostering appropriate personality traits. Viéra Pavlovna's third dream exposes her doubts within her marriage to Lopukhóf, forming the foundation for Viéra's formation of

2698-568: The foundation for modern Russian literature. His accomplishments set new records for development of the Russian language and culture. He became the father of Russian literature in the 19th century, marking the highest achievements of the 18th century and the beginning of literary process of the 19th century. He introduced Russia to all the European literary genres as well as a great number of West European writers. He brought natural speech and foreign influences to create modern poetic Russian. Though his life

2769-695: The foundation for this utopian society. It is here that Viéra recognizes herself as her dream-guide, thus positioning utopian potential in the everyday through such actions and ideologies as Viéra Pavlovna's. More than the novel itself, the book is perhaps best known in the English-speaking world for the response it garnered. The novel inspired several generations of revolutionaries in Russia, including populists , nihilists , and Marxists . Likewise, Vladimir Lenin , Georgi Plekhanov , Peter Kropotkin , Alexandra Kollontay , Rosa Luxemburg , and Swedish writer August Strindberg were all highly impressed with

2840-560: The heroine of Eugene Onegin . Authorities summoned Pushkin to Moscow after his poem Ode to Liberty was found among the belongings of the rebels from the Decembrist Uprising (1825). After his exile in 1820 Pushkin's friends and family continually petitioned for his release, sending letters and meeting Emperor Alexander I and then Emperor Nicholas I on the heels of the Decembrist Uprising. Upon meeting Emperor Nicholas I Pushkin obtained his release from exile and began to work as

2911-457: The idea that the intellectual 's duty was to educate and lead the laboring masses in Russia along a path to socialism that bypassed capitalism . Despite his minor role, Rakhmetov , one of the characters in the novel, became an emblem of the philosophical materialism and nobility of Russian radicalism . Through one character's dream, the novel also expresses a society gaining "eternal joy" of an earthly kind. The work itself can be analyzed as

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2982-708: The journey but received negative response from Nicholas I on 17 January 1830. Around 1828 Pushkin met Natalia Goncharova , then 16 years old and one of the most talked-about beauties of Moscow. After much hesitation Natalia accepted a proposal of marriage from Pushkin in April 1830, but not before she received assurances that the Tsarist government had no intention of persecuting the libertarian poet. Later Pushkin and his wife became regulars of court society. They officially became engaged on 6 May 1830 and sent out wedding invitations. Owing to an outbreak of cholera and other circumstances,

3053-641: The lines of Alexander and Natalia still remain. Natalia's granddaughter, Nadejda , married into the extended British royal family, her husband being the uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh , and is the grandmother of the present Marquess of Milford Haven . Descendants of the poet now live around the globe in the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg and the United States. Critics consider many of his works masterpieces, such as

3124-485: The magazine. Its ideological stance became less clear and consistent. In 1863, Nekrasov managed to resume publishing Sovremennik . He invited Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin (stayed until 1864), Maxim Antonovich , Grigory Yeliseyev and Alexander Pypin to join its editorial staff. Controversy among the members of the editorial staff soon resulted in adoption of a more temperate policy. In 1863-1866, Sovremennik published Chernyshevsky's What Is to Be Done? (written in

3195-438: The main revolves around the life of Viéra Pavlovna Rozalskaïa (often referred to as Viérotchka, Russian for Little Viéra). It begins in the year 1852 with Viéra living on Gorokhovaya Street with her tyrannical mother, Marya Alekséyevna; scheming father, Pavel Konstantinuitch Rozalsky; young brother, Feódor; and the cook, Matrióna. Viéra's parents intend to marry her off to a hedonistic young military officer, Mikhaïl Ivanuitch. She

3266-671: The national uprising. He stayed in Chișinău until 1823 and wrote two Romantic poems which brought him acclaim: The Prisoner of the Caucasus and The Fountain of Bakhchisaray . In 1823, Pushkin moved to Odessa , where he again clashed with the government, which sent him into exile on his mother's rural estate of Mikhailovskoye , near Pskov , from 1824 to 1826. In Mikhaylovskoye, Pushkin wrote nostalgic love poems which he dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, wife of Malorossia 's General-Governor . Then Pushkin worked on his verse-novel Eugene Onegin . In Mikhaylovskoye, in 1825, Pushkin wrote

3337-481: The period of Pushkin's growing literary influence, he met one of Russia's other influential early writers, Nikolai Gogol . After reading Gogol's 1831–1832 volume of short stories Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka , Pushkin supported him and would feature some of Gogol's most famous short stories in the magazine The Contemporary , which he founded in 1836. By the autumn of 1836, Pushkin was falling into greater and greater debt and faced scandalous rumours that his wife

3408-474: The poem The Bronze Horseman and the drama The Stone Guest , a tale of the fall of Don Juan . His poetic short drama Mozart and Salieri (like The Stone Guest , one of the so-called four Little Tragedies , a collective characterization by Pushkin himself in 1830 letter to Pyotr Pletnyov ) was the inspiration for Peter Shaffer 's Amadeus as well as providing the libretto (almost verbatim) to Rimsky-Korsakov 's opera Mozart and Salieri . Pushkin

3479-595: The poem To*** . It is generally believed that he dedicated this poem to Anna Kern , but there are other opinions. Poet Mikhail Dudin believed that the poem was dedicated to the serf Olga Kalashnikova. Pushkinist Kira Victorova believed that the poem was dedicated to the Empress Elizaveta Alekseyevna. Vadim Nikolayev argued that the idea about the Empress was marginal and refused to discuss it, while trying to prove that poem had been dedicated to Tatyana Larina,

3550-497: The possibility of a peaceful settlement had already been quashed, and the traditional first task of the second was to try to bring about a reconciliation. The pistol duel with d'Anthès took place on 27 January (8 February) at the Black River , without the presence of a second for Pushkin. The duel they fought was of a kind known as a "barrier duel". The rules of this type dictated that the duellists began at an agreed distance. After

3621-403: The preface. This leaves Kirsanov and Viéra free to marry one another. Eventually, the famed Rakhmetov character reveals Lopukhóf's faked suicide to Viéra. Though satisfied with her work with the seamstress commune, Viéra begins to study medicine to become a doctor and break the public prejudice against women joining such a profession. The book's final section focuses on Kirsanov and the patient he

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3692-534: The prestigious Imperial Lyceum in Tsarskoye Selo , near Saint Petersburg, his talent was already widely recognized on the Russian literary scene. At the Lyceum, he was a student of David Mara, known in Russia as David de Boudry  [ fr ] , a younger brother of French revolutionary Jean-Paul Marat . After school, Pushkin plunged into the vibrant and raucous intellectual youth culture of St. Petersburg, which

3763-1318: The same name. Mussorgsky 's monumental Boris Godunov (two versions, 1868–9 and 1871–2) ranks as one of the very finest and most original of Russian operas. Other Russian operas based on Pushkin include Dargomyzhsky 's Rusalka and The Stone Guest ; Rimsky-Korsakov 's Mozart and Salieri , Tale of Tsar Saltan , and The Golden Cockerel ; Cui 's Prisoner of the Caucasus , Feast in Time of Plague , and The Captain's Daughter ; Tchaikovsky 's Mazeppa ; Rachmaninoff 's one-act operas Aleko (based on The Gypsies ) and The Miserly Knight ; Stravinsky 's Mavra , and Nápravník 's Dubrovsky . Additionally, ballets and cantatas , as well as innumerable songs , have been set to Pushkin's verse (including even his French-language poems, in Isabelle Aboulker 's song cycle " Caprice étrange "). Suppé , Leoncavallo and Malipiero have also based operas on his works. Composers Yudif Grigorevna Rozhavskaya , Galina Konstantinovna Smirnova , Yevgania Yosifovna Yakhina , Maria Semyonovna Zavalishina , Zinaida Petrovna Ziberova composed folk songs using Pushkin's text. The Desire of Glory , which has been dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova,

3834-598: The scholars Dieudonné Gnammankou and Hugh Barnes eventually conclusively established that Gannibal was instead born in Central Africa, in an area bordering Lake Chad in modern-day Cameroon . After education in France as a military engineer , Gannibal became governor of Reval and eventually Général en Chief (the third most senior army rank) in charge of the building of sea forts and canals in Russia. Born in Moscow, Pushkin

3905-610: The serfs and advocated the interests of serfs in the strongest terms possible. In 1859-1861, Sovremennik argued with Herzen's Kolokol about the aims of the Russian democracy. Such a radical stance alienated those writers who were indifferent to politics or personally disliked revolutionary intelligentsia. Although Tolstoy, Turgenev, and Dmitry Grigorovich eventually left the magazine, Sovremennik' s circulation reached 7,126 copies in 1861. The death of Dobrolyubov in 1861, an 8-month suspension of publishing activities (in June 1862), and Chernyshevsky's arrest caused irreparable damage to

3976-531: The signal to begin, they walked towards each other, closing the distance. They could fire at any time they wished, but the duellist that shot first was required to stand still and wait for the other to shoot back at his leisure. D'Anthès fired first, critically wounding Pushkin; the bullet entered at his hip and penetrated his abdomen. D'Anthès was only lightly wounded in the right arm by Pushkin's shot. Two days later, at 2.45 pm on 29 January (10 February), Pushkin died of peritonitis . At Pushkin's wife's request he

4047-450: The story The Stationmaster . Pushkin is the progenitor of the long and fruitful development of Russian realist literature, for he manages to attain the realist ideal of a concise presentation of reality". Pushkin himself preferred his verse novel Eugene Onegin , which he wrote over the course of his life and which, starting a tradition of great Russian novels, follows a few central characters but varies widely in tone and focus. Onegin

4118-463: The wedding was delayed for a year. The ceremony took place on 18 February 1831 (Old Style) in the Great Ascension Church on Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street in Moscow. Pushkin's marriage to Goncharova was largely a happy one, but his wife’s characteristic flirtatiousness and frivolity would lead to his fatal duel seven years later, for Pushkin had a highly jealous temperament. In 1831, during

4189-530: The young woman towards Viéra's circle, which she quickly joins. Finally, Charles and the woman marry. Viéra meets Charles for the first time and realizes that Charles is Lopukhóf returned from the U.S. And the Kirsanovs and "Beaumonts" eventually move in together in a ménage à quatre. The novel advocates the creation of small socialist cooperatives based on the Russian peasant commune , but ones that are oriented toward industrial production . The author promoted

4260-452: Was a Russian poet, playwright, and novelist of the Romantic era . He is considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet, as well as the founder of modern Russian literature . Pushkin was born into the Russian nobility in Moscow. Pushkin's father, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin (1767–1848), was descended from a distinguished family of the Russian nobility that traced its ancestry back to

4331-598: Was analysed by Nikolai Gogol , his successor and pupil, and the great Russian critic Vissarion Belinsky , who produced the fullest and deepest critical study of Pushkin's work, which still retains much of its relevance. In the centennial year of Pushkin's death in 1937, a mass renaming of streets across the entire Soviet Union occurred in his honour. Prior to 2022, Pushkin was the third most common historical figure represented in Ukraine’s streets, but his monuments were removed and streets bearing his name were renamed following

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4402-407: Was brief, he left examples of nearly every literary genre of his day: lyric poetry, narrative poetry, the novel, the short story, the drama, the critical essay and even the personal letter. According to Vladimir Nabokov , Pushkin's idiom combined all the contemporaneous elements of Russian with all he had learned from Derzhavin , Zhukovsky , Batyushkov , Karamzin and Krylov : His work as

4473-407: Was entrusted to nursemaids and French tutors, and spoke mostly French until the age of ten. He became acquainted with the Russian language through communication with household serfs and his nanny, Arina Rodionovna, whom he loved dearly and to whom he was more attached than to his own mother. He published his first poem at the age of 15. When he finished school, as part of the first graduating class of

4544-584: Was having a love affair. On 4 November, he sent a challenge to a duel to Georges d'Anthès , also known as Dantes-Gekkern. Jacob van Heeckeren , d'Anthès' adoptive father, asked that the duel be delayed by two weeks. With efforts by the poet's friends, the duel was cancelled. On 17 November, d'Anthès proposed to Natalia Goncharova's sister, Ekaterina. The marriage did not resolve the conflict. D'Anthès continued to pursue Natalia Goncharova in public and rumours that d'Anthès had married Natalia's sister just to save her reputation circulated. On 26 January (7 February in

4615-441: Was out of date and could not command a paying audience. When Pushkin died, his friend Pyotr Pletnyov took over the editorship in 1838. A few years later the magazine fell into decline, and Pletnyov handed it over to Nikolay Nekrasov and Ivan Panaev in 1847. It was Nekrasov who really made the magazine profitable. He enlisted the services of Ivan Turgenev , Ivan Goncharov , Alexander Herzen and Nikolai Ogaryov . Sovremennik

4686-508: Was put in the coffin in evening dress, not in chamber-cadet uniform, the uniform provided by the emperor. The funeral service was initially assigned to St Isaac's Cathedral but was moved to Konyushennaya church. Many people attended. After the funeral the coffin was lowered into the basement, where it stayed until 3 February, when it was removed to Pskov province. Pushkin was buried in the grounds of Svyatogorsky monastery in present-day Pushkinskiye Gory , near Pskov, beside his mother. His last home

4757-621: Was set to music by David Tukhmanov , as well as Keep Me, Mine Talisman – by Alexander Barykin and later by Tukhmanov. Pushkin is considered by many to be the central representative of Romanticism in Russian literature although he was not unequivocally known as a Romantic. Russian critics have traditionally argued that his works represent a path from Neoclassicism through Romanticism to Realism . An alternative assessment suggests that "he had an ability to entertain contrarities which may seem Romantic in origin, but are ultimately subversive of all fixed points of view, all single outlooks, including

4828-565: Was soon to spend years in Siberia . He asked for and received permission to write the novel in prison. The authorities passed the manuscript along to the newspaper Sovremennik , his former employer, which published it in installments. What Is to Be Done? begins on July 23, 1856, with an unknown man checking into a hotel in St. Petersburg near the Moskovsky Railway Station asking for a meal,

4899-414: Was succeeded by Nikolai Chernyshevsky in 1853 and by Nikolai Dobrolyubov . All their principal articles were published in Sovremennik . In late 1858, the magazine entered into polemics with the liberal and conservative press and became a platform for and ideological center of the revolutionary democracy, turning into a political magazine. In 1861, it published materials, dedicated to the emancipation of

4970-421: Was the first to publish translated works by Charles Dickens , George Sand and other best-selling foreign writers. Although the magazine was owned and run by Nekrasov, its official editor-in-chief was Alexander Nikitenko . The virulent realist critic Vissarion Belinsky was responsible for its ideology. His criticism of present-day reality and propaganda of democratic ideas made the journal very popular among

5041-509: Was then the capital of the Russian Empire . In 1820, he published his first long poem, Ruslan and Ludmila , with much controversy about its subject and style. While at the Lyceum, Pushkin was heavily influenced by the Kantian liberal individualist teachings of Alexander Kunitsyn , whom Pushkin would later commemorate in his poem 19 October . Pushkin also immersed himself in the thought of

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