Misplaced Pages

#632367

66-610: The mosque was originally commissioned in 1794 by Sultan Selim III , but most of the current mosque that stands today was completed in 1854 during the reign of Sultan Abdülmecit I . It was designed by Krikor Balyan , of the famed family of Armenian architects. It was constructed during a time when several well-known structures in Istanbul were being built or renovated, including the Ortaköy Mosque and Dolmabahçe Palace , in styles imported from Europe . Its front facade, constructed during

132-536: A mosque or other Islamic place of worship in Turkey is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Selim III Selim III ( Ottoman Turkish : سليم ثالث , romanized :  Selim-i sâlis ; Turkish : III. Selim ; 24 December 1761 – 28 July 1808) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. Regarded as an enlightened ruler , he was eventually deposed and imprisoned by

198-551: A clear indication that the devshirme system was no longer functional. Officered and trained by Europeans, the Nizam-I Cedid was outfitted with modern weapons and French-style uniforms. By 1806, the new army numbered around 23,000 troops, including a modern artillery corps, and its units performed effectively in minor actions. But Selim III's inability to integrate the force with the regular army and his reluctance to deploy it against his domestic opponents limited its role in defending

264-463: A concept and an organization, was largely the work of von der Goltz. However, although the consensus that Abdulhamid favoured the modernization of the Ottoman army and the professionalization of the officer corps was fairly general, it seems that he neglected the military during the last fifteen years of his reign, and he also cut down the military budget. The problem with the army (numbering Ca. 700,000 at

330-645: A fateful turn with the return of the hated Janissaries , ousted eight years before. These forces murdered Selim's enlightened governor, ending this province's best rule in the last 100 years. Neither arms nor diplomacy could restore Ottoman authority. French influence with the Sublime Porte (the European diplomatic designation of the Ottoman state) did not revive. Still, it led the Sultan to defy St. Petersburg and London, and Turkey joined Napoleon's Continental System . War

396-494: A great deal. One example of an advisor who achieved limited success was the François Baron de Tott , a French officer. He did succeed in having a new foundry built to make artillery. He also directed the construction of a new naval base. However it was almost impossible for him to divert soldiers from the regular army into the new units. The new ships and guns that made it into service were too few to have much of an influence on

462-558: A new army, so a new treasury ['Irad-i Cedid'] had to be established. The result was the Porte now had an efficient, European-trained army equipped with modern weapons. However it had fewer than 10,000 soldiers in an era when Western armies were ten to fifty times larger. Furthermore, the Sultan was upsetting the well-established traditional political powers. As a result it was rarely used, apart from its use against Napoléon Bonaparte's expeditionary force at Gaza and Rosetta as well as quelling of

528-689: A renovation in the late 19th century, gives it a unique appearance, with huge white columns. It has become a sort of stand-out symbol in the upscale, bustling quarter of Nişantaşı . It is also often used as the starting point of funerals for famous and public figures. The mosque was closed for renovations in 2018, with it reopening in April 2021. The novelist Orhan Pamuk mentions the mosque in one of his memoirs. [REDACTED] Media related to Teşvikiye Mosque at Wikimedia Commons 41°02′58″N 28°59′39″E  /  41.04944°N 28.99417°E  / 41.04944; 28.99417 This article about

594-892: Is overwhelming support for his new military reforms. Selim III was a member of the Mevlevi Order of Sufi Whirling Dervishes and entered into the order at the Galata Mevlevihanesi under the name ″Selim Dede". He was a renowned composer, creating many musical compositions, including a Mevlevi ayin , a long and complex liturgical form performed during the semâ (religious ceremonies) of the Mevlana ( Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi ) Tariqah of Sufi Whirling Mystics, in makam Suzidilara. He extended his patronage to Antoine Ignace Melling , appointed court architect in 1795. Melling constructed several palaces and other buildings for

660-513: Is recounted that the Sultan rose in respect when Tanburi İzak Efendi entered the court. As a patron of the arts, Selim III encouraged musicians of his day, including Dede Efendi and Baba Hamparsum . The Hamparsum notation system that Selim commissioned became the dominant notation for Turkish and Armenian music. His name is associated with a school in Classical Turkish Music due to the revival and rebirth of music at his court. Selim III

726-569: The Balkan provinces such as the Sanjak of Smederevo against its appointed Vizier Hadži Mustafa Pasha , where disaffected governors made no scruple of attempting to make use of them against the reforming sultan. Emboldened by this success, Selim III issued an order that in the future, picked men should be taken annually from the Janissaries to serve in the Nizam-I Cedid . Selim III was unable to integrate

SECTION 10

#1733318767633

792-523: The Balkans . For decades, a sultan's word had had no power in outlying provinces, prompting Selim's reforms of the military to reimpose central control. This desire was not fulfilled. One rebellious leader was Austrian-backed Osman Pazvantoğlu , whose invasion of Wallachia in 1801 inspired Russian intervention, resulting in greater autonomy for the Dunubian provinces. Serbian conditions also deteriorated. They took

858-474: The First Serbian Uprising at the battle of Deligrad . The new army was dissolved by reactionary elements with the overthrow of Selim in 1807, but it became the model of the new Ottoman Army created later in the 19th century. Western military advisors were imported as advisors but their abilities to enact change were limited. A parade of French officers were brought in, and none of them could do

924-664: The Janissaries , who placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV ( r.  1807–1808 ). A group of assassins subsequently killed Selim. Selim III was the son of Sultan Mustafa III and his wife Mihrişah Sultan . His mother, Mihrişah Sultan, originated in Georgia , and when she became the Valide sultan , she participated in reforming the government schools and establishing political corporations. His father, Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III ,

990-452: The 1780s. The Mamluks spent their entire time dedicated to training and fighting and jealously guarded their military privileges banning anyone from riding a horse in Egypt. The mamluks had by this period fully adopted firearms and trained with these and had abandoned horse archery. There were also musketeers, janissaries, sipahis and other Ottoman units though these had long since degenerated and

1056-640: The Arabs and Mamluks provided the main forces in Egypt. When Selim III came to the throne in 1789, an ambitious effort of military reform was launched, geared towards securing the Ottoman Empire. The sultan and those who surrounded him were conservative and desired to preserve the status quo. Selim III in 1789 to 1807 set up the " Nizam-i Cedid " [new order] army to replace the inefficient and outmoded imperial army. The old system depended on Janissaries , who had largely lost their military effectiveness. Selim closely followed Western military forms. It would be expensive for

1122-913: The British. Tipu Sultan wrote twice to Selim III, rejecting the advice of the Ottomans; before most of his letters could arrive in Constantinople, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out and Tipu Sultan was killed during the Siege of Seringapatam (1799) . Many Ottoman sultans imposed alcohol bans (often with limited success). Despite Selim III's hardline stance on alcohol consumption and threats to execute Christians and Jews caught selling wine or rakı to Muslims, it proved extremely difficult to curtail alcohol consumption in Istanbul , where wines were locally produced, and

1188-633: The European side of the Boshporus. In Antatolia the majority of local musketeers were Kurdish and the governor of Trabzon organised his own army and proclaimed his independence. However the majority of the Ayans remained loyal including those in the Caucauss with the Kabartay princes and their 30,000 soldiers remaining loyal to the Sultan. In Iraq, mamluks were used for local law and order whilst Arab troops occupied

1254-416: The Janissaries by other regular troops. The Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 did not give him time to organize a new army, and the Sultan was forced to fight with these young and undisciplined recruits. The war was brought to a close by the disastrous Treaty of Adrianople . While the reforms in question were mainly implemented to improve the military, the most notable development that arose out of these efforts

1320-495: The New Order's permanent presence into Rumelia by establishing New Order barracks in the region's cities. The outcome of the confrontation was the retreat of imperial forces to Istanbul and Anatolia, which constituted a death blow to Selim III's ambitions of expanding his reformed army and a major blow to his legitimacy. This deteriorated image would result in his deposition the following May. Selim III was, however, thoroughly under

1386-602: The Nizam-I Cedid with the rest of the army which overall limited its role in defense of the state. Selim III ascended the throne only to find that the Ottoman Empire of old had been considerably reduced due to conflicts outside the realm. In the north, Russia had taken the Black Sea through the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774. Selim realized the importance of diplomatic relations with other nations and pushed for permanent embassies in

SECTION 20

#1733318767633

1452-519: The Ottoman army and de Tott returned home. He was succeeded by a Scot known as Ingiliz Mustafa . When they had requested French help, General Bonaparte was to be sent to Constantinople in 1795 to help organize Ottoman artillery. He did not go, for just days before he was to embark for the Near East he proved himself useful to the Directory by putting down a Parisian mob in the whiff of grapeshot and

1518-582: The Russians won several victories that gave them control of the lower Dniester and Danube rivers, and further Russian successes compelled the Turks to sign the Treaty of Jassy on 9 January 1792. Turkey ceded the entire western Ukrainian Black Sea coast to Russia by this treaty. When Turkey deposed the Russophile governors of Moldavia and Walachia in 1806, war broke out again, though in a desultory fashion since Russia

1584-399: The Sultan and created engravings of contemporary Constantinople. Selim III had numerous consorts, but no children. Selim III had at least thirteen consorts: [REDACTED] Media related to Selim III at Wikimedia Commons Ottoman Reform Efforts under Selim III and Mahmoud II Ottoman military reforms began in the late 18th century. The Janissary Corps had long been

1650-698: The Turks in Bulgaria . The Turks were compelled to seek peace, concluding in the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca . This treaty made the Crimean khanate independent of the Turkish sultan and advanced the Russian frontier. Russia was now in a much stronger position to expand, and in 1783 Catherine annexed the Crimean Peninsula outright. War broke out in 1787, with Austria again on the side of Russia. Under General Alexander Suvorov ,

1716-418: The age of 27. Sultan Selim III was very fond of literature and calligraphy ; many of his works were put on the walls of mosques and convents. He wrote many poems, especially about Crimea's occupation by Russia . He spoke Arabic , Persian , Turkish and Old Bulgarian fluently. Selim III showed great importance to patriotism and religion. He demonstrated his poetry and music skills and was fond of fine arts and

1782-450: The army. The talents and energy with which Selim III was endowed had endeared him to the people, and great hopes were founded on his accession. He had associated much with foreigners and was thoroughly persuaded of the necessity of reforming his state. However, Austria and Russia gave him no time for anything but defense, and it was not until the Peace of Iaşi (1792) that breathing space

1848-525: The city had many established wine-houses serving its non-Muslim residents. The 1806 Edirne Incident was an armed confrontation between the New Order Troops ( Nizam-I Cedid ) of Ottoman Sultan Selim III and a coalition of Balkan magnates, the ayans , and the region's Janissary garrisons that occurred in Thrace throughout the summer of 1806. The cause of the incident was Selim III's attempt to expand

1914-508: The courts of all the great nations of Europe, a hard task because of religious prejudice towards Muslims. Even with the religious obstacles, resident embassies were established in Britain , France , Prussia and Austria . Selim, a cultured poet and musician, carried on an extended correspondence with Louis XVI . Although distressed by the establishment of the republic in France, the Ottoman government

1980-484: The effective strength of the standing army to 365,000 men. Deployment at the time consisted of the following: Aside from deployed troops, the Ottoman military also had the following units: Besides augmentation of 32,000 men by the submission of Bosnia and Northern Albania to the new system; and a further increase of 40,000 men, which Serbia had arranged to furnish, 18,000 men served in Egypt , which would act to reinforce

2046-528: The end of Selim III 's reign, however, they experienced a renewal, expanding to some 10,000 salaried Sipahis (not including provincial cavalry or irregular Deli horsemen). This was a considerable cavalry force, with many of the troopers being instructed by the French advisors to the Porte . The artillery was divided into the topçu ocağı (artillery corps) and the humbaracı ocağı (mortar corps), these 2 groups received

Teşvikiye Mosque - Misplaced Pages Continue

2112-407: The fiscal department, sought by well-considered plans to extend the spread of education, and engaged foreign officers as instructors, by whom a small corps of new troops called Nizam-I Cedid were collected and drilled in 1797. This unit comprised Turkish peasant youths from Anatolia and was supplied with modern weaponry. These troops were able to hold their own against rebellious Janissaries in

2178-677: The forts around Baghdad and they proved adept in combat rebelling the Wahhabi raiders. In Syria local government was more divided with many of the Pashas maintaining sizable personal armies ranging from 1,000 cavalry and 900 cavalry to 300 cavalry and 100 infantry. The troops were of an ethnic mix and some zamburaks were noted to be used in the Syrian armies. The Mamluks were the pre-eminent force in Egypt with their forces numbering 10,000 men in strength with 3,000 assistants with 8,500 mamluks in training in

2244-556: The influence of French ambassador to the Porte Horace Sébastiani , and the fleet was compelled to retire without effecting its purpose. However, the anarchy, manifest or latent, existing throughout the provinces proved too great for Selim III to cope with. The Janissaries rose once more in revolt, induced the Sheikh ul-Islam to grant a fetva against the reforms, dethroned and imprisoned Selim III , and placed his cousin Mustafa on

2310-466: The mainstay of the Ottoman infantry and remained so until its disbandment in 1826. However, estimates of the strength of the Corps vary greatly: by 1790, some 12,000 (2,000 combat) were said to reside in Istanbul alone, yet when summoned for campaign in 1810, only 13,000 assembled. Various other estimates place the total strength between 150,000 and 400,000, of which only 50,000 actually served as soldiers (with

2376-516: The most attention from the reformers with French and Spanish assistance during the 1807 Anglo-Turkish war , where the Ottoman artillery assembled 322 cannons and mortars alongside thousands of troops to defend the coastline of the Sea of Marmara, necessitating a British withdrawal. The Topçu corps alone contained 30,000 men and the suratçı ocağı (rapid-fire gun corps) had 2,000 men. The artillery corps had 10 infantry assigned per gun and they jointly garrisoned

2442-591: The next year, the embassies in Europe were dismantled, the Nizam-I Cedid troops were dispersed, and the deposed sultan, whose cautious military reforms were intended to do no more than preserve the tradition of the Ottomans, was murdered. The Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791) was an inconclusive struggle between the Austrian and Ottoman Empires. It took place at the same time as the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 , during

2508-479: The other three, a consequence of the recruiting system being as yet incomplete in its application all over the Ottoman Empire. The whole establishment of this branch amounts, therefore, to 180,000 men, belonging to the active service, but its effective strength is at present 123,000. The reserve of four of the six armies consisted of eleven regiments, six of which were infantry, four of cavalry, and one of artillery. The total combined force equalled 12,000 troops, while

2574-446: The other two armies have not met their reserve of soldiers who have served five years. In time of war, however, the reserve would form two corps of 25,000 men in each army; giving a total of 300,000. The two services, therefore, as they stood, formed an effective force of 135,000 men; and when their full strength shall have been filled up it will amount to 480,000. Besides these six armies there were four detached corps. These corps raise

2640-591: The palace guards of the empire and numbered no more than a few thousand throughout the period and were an elite reserve around Edirne and Istanbul. The Bosnians were organised into the panduks and the Anatolian Turks into the Sekban . The Tufenkis who were mounted infantry were largely Kurdish in origin. The Sipahis , traditionally paid by Timars , had degenerated considerably by the 18th century, shrinking from an earlier peak of 30,000 to as few as 2,000 to 3,000. By

2706-400: The regular repertory of Turkish classical music performance. Aside from composing music, Selim III also performed on the ney (reed flute) and tanbur (long-necked, fretted lute). Selim III's interest in music started in his days as a prince ( shahzade ) when he studied under Kırımlı Ahmet Kamil Efendi and Tanburi İzak Efendi. He was exceptionally respectful of Tanburi İzak Efendi, and it

Teşvikiye Mosque - Misplaced Pages Continue

2772-633: The reign of the Ottoman Sultan Selim III. The first major Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) began after Turkey demanded that Russia's ruler, Catherine II the Great , abstain from interfering in Poland's internal affairs. The Russians went on to win impressive victories over the Turks. They captured Azov, the Crimea , and Bessarabia, and under Field Marshal Pyotr Rumyantsev , they overran Moldavia and also defeated

2838-502: The remainder collecting pay but refusing to fight). Despite their backwardness in terms of combat, the Corps possessed immense espirit-de-corps , showing great initiative and often fighting to the death. While engaged in combat, the Janissaries would at times mock Western soldiers for their tendency to fight in close order formations. Their older matchlock muskets, despite being slower to fire, were preferred over newer flintlocks, on account of their greater range and accuracy. These were

2904-409: The reserve of the fifth army. The marines, sailors, and workmen, enrolled in brigades that amounted to 34,000 total men. The grand total of armed men at the disposal of Ottoman Empire at the time could be calculated at no less than 664,000 men. In addition, the Ottomans could call-up occasional levies , which were more easily and efficiently utilized in the Ottoman Empire than in any other country at

2970-417: The reserve, two brigadiers of cavalry, and one brigadier of artillery. In each corps there were three regiments of infantry, two of cavalry, and one of artillery, with thirty-three guns. The total strength of these twelve regiments of active forces was 30,000 men, but it was diminished in time of peace by furlough to an effective strength of about 25,000 men in three of the six armies, as well as 15,000 troops in

3036-424: The state it was created to preserve. From the start of Selim's reign, the Janissaries had viewed this entire military reform program as a threat to their independence, and they refused to serve alongside the new army in the field. The powerful derebeys were alarmed by how the sultan financed his new forces—he confiscated timars and directed the other revenue toward the Nizam-I Cedid . Further opposition came from

3102-475: The throne, as Mustafa IV (1807–08), on 29 May 1807. The ayan of Rustchuk , Alemdar Mustafa , a strong partisan of the reforms, collected an army of 40,000 men and marched on Constantinople to reinstate Selim III, but he came too late. The ill-fated reforming Sultan had been stabbed in the seraglio by the Chief Black Eunuch and his men. Upon his arrival in the capital, Bairakdar's only resource

3168-470: The time. After years of peace and stability the modernized army was put to test in the Crimean War . Abdul Hamid II attached utmost importance to the reorganization of the military. As early as 1880 he sought, and two years later secured, German assistance, which culminated in the appointment of Lt. Col. Kohler and, finally, Colmar Von der Goltz as military advisors. The curriculum of Harbiye (War College)

3234-417: The ulama and other ruling elite members who objected to the European models on which Selim based his military reforms. Led by the rebellious Janissaries, these forces came together in 1806, deposed Selim III, and selected a successor, Mustafa IV, who pledged not to interfere with their privileges. The decree of deposition accused Selim III of failing to respect Islam's religion and the Ottomans' tradition. Over

3300-524: The war that had begun in 1806, this peace agreement established the Ottoman cession of Bessarabia to Russia. The Russians also secured amnesty and a promise of autonomy for the Serbs, who had rebelled against Turkish rule, but Turkish garrisons were given control of the Serbian fortresses. Several disputes forestalled the treaty's implementation, and Turkish troops invaded Serbia again the following year. Tipu Sultan

3366-588: The year 1798, causing a furor in Constantinople . The British then appealed to Selim III to send a letter to Tipu Sultan requesting the Sultanate of Mysore to halt its state of war against the British East India Company . Selim III then wrote a letter to Tipu Sultan criticizing the French and also informed Tipu Sultan that the Ottomans would act as an intermediary between the Sultanate of Mysore and

SECTION 50

#1733318767633

3432-434: Was a series of schools teaching everything from math to medicine to train new officers. Sultan Abdulmejid I enjoyed several years of peace, which enabled him to form a powerful and well disciplined army that was established at the beginning of the year 1842. The chain-of-command in the general staff of each army was composed of a commander-in-chief, two lieutenant-generals, three brigadiers of infantry, one of whom commands

3498-408: Was allowed him in Europe, while Napoleon 's invasion of Egypt and Syria soon called for the empire's most vigorous efforts. Ottoman provinces from Egypt to Syria began implementing French policies and differed away from Istanbul after Napoleon 's attack. Selim III profited by the respite to abolish the military tenure of fiefs; he introduced salutary reforms into the administration, especially in

3564-527: Was also interested in Western music and, in 1797, invited an opera troupe for the first opera performance in the Ottoman Empire. Writing under the nom de plume ″İlhami″, Selim's poetry is collected in a divan . Among regular attendees of his court was Şeyh Galib, considered one of the four greatest Ottoman poets. Galib is now believed to have been not only an intimate friend of the Sultan, as they were both relatively close in age, but through Galib's poetry, there

3630-561: Was an independent ruler of the Sultanate of Mysore , with high regard for loyalty to the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II . He had urgently requested Ottoman assistance during the Third Anglo-Mysore War , in which he had suffered an irreversible defeat. Tipu Sultan then began to consolidate his relations with France. In an attempt to support and open a route to link up with Tipu Sultan, Napoleon invaded Ottoman Egypt in

3696-623: Was approaching the city with his army to reinstate Selim. Therefore, Mustafa IV gave orders to murder him and his brother Prince Mahmud. The assassins were a group of men, including the Master of the Wardrobe, Fettah the Georgian, the Treasury steward Ebe Selim, and a black eunuch named Nezir Ağa. Selim knew his end was coming when he saw their swords drawn. Pakize Hanım threw herself between them and her lord; she

3762-449: Was cut in her hand. Refet Kadın started screaming in terror, and another slave girl who rushed in fainted when she saw what was about to happen. A struggle ensued, and the former sultan was cut down and murdered, his last words being " Allahu Akbar " ("God is great"). Refet Kadın threw herself on the body but was dragged away. The body was quickly wrapped in a quilt. The assassins moved on to find Prince Mahmud and attempted to murder him. He

3828-554: Was declared on Russia on 27 December and on Britain in March 1807. The Sultan's most ambitious military project was the creation of an entirely new infantry corps fully trained and equipped according to the latest European standards. This unit called the Nizam-I Cedid (the new order), was formed in 1797 and adopted a pattern of recruitment that was uncommon for the imperial forces; it was composed of Turkish peasant youths from Anatolia,

3894-519: Was kept in France. In 1808 Mustafa IV was replaced by Mahmud II with martial law of Alemdar Mustafa Pasha who restarted the reform efforts. His first task was to ally with the Janissaries in order to break the power of the provincial governors. He then turned on the Janissaries, massacring them in their barracks in Istanbul and the provincial capitals in 1826, which is known as the Auspicious Incident . The Sultan now set himself to replace

3960-501: Was more fortunate and later ordered the assassins to be executed. Selim III would be the only Ottoman sultan killed by a sword. He was buried in Laleli Mosque near his father's tomb. A great music lover, Sultan Selim III was a composer and performer of significant talent. He created fourteen makam -s (melodic types), three of which are in current use today. Sixty-four compositions by Selim III are known today, some of which are part of

4026-408: Was reluctant to concentrate large forces against Turkey while its relations with Napoleonic France were so uncertain. But in 1811, with the prospect of a war between France and Russia in sight, the latter sought a quick decision on its southern frontier. The Russian field marshal Mikhail Kutuzov ’s victorious campaign of 1811–12 forced the Turks to sign the Treaty of Bucharest on 18 May 1812. Ending

SECTION 60

#1733318767633

4092-461: Was significantly influenced by mysticism. An oracle predicted his son Selim would be a world conqueror, so he organized a seven-day joyous feast. Selim was very well educated in the palace. Sultan Mustafa III named his son his successor; however, Selim's uncle Abdul Hamid I ascended the throne after Mustafa's death. Sultan Abdul Hamid I took care of Selim and emphasized his education. After Abdul Hamid's death, Selim succeeded him on 7 April 1789, at

4158-457: Was soothed by French representatives in Constantinople who maintained the goodwill of various influential personages. On 1 July 1798, however, French forces landed in Egypt , and Selim declared war on France. In alliance with Russia and Britain, the Turks were in periodic conflict with the French on land and sea until March 1801. Peace came in June 1802, but the following year brought new trouble in

4224-548: Was specialized further to train staff officers in the European style. The school’s name was changed to Mekteb-i Fununu Harb (School of War Science). It was during his reign that the officers’ training was upgraded and regularized, starting with the mid-level military rt2diye and idadi schools and culminating in the Mekteb-i Harbiye (War College) or, for the most capable, in the Erkan-i Harbiye (Chiefs of Staff). The last, as

4290-494: Was to wreak his vengeance on Mustafa IV and to place on the throne Mahmud II (1808–1839), the sole surviving member of the House of Osman . Another version about his murder states that at the time of his deposition, Selim was staying at the Harem. The night of Thursday, 28 July 1808, he was with two of his consorts, Refet Kadın and Pakize Hanım. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha , a loyalist of Selim,

4356-489: Was very well educated and believed in the necessity of reforms. Mustafa III attempted to create a powerful army with professional, well-educated soldiers during peacetime. This was primarily motivated by his fear of a Russian invasion. During the Russo-Turkish War, he fell ill and died of a heart attack in 1774. Sultan Mustafa was aware of the fact that a military reform was necessary. He declared new military regulations and opened maritime and artillery academies. Sultan Mustafa

#632367