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91-502: Termites are a group of detritophagous eusocial insects which consume a variety of decaying plant material , generally in the form of wood , leaf litter , and soil humus . They are distinguished by their moniliform antennae and the soft-bodied and often unpigmented worker caste for which they have been commonly termed " white ants "; however, they are not ants , to which they are only distantly related. About 2,972 extant species are currently described, 2,105 of which are members of

182-417: A brief amount of time, so they also rely on their legs. The appearance of the legs is similar in each caste, but the soldiers have larger and heavier legs. The structure of the legs is consistent with other insects: the parts of a leg include a coxa , trochanter , femur , tibia and the tarsus . The number of tibial spurs on an individual's leg varies. Some species of termite have an arolium, located between

273-446: A certain developmental path. Workers may also be fertile or sterile, however the term "worker" is normally reserved for the latter, having evolved in taxa that exhibit a bifurcated developmental pathway. As a result, sterile workers like in the family Termitidae are termed true workers and are the most derived, while those that are undifferentiated and fertile as in the wood-nesting Archotermopsidae are termed pseudergates , which are

364-424: A cricket context, these countries are often referred to simply as the subcontinent around the world e.g. " Australia's tour of the subcontinent". The word is also sometimes used as an adjective in this context e.g. "subcontinental conditions". The Indian subcontinent was formerly part of Gondwana , a supercontinent formed during the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic . Gondwana began to break up during

455-405: A crucial role in benthic ecosystems, forming essential food chains and participating in the nitrogen cycle . Detritivores and decomposers that reside in the desert live in burrows underground to avoid the hot surface since underground conditions provide favorable living conditions for them. Detritivores are the main organisms in clearing plant litter and recycling nutrients in the desert. Due to

546-573: A distinct political entity that eventually became a nation-state (today the Republic of India). According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the term subcontinent signifies a "subdivision of a continent which has a distinct geographical, political, or cultural identity" and also a "large land mass somewhat smaller than a continent". Its use to signify the Indian subcontinent is evidenced from

637-425: A few hundred individuals to enormous societies with several million individuals. Most species are rarely seen, having a cryptic life-history where they remain hidden within the galleries and tunnels of their nests for most of their lives. Termites' success as a group has led to them colonizing almost every global landmass, with the highest diversity occurring in the tropics where they are estimated to constitute 10% of

728-511: A fontanelle, which appears as a circular pore or series of pores in a depressed region within the middle of the head. The fontanelle connects to the frontal gland, a novel organ unique to Neoisopteran termites which evolved to excrete an array of defensive chemicals and secretions, and so is typically most developed in the soldier caste. Cellulose digestion in the family Termitidae has co-evolved with bacterial gut microbiota and many taxa have evolved additional symbiotic relationships such as with

819-403: A much lesser extent in workers. The main distinction being that while larvae are wholly dependent on other nestmates to survive, workers are independent and are able to feed themselves and contribute to the colony. Workers remain wingless and across many taxa become developmentally arrested, appearing to not change into any other caste until death. In some basal taxa, there is no distinction, with

910-452: A pedicel (typically shorter than the scape), and the flagellum (all segments beyond the scape and pedicel). The mouth parts contain a maxillae , a labium, and a set of mandibles . The maxillae and labium have palps that help termites sense food and handling. The cuticle of most castes is soft and flexible due to a resulting lack of sclerotization, particularly of the abdomen which often appears translucent. Pigmentation and sclerotization of

1001-627: A region or a 'realm' by itself than the Indian subcontinent." This natural physical landmass in South Asia is the dry-land portion of the Indian Plate , which has been relatively isolated from the rest of Eurasia. The Himalayas (from Brahmaputra River in the east to Indus River in the west), Karakoram (from Indus River in the east to Yarkand River in the west) and the Hindu Kush mountains (from Yarkand River westwards) form its northern boundary. In

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1092-524: A series of moults to become winged adults . Larvae , which are defined as early nymph instars with absent wing buds, exhibit the highest developmental potentiality and are able to molt into Alates , Soldiers , Neotenics , or Workers . Workers are believed to have evolved from larvae, sharing many similarities to the extent that workers can be regarded as "larval", in that both lack wings, eyes, and functional reproductive organs while maintaining varying levels of developmental flexibility, although usually to

1183-441: A significantly lower level of oxidative damage, including oxidative DNA damage , than workers, soldiers and nymphs. The lower levels of damage appear to be due to increased catalase , an enzyme that protects against oxidative stress . Detritivore Plant tissues are made up of resilient molecules (e.g. cellulose , lignin , xylan ) that decay at a much lower rate than other organic molecules. The activity of detritivores

1274-471: A small archipelago southwest of the peninsula, while largely considered a part of the Indian subcontinent, sometimes is mentioned by sources, including the International Monetary Fund , as a group of islands away from the Indian subcontinent in a south-western direction. The population of Indian subcontinent is about 1.912 billion which makes it the most populated region in the world. It

1365-525: A term closely linked to the region's colonial heritage, as a cover term, the latter is still widely used in typological studies. Since the Partition of India , citizens of Pakistan (which became independent of British India in 1947) and Bangladesh (which became independent of Pakistan in 1971) often perceive the use of the Indian subcontinent as offensive and suspicious because of the dominant placement of India in

1456-403: A termite is in flight, its wings remain at a right angle, and when the termite is at rest, its wings remain parallel to the body. Due to termites being hemimetabolous insects , where the young go through multiple and gradual adultoid molts before becoming an adult, the advent of eusociality has significantly altered the developmental patterns of this group of insects of which, although similar,

1547-785: Is a peninsular region in South Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east. It extends southward into the Indian Ocean with the Arabian Sea to the southwest and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast. Most of this region rests on the Indian Plate and is isolated from the rest of Asia by large mountain barriers. Laccadive Islands , Maldives and

1638-694: Is believed to be from the Upper Cretaceous in West Texas , where the oldest known faecal pellets were also discovered. Claims that termites emerged earlier have faced controversy. For example, F. M. Weesner indicated that the Mastotermitidae termites may go back to the Late Permian , 251 million years ago, and fossil wings that have a close resemblance to the wings of Mastotermes of the Mastotermitidae,

1729-464: Is consistent with all four-winged insects. The mesothorax and metathorax have well-developed exoskeletal plates; the prothorax has smaller plates. Termites have a ten-segmented abdomen with two plates, the tergites and the sternites . The tenth abdominal segment has a pair of short cerci . There are ten tergites, of which nine are wide and one is elongated. The reproductive organs are similar to those in cockroaches but are more simplified. For example,

1820-550: Is divided into the following clade and family groups, showing the subfamilies in their respective classification: The Neoisoptera , literally meaning "newer termites" (in an evolutionary sense), are a recently coined clade that include families such as the Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae . Neoisopterans have a bifurcated caste development with true workers, and so notably lack pseudergates (except in some basal taxa such as Serritermitidae : see below ). All Neoisopterans have

1911-535: Is expected to increase over time as a consequence of climate change . Increased urbanization and connectivity is also predicted to expand the range of some pest termites. The infraorder name Isoptera is derived from the Greek words iso (equal) and ptera (winged), which refers to the nearly equal size of the fore and hind wings. "Termite" derives from the Latin and Late Latin word termes ("woodworm, white ant"), altered by

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2002-490: Is found mainly in the derived taxa (i.e. Neoisoptera ), and is believed to have evolved in tandem with the sterile worker caste as species moved to foraging for food beyond their nests, as opposed to the nest also being the food (such as in obligate wood-dwellers). There are three main castes which are discussed below: Worker termites undertake the most labor within the colony, being responsible for foraging, food storage, and brood and nest maintenance. Workers are tasked with

2093-528: Is not considered a part of the subcontinent, while excluding the British Indian Ocean Territory which is geologically associated with the subcontinent. Geologically, the subcontinent originates from Insular India , an isolated landmass that rifted from the supercontinent of Gondwana during the Cretaceous and merged with the landmass of Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, forming

2184-422: Is not homologous to that of the eusocial Hymenoptera . Unlike ants, bees, and wasps which undergo a complete metamorphosis and as a result only exhibit developmental plasticity at the immobile larval stage , the mobile adultoid instars of termites remain developmentally flexible throughout all life stages up to the final molt , which has uniquely allowed for the evolution of distinct yet flexible castes amongst

2275-428: Is somewhat contested as there is no globally accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or the Indian subcontinent. Whether called the Indian subcontinent or South Asia, the definition of the geographical extent of this region varies. Afghanistan , despite often considered as a part of South Asia, is usually not included in the Indian subcontinent. Maldives, an island country consisting of

2366-527: Is the reason why we do not see an accumulation of plant litter in nature. Detritivores are an important aspect of many ecosystems . They can live on any type of soil with an organic component, including marine ecosystems , where they are termed interchangeably with bottom feeders . Typical detritivorous animals include millipedes , springtails , woodlice , dung flies , slugs , many terrestrial worms , sea stars , sea cucumbers , fiddler crabs , and some sedentary marine Polychaetes such as worms of

2457-521: The nymphal (winged) and apterous (wingless) lines. The bifurcation occurs early, either at the egg or the first two instars, and represents an irreversible and committed development to either the reproductive or non-reproductive lifestyles. As such, the apterous lineage consists mostly of wingless and truly altruistic sterile individuals (true workers, soldiers), whereas the nymphal lineage consists mainly of fertile individuals destined to become winged reproductives. The bifurcated developmental pathway

2548-624: The 26 atolls of the Maldives lie entirely within the Southern Hemisphere. Historically, the region surrounding and southeast of the Indus River was often simply referred to as "India" in many historical sources. Even today, historians use this term to denote the entire Indian subcontinent when discussing history up until the era of the British Raj. Over time, however, "India" evolved to refer to

2639-467: The Archotermopsidae , which are able to retain high developmental plasticity even up to the late instars. In these basal taxa, the immatures are able to go through progressive ( nymph-to-imago ), regressive ( winged-to-wingless ) and stationary ( size increase, remains wingless ) molts, which typically indicates the developmental trajectory an individual follows. There is significant variation of

2730-641: The Chagos Archipelago are three series of coral atolls , cays and Faroes on the Indian Plate along with the Chagos–Laccadive Ridge , a submarine ridge that was generated by the northern drift of the Indian Plate over the Réunion hotspot during the Cretaceous and early Cenozoic times. The Maldives archipelago rises from a basement of volcanic basalt outpourings from a depth of about 2000 m forming

2821-463: The Indian Plate , projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas . Geographically, it spans the countries of Bangladesh , Bhutan , the British Indian Ocean Territory (United Kingdom), India , Maldives , Nepal , Pakistan , and Sri Lanka . Although the terms "Indian subcontinent" and "South Asia" are often used interchangeably to denote the region, the geopolitical term of South Asia frequently includes Afghanistan , which

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2912-689: The Mesozoic , with Insular India separating from Antarctica 130-120 million years ago and Madagascar around 90 million years ago, during the Cretaceous . Insular India subsequently drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian Plate nearly 55 million years ago, during the Eocene , forming the Indian subcontinent. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains geologically active, prone to major earthquakes. Physiographically , it

3003-653: The Nasutes , which have a horn-like nozzle projection ( nasus ) on the head. These unique soldiers are able to spray noxious, sticky secretions containing diterpenes at their enemies. Nitrogen fixation plays an important role in Nasute nutrition. Soldiers are normally a committed sterile caste and so do not molt into anything else, but in certain basal taxa like the Archotermopsidae they are known to rarely molt into neotenic forms that develop functional sexual organs. In species with

3094-701: The Tibetan Plateau to the north, the Indochinese Peninsula to the east, the Iranian Plateau to the west, and the Indian Ocean to the south. Apart from Maritime Southeast Asia (the Malay Archipelago ), the maritime region of the subcontinent ( littoral South Asia ) is the only subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere : the British Indian Ocean Territory two of

3185-400: The claws , which is present in species that climb on smooth surfaces but is absent in most termites. Unlike in ants, the hind-wings and fore-wings are of equal length. Most of the time, the alates are poor flyers; their technique is to launch themselves in the air and fly in a random direction. Studies show that in comparison to larger termites, smaller termites cannot fly long distances. When

3276-501: The intromittent organ is not present in male alates, and the sperm is either immotile or aflagellate. However, Mastotermitidae termites have multiflagellate sperm with limited motility . The genitals in females are also simplified. Unlike in other termites, Mastotermitidae females have an ovipositor , a feature strikingly similar to that in female cockroaches. The non-reproductive castes of termites are wingless and rely exclusively on their six legs for locomotion. The alates fly only for

3367-418: The social Hymenoptera (ants and various species of bees and wasps), but their differing evolutionary origins result in major differences in life cycle. In the eusocial Hymenoptera, the workers are exclusively female. Males (drones) are haploid and develop from unfertilised eggs, while females (both workers and the queen) are diploid and develop from fertilised eggs. In contrast, worker termites, which constitute

3458-434: The "king" and "queen" that together form a lifelong monogamous pair. Also unlike ants, which undergo a complete metamorphosis , termites undergo an incomplete metamorphosis that proceeds through egg, nymph , and adult stages. Termite colonies are commonly described as superorganisms due to the collective behaviors of the individuals which form a self-governing entity: the colony itself. Their colonies range in size from

3549-408: The "workers" (pseudergates) essentially being late instar larvae that retain the ability to change into all other castes. The development of larvae into adults can take months; the time period depends on food availability and nutrition, temperature, and the size of the colony. Since larvae and nymphs are unable to feed themselves, workers must feed them, but workers also take part in the social life of

3640-581: The 2,972 extant termite species currently classified, 1,000 are found in Africa , where mounds are extremely abundant in certain regions. Approximately 1.1 million active termite mounds can be found in the northern Kruger National Park alone. In Asia , there are 435 species of termites, which are mainly distributed in China . Within China, termite species are restricted to mild tropical and subtropical habitats south of

3731-621: The Himalayas. It is one of the most populated regions in the world, holding roughly 20–25 percent of the global population. Geographically, the peninsular region in Southern Asia is located below the Third Pole , delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Indo-Burman Ranges in the east. The neighboring geographical regions around the subcontinent include

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3822-462: The Indian coast through the maritime routes on the Arabian Sea. In terms of modern geopolitical boundaries, the subcontinent constitutes Bangladesh , Bhutan , India, Nepal , and Pakistan , besides, by convention, the island country of Sri Lanka and other nearby island nations of the Indian Ocean, such as Maldives and the British Indian Ocean Territory . Unlike "South Asia", sometimes

3913-406: The Indian subcontinent has come to be known as South Asia "in more recent and neutral parlance". Indologist Ronald B. Inden argues that the usage of the term South Asia is becoming more widespread since it clearly distinguishes the region from East Asia. While South Asia , a more accurate term that reflects the region's contemporary political demarcations, is replacing the Indian subcontinent ,

4004-666: The Paleozoic and Triassic insects tentatively classified as termites are in fact unrelated to termites and should be excluded from the Isoptera. Other studies suggest that the origin of termites is more recent, having diverged from Cryptocercus sometime during the Early Cretaceous . The primitive giant northern termite ( Mastotermes darwiniensis ) exhibits numerous cockroach-like characteristics that are not shared with other termites, such as laying its eggs in rafts and having anal lobes on

4095-784: The Yangtze River. In Australia , all ecological groups of termites (dampwood, drywood, subterranean) are endemic to the country, with over 360 classified species. Because termites are highly social and abundant, they represent a disproportionate amount of the world's insect biomass . Termites and ants comprise about 1% of insect species, but represent more than 50% of insect biomass. Due to their soft cuticles, termites do not inhabit cool or cold habitats. There are three ecological groups of termites: dampwood, drywood and subterranean. Dampwood termites are found only in coniferous forests, and drywood termites are found in hardwood forests; subterranean termites live in widely diverse areas. One species in

4186-527: The animal biomass , particularly in Africa which has the richest diversity with more than 1000 described species. They are important decomposers of decaying plant matter in the subtropical and tropical regions of the world, and their recycling of wood and plant matter is of considerable ecological importance. Many species are ecosystem engineers capable of altering soil characteristics such as hydrology , decomposition, nutrient cycling , vegetative growth, and consequently surrounding biodiversity through

4277-465: The capacity to digest lignin , and so large deposits of dead plant tissue accumulated during this period, later becoming the fossil fuels . By feeding on sediments directly to extract the organic component, some detritivores incidentally concentrate toxic pollutants . Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia , mostly situated on

4368-474: The central part of the ridge between Laccadives and the Great Chagos Bank . According to anthropologist Patrap C. Dutta, "the Indian subcontinent occupies the major landmass of South Asia." According to historian B. N. Mukherjee , "The subcontinent is an indivisible geographical entity." According to geographer Dudley Stamp , "There is perhaps no mainland part of the world better marked off by nature as

4459-419: The colony and have certain other tasks to accomplish such as foraging, building or maintaining the nest or tending to the queen. Pheromones regulate the caste system in termite colonies, preventing all but a very few of the termites from becoming fertile queens. Queens of the eusocial termite Reticulitermes speratus are capable of a long lifespan without sacrificing fecundity . These long-lived queens have

4550-430: The cuticle correlates with life history , with species that spend more time in the surface in the open tending to have a more sclerotized and pigmented exoskeleton. Consistent with all insects, the anatomy of the termite thorax consists of three segments: the prothorax , the mesothorax and the metathorax . Each segment contains a pair of legs . On alates, the wings are located at the mesothorax and metathorax, which

4641-522: The descendants of the genus Cryptocercus . Some researchers have suggested a more conservative measure of retaining the termites as the Termitoidae, an epifamily within the cockroach order, which preserves the classification of termites at family level and below. Termites have long been accepted to be closely related to cockroaches and mantids , and they are classified in the same superorder ( Dictyoptera ). The oldest unambiguous termite fossils date to

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4732-496: The developmental patterns in termites even across closely related taxa, but can typically be generalized into the following two patterns: The first is the linear developmental pathway , where all immatures are capable of developing into winged adults ( Alates ), exhibit high phenotypic potency, and where there exists no true sterile caste other than the soldier. The second is the bifurcated developmental pathway , where immatures diverge into two distinct developmental lineages known as

4823-417: The digestion of cellulose in food and are thus the most likely caste to be found in infested wood. The process of worker termites feeding other nestmates is known as trophallaxis . Trophallaxis is an effective nutritional tactic to convert and recycle nitrogenous components. It frees the parents from feeding all but the first generation of offspring, allowing for the group to grow much larger and ensuring that

4914-530: The drywood group is the West Indian drywood termite ( Cryptotermes brevis ) , which is an invasive species in Australia. Termites are usually small, measuring between 4 and 15 millimetres ( 3 ⁄ 16 and 9 ⁄ 16  in) in length. The largest of all extant termites are the queens of the species Macrotermes bellicosus , measuring up to over 10 centimetres (4 in) in length. Another giant termite,

5005-615: The early Cretaceous , but given the diversity of Cretaceous termites and early fossil records showing mutualism between microorganisms and these insects, they possibly originated earlier in the Jurassic or Triassic. Possible evidence of a Jurassic origin is the assumption that the extinct mammaliaform Fruitafossor from Morrison Formation consumed termites, judging from its morphological similarity to modern termite-eating mammals. Morrison Formation also yields social insect nest fossils close to that of termites. The oldest termite nest discovered

5096-613: The early twentieth century when most of the territory was either part of the British Empire or allied with them. It was a convenient term to refer to the region comprising both British India and the princely states . The term has been particularly common in the British Empire and its successors, while the term South Asia is the more common usage in Europe and North America. According to historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal ,

5187-424: The east, it is bounded by Patkai , Naga , Lushai and Chin hills. The Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea form the boundary of the Indian subcontinent in the south, south-east and south-west. Given the difficulty of passage through the Himalayas, the sociocultural, religious and political interaction of the Indian subcontinent has largely been through the valleys of Afghanistan in its northwest,

5278-444: The expression "Indian subcontinent" may exclude the islands of Maldives and Sri Lanka. According to Pawan Budhwar, Arup Varma, and Manjusha Hirekhan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan constitute the Indian subcontinent. Budhwar, Varma, and Hirekhan also maintain that with Afghanistan and Maldives included the region is referred to as South Asia. The periphery of the subcontinent, including Bangladesh, Pakistan, and

5369-668: The extinct Gyatermes styriensis , flourished in Austria during the Miocene and had a wingspan of 76 millimetres (3 in) and a body length of 25 millimetres (1 in). Most worker and soldier termites are completely blind as they do not have a pair of eyes. However, some species, such as Hodotermes mossambicus , have compound eyes which they use for orientation and to distinguish sunlight from moonlight. The alates (winged males and females) have eyes along with lateral ocelli . Lateral ocelli, however, are not found in all termites, absent in

5460-407: The families Hodotermitidae , Termopsidae , and Archotermopsidae . Like other insects, termites have a small tongue-shaped labrum and a clypeus ; the clypeus is divided into a postclypeus and anteclypeus. Termite antennae have a number of functions such as the sensing of touch, taste, odours (including pheromones), heat and vibration. The three basic segments of a termite antenna include a scape ,

5551-431: The family Terebellidae . Detritivores can be classified into more specific groups based on their size and biomes. Macrodetritivores are larger organisms such as millipedes, springtails, and woodlouse, while microdetritivores are smaller organisms such as bacteria. Scavengers are not typically thought to be detritivores, as they generally eat large quantities of organic matter, but both detritivores and scavengers are

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5642-424: The family Termitidae . Termites comprise the infraorder Isoptera , or alternatively the epifamily Termitoidae , within the order Blattodea (along with cockroaches ). Termites were once classified in a separate order from cockroaches, but recent phylogenetic studies indicate that they evolved from cockroaches, as they are deeply nested within the group, and the sister group to wood eating cockroaches of

5733-1005: The first fully sequenced termite genome, of Zootermopsis nevadensis , which was published in the journal Nature Communications , consists of roughly 500Mb, while two subsequently published genomes, Macrotermes natalensis and Cryptotermes secundus , are considerably larger at around 1.3Gb. External phylogeny showing relationship of termites with other insect groups:  (Mantises) Blaberoidea Corydiodea Blattoidae Lamproblattidae Cryptocercidae (brown-hooded cockroaches) Isoptera (Termites) Internal phylogeny showing relationship of extant termite families: Mastotermitidae Stolotermitidae Hodotermopsidae Hodotermitidae Archotermopsidae Kalotermitidae Stylotermitidae Serritermitidae Rhinotermitidae Termitidae There are currently 3,173 living and fossil termite species recognised, classified in 12 families; reproductive and/or soldier castes are usually required for identification. The infraorder Isoptera

5824-547: The forehead that lead to a gland which exudes defensive secretions, are a feature of the clade Neoisoptera and are present in all extant taxa such as Rhinotermitidae. The majority of termite species have mandibulate soldiers which are easily identified by the disproportionately large sclerotized head and mandibles. Among certain termites, the soldier caste has evolved globular (phragmotic) heads to block their narrow tunnels such as seen in Cryptotermes . Amongst mandibulate soldiers,

5915-625: The fungus Termitomyces ; in contrast, basal Neoisopterans and all other Euisoptera have flagellates and prokaryotes in their hindguts. Extant families and subfamilies are organized as follows: Termites are found on all continents except Antarctica . The diversity of termite species is low in North America and Europe (10 species known in Europe and 50 in North America), but is high in South America , where over 400 species are known. Of

6006-683: The genus Cryptocercus . Previous estimates suggested the divergence took place during the Jurassic or Triassic . More recent estimates suggest that they have an origin during the Late Jurassic , with the first fossil records in the Early Cretaceous . Similarly to ants and some bees and wasps from the separate order Hymenoptera , most termites have an analogous "worker" and "soldier" caste system consisting of mostly sterile individuals which are physically and behaviorally distinct. Unlike ants, most colonies begin from sexually mature individuals known as

6097-638: The highest phenotypic potency and can be described as totipotent ( able to molt into all alternative phenotypes ), whereas following instars can be pluripotent ( able to molt into reproductives and non-reproductives but cannot molt into at least one phenotype ), to multipotent ( able to molt into either reproductive or non-reproductive phenotypes ), to unipotent ( able to molt into developmentally close phenotypes ), and then finally committed ( no longer able to change phenotype, functionally an adult.) In most termites, phenotypic potency decreases with every successive molt. Notable exceptions are basal taxa such as

6188-436: The immatures. As a result the caste system of termites consists mostly of neotenous or juvenile individuals that undertake the most labor in the colony, which is in contrast to the eusocial Hymenoptera where work is strictly undertaken by the adults. The developmental plasticity in termites can be described similarly to cell potency , where each molt offers a varying level of phenotypic potency. Early instars typically exhibit

6279-533: The influence of Latin terere ("to rub, wear, erode") from the earlier word tarmes . A termite nest is also known as a termitary or termitarium (plural termitaria or termitariums ). The word was first used in English in 1781. Earlier attested designations were "wood ants" or "white ants", though these may never have been in wide use as termites do not exist in the British Isles . Termites were formerly placed in

6370-417: The island chains of Maldives, features large Muslim populations, while the heartland, including most of India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, are overwhelmingly Hindu or Buddhist. Since most of these countries are located on the Indian Plate, a continuous landmass , the borders between countries are often either a river or a no man's land . The precise definition of an "Indian subcontinent" in a geopolitical context

6461-543: The king will continue to mate with the queen throughout their lives. In some species, the abdomen of the queen swells up dramatically to increase fecundity , a characteristic known as physogastrism . Depending on the species, the queen starts producing reproductive alates at a certain time of the year, and huge swarms emerge from the colony when nuptial flight begins. These swarms attract a wide variety of predators. The queens can be particularly long-lived for insects, with some reportedly living as long as 30 or 50 years. In both

6552-564: The large mounds constructed by certain species. Termites have several impacts on humans. They are a delicacy in the diet of some human cultures such as the Makiritare in the Alto Orinoco province of Venezuela , where they are commonly used as a spice. They are also used in traditional medicinal treatments of various diseases and ailments, such as influenza, asthma, bronchitis, etc. Termites are most famous for being structural pests; however,

6643-829: The level of developmental plasticity even between closely related taxa, with many species having true workers that can molt into the other apterous castes such as ergatoids (worker reproductive; apterous neotenics), soldiers, or the other worker castes. Pseudergates sensu stricto are individuals which arise from the linear developmental pathway that have regressively molted and lost their wing buds, and are regarded as totipotent immatures. They are capable of performing work but are overall less involved in labor and considered more cooperative than truly altruistic. Pseudergates sensu lato , otherwise known as false workers , are most represented in basal lineages ( Kalotermitidae , Archotermopsidae , Hodotermopsidae , Serritermitidae ) and closely resemble true workers in which they also perform most of

6734-463: The limited vegetation available in the desert, desert detritivores adapted and evolved ways to feed in the extreme conditions of the desert. Detritivore feeding behaviour is affected by rainfall; moist soil increases detritivore feeding and excretion. Fungi, acting as decomposers, are important in today's terrestrial environment. During the Carboniferous period , fungi and bacteria had yet to evolve

6825-441: The linear and bifurcated developmental pathways, the primary reproductives only develop from winged immatures (nymphs). These winged immatures are capable of regressively molting into a form known as brachypterous neotenics ( nymphoids ), which retain juvenile and adult characteristics. BN 's can be found in both the derived and basal termite taxa, and generally serve as supplementary reproductives. Termites are often compared with

6916-437: The linear developmental pathway, soldiers develop from apterous immatures and constitute the only true sterile caste in these taxa. The primary reproductive caste of a colony consists of the fertile adult ( imago ) female and male individuals, colloquially known as the queen and king. The queen of the colony is responsible for egg production of the colony. Unlike in ants, the male and female reproductives form lifelong pairs where

7007-649: The majority in a colony, are diploid individuals of both sexes and develop from fertilised eggs. Depending on species, male and female workers may have different roles in a termite colony. The life cycle of a termite begins with an egg , but is different from that of a bee or ant in that it goes through a developmental process called incomplete metamorphosis , going through multiple gradual pre-adult molts that are highly developmentally plastic before becoming an adult. Unlike in other hemimetabolous insects, nymphs are more strictly defined in termites as immature young with visible wing buds, which often invariably go through

7098-443: The mandibles have been adapted for a variety of defensive strategies: Biting/crushing ( Incisitermes ), slashing ( Cubitermes ), slashing/snapping ( Dentispicotermes ), symmetrical snapping ( Termes ), asymmetrical snapping ( Neocapritermes ), and piercing ( Armitermes ). In the more derived termite taxa, the soldier caste can be polymorphic and include minor and major forms. Other morphologically specialized soldiers includes

7189-411: The most basal. True workers are individuals which irreversibly develop from the apterous lineage and have completely forgo development into a winged adult. They display altruistic behaviors and either have terminal molts or exhibit a low level of phenotypical potency. True workers across different termite taxa ( Mastotermitidae , Hodotermitidae , Rhinotermitidae & Termitidae) can widely vary in

7280-583: The most primitive living termite, have been discovered in the Permian layers in Kansas. It is even possible that the first termites emerged during the Carboniferous . The folded wings of the fossil wood roach Pycnoblattina , arranged in a convex pattern between segments 1a and 2a, resemble those seen in Mastotermes , the only living insect with the same pattern. Kumar Krishna et al. , though, consider that all of

7371-459: The necessary gut symbionts are transferred from one generation to another. Workers are believed to have evolved from older wingless immatures ( Larvae ) that evolved cooperative behaviors; and indeed in some basal taxa the late instar larvae are known to undertake the role of workers without differentiating as a true separate caste. Workers can either be male or female, although in some species with polymorphic workers either sex may be restricted to

7462-467: The order Isoptera. As early as 1934 suggestions were made that they were closely related to wood-eating cockroaches (genus Cryptocercus , the woodroach) based on the similarity of their symbiotic gut flagellates. In the 1960s additional evidence supporting that hypothesis emerged when F. A. McKittrick noted similar morphological characteristics between some termites and Cryptocercus nymphs . In 2008 DNA analysis from 16S rRNA sequences supported

7553-578: The position of termites being nested within the evolutionary tree containing the order Blattodea , which included the cockroaches. The cockroach genus Cryptocercus shares the strongest phylogenetical similarity with termites and is considered to be a sister-group to termites. Termites and Cryptocercus share similar morphological and social features: for example, most cockroaches do not exhibit social characteristics, but Cryptocercus takes care of its young and exhibits other social behaviour such as trophallaxis and allogrooming . Termites are thought to be

7644-485: The same type of cases of consumer-resource systems . The consumption of wood, whether alive or dead, is known as xylophagy . The activity of animals feeding only on dead wood is called sapro -xylophagy and those animals, sapro-xylophagous. Detritivores play an important role as recyclers in the ecosystem's energy flow and biogeochemical cycles . Alongside decomposers, they reintroduce vital elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and potassium back into

7735-416: The soil, allowing plants to take in these elements and use them for growth. They shred the dead plant matter which releases the trapped nutrients in the plant tissues. An abundance of detritivores in the soil allows the ecosystem to efficiently recycle nutrients. Many detritivores live in mature woodland , though the term can be applied to certain bottom-feeders in wet environments . These organisms play

7826-530: The term. As such it is being increasingly less used in those countries. Meanwhile, many Indian analysts prefer to use the term because of the socio-cultural commonalities of the region. The region has also been called the "Asian subcontinent", the "South Asian subcontinent", as well as "India" or " Greater India " in the classical and pre-modern sense. The sport of cricket is notably popular in India , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Nepal and Bangladesh . Within

7917-452: The valleys of Manipur in its east, and by maritime routes . More difficult but historically important interaction has also occurred through passages pioneered by the Tibetans . These routes and interactions have led to the spread of Buddhism out of the subcontinent into other parts of Asia. The Islamic expansion arrived into the subcontinent in two ways: through Afghanistan on land, and to

8008-459: The vast majority of termite species are innocuous, with the regional numbers of economically significant species being: North America , 9; Australia , 16; Indian subcontinent , 26; tropical Africa , 24; Central America and the West Indies , 17. Of known pest species, 28 of the most invasive and structurally damaging belong to the genus Coptotermes . The distribution of most known pest species

8099-697: The west it is bounded by parts of the mountain ranges of Hindu Kush , Spīn Ghar (Safed Koh), Sulaiman Mountains , Kirthar Mountains , Brahui range, and Pab range among others, with the Western Fold Belt along the border (between the Sulaiman Range and the Chaman Fault) is the western boundary of the Indian Plate, where, along the Eastern Hindu Kush, lies the Afghanistan–Pakistan border. In

8190-442: The wings. It has been proposed that the Isoptera and Cryptocercidae be grouped in the clade " Xylophagodea ". Termites are sometimes called "white ants", but the only resemblance to the ants is due to their sociality which is due to convergent evolution with termites being the first social insects to evolve a caste system more than 100 million years ago. Termite genomes are generally relatively large compared to those of other insects;

8281-570: The work and are similarly altruistic, however differ in developing from the linear developmental pathway where they exist in a stationary molt; i.e they have halted development before the growth of wing buds, and are regarded as pluripotent immatures. The soldier caste is the most anatomically and behaviorally specialized, and their sole purpose is to defend the colony. Many soldiers have large heads with highly modified powerful jaws so enlarged that they cannot feed themselves. Instead, like juveniles, they are fed by workers. Fontanelles , simple holes in

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