92-616: The Tenharim are an indigenous people of Brazil , living in the state of Amazonas . Their self-denomination is Kagwahiva . This article related to an ethnic group in Brazil is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Indigenous people of Brazil The Indigenous peoples in Brazil are the peoples who lived in Brazil before European contact around 1500 and their descendants. Indigenous peoples once comprised an estimated 2,000 district tribes and nations inhabiting what
184-684: A Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy . The flag-placing, during Arktika 2007 , generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources. Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced
276-502: A ring species exists and has been described around the Arctic Circle in the form of the Larus gulls. There are copious natural resources in the Arctic (oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and, if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on
368-638: A Country of Wild, Naked, Grim, Man-Eating People in the New World, America . There are documented accounts of smallpox being used as a biological weapon by some Brazilian villagers seeking to eliminate nearby Amerindian tribes, not always aggressively. One notable instance, according to anthropologist Mércio Pereira Gomes, occurred in Caxias, in southern Maranhão. Local farmers, desiring more land for their cattle farms, gave clothing from sick villagers (which would normally have been burned to prevent further infection) to
460-474: A high extinction rate. To investigate this further, we applied a novel principal components multiple logistic regression test to Bayesian serial coalescent simulations. The analysis supported a scenario in which European colonization caused a substantial loss of pre-Columbian lineages." Linguistic studies have supported genetic findings, revealing ancient patterns between the languages spoken in Siberia and those in
552-540: A number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (about 66° 34'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night . Another definition of the Arctic, which is popular with ecologists , is the region in the Northern Hemisphere where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 °C (50 °F);
644-828: A result, reservation lands suffered massive deforestation and flooding. The public works projects attracted very few migrants, but those who did arrive—largely poor settlers—brought new diseases that further devastated the Amerindian population. The 1988 Brazilian Constitution recognizes the right of Indigenous peoples to pursue their traditional ways of life and to the permanent and exclusive possession of their "traditional lands," which are demarcated as Indigenous Territories . Additionally, Indigenous peoples are legally recognized as one of several " traditional peoples ". In practice, however, Brazil's Indigenous people still face significant threats and challenges to their continued existence and cultural heritage. The process of land demarcation
736-642: A seismic political shift occurred when the Brazilian military took control of the government and abolished all existing political parties, creating a two-party system. For the next two decades, Brazil was ruled by a series of generals. The country's mantra was "Brazil, the Country of the Future," which the military government used to justify a massive push into the Amazon to exploit its resources, aiming to transform Brazil into one of
828-582: A third migrant wave. The initial settlement of the Americas was followed by a rapid expansion southward along the coast, with limited gene flow later, especially in South America . An exception to this is the Chibcha speakers, whose ancestry includes contributions from both North and South America. Another study, focused on mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ), which is inherited only through the maternal line, revealed that
920-493: Is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway ( Nordland , Troms , Finnmark , Svalbard and Jan Mayen ), northernmost Sweden ( Västerbotten , Norrbotten and Lappland ), northern Finland ( North Ostrobothnia , Kainuu and Lappi ), Russia ( Murmansk , Siberia , Nenets Okrug , Novaya Zemlya ),
1012-514: Is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2035 to some time around 2067. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions. Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs , graminoids , herbs , lichens , and mosses , which all grow relatively close to
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#17328632356271104-512: Is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. Life in the Arctic includes zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds, land animals, plants and human societies. Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic . The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός ( arktikos ), "near
1196-651: Is also claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic region. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean , asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Mendeleyev Ridge are an extension of the Eurasian continent. In August 2016,
1288-432: Is also a concern. Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification. The Arctic region is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change , as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater climate change in
1380-478: Is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs, and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens. Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage , shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising
1472-410: Is now Brazil. The 2010 Brazil census recorded 305 ethnic groups of Indigenous people who spoke 274 Indigenous languages ; however, almost 77% speak Portuguese. Historically, many Indigenous peoples of Brazil were semi- nomadic and combined hunting, fishing, and gathering with migratory agriculture. Many tribes faced extinction as a result of European settlement, and many others were assimilated into
1564-680: Is slow, often involving protracted legal battles, and FUNAI lacks sufficient resources to enforce legal protections on Indigenous lands. Since the 1980s, exploitation of the Amazon Rainforest for mining, logging, and cattle ranching had surged, which poses a severe threat to the region's Indigenous population. Settlers illegally encroaching on Indigenous land continue to destroy the environment necessary for traditional ways of life, provoke violent confrontations, and spread disease. Arctic The Arctic ( / ˈ ɑːr k t ɪ k / or / ˈ ɑːr t ɪ k / ) (from Greek ἄρκτος, 'bear')
1656-707: Is subject to some regulatory control through the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters , adopted by the International Maritime Organization on 1 January 2017 and applies to all ships in Arctic waters over 500 tonnes. Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year . The International Arctic Science Committee , hundreds of scientists and specialists of
1748-591: The Muttaburrasaurus of Australia. However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year-round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River , which is now at about 70° N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10° further north. The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed c. 2500 BCE . AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including
1840-620: The Tupi (speakers of Tupi–Guarani languages ), who occupied almost the entire length of the Brazilian coast, and the Tapuia (a general term for non-Tupi groups, usually Jê-speaking peoples), who primarily resided in the interior. The Portuguese arrived at the end of a long pre-colonial conflict between the Tupis and Tapuias, which had led to the defeat and expulsion of the Tapuias from most coastal areas. Although
1932-788: The Amazon River basin from the Northwest. The second and third migratory waves from Siberia, which are thought to have led to the Athabaskan , Aleut , Inuit , and Yupik people , apparently did not reach farther than the southern United States and Canada , respectively. An analysis of Amerindian Y-chromosome DNA reveals specific clustering within much of the South American population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of Y-chromosome lineages specific to South America suggest that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since
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#17328632356272024-586: The Amazon River up to the delta, and the Nuaraque group, whose constituent tribes inhabited several areas, including most of the upper Amazon (west of present-day Manaus ) and significant pockets in modern Amapá and Roraima states. The names by which different Tupi tribes were recorded by Portuguese and French authors in the 16th century are poorly understood. Most do not seem to be proper names but rather descriptions of relationships, usually familial—e.g., Tupi means "first father," Tupinambá means "relatives of
2116-728: The Andean civilizations , did not keep written records or erect stone monuments. The humid climate and acidic soil have destroyed almost all traces of their material culture, including wood and bones . Therefore, what is known about the region's history before 1500 has been inferred and reconstructed from limited archaeological evidence, such as ceramics and stone arrowheads . The most conspicuous remains of these societies are vast mounds of discarded shellfish , known as sambaquis , found at some coastal sites that were continuously inhabited for more than 5,000 years. Additionally, substantial "black earth" ( terra preta ) deposits in several places along
2208-668: The Arctic Council , and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research. While there are several ongoing territorial claims in the Arctic , no country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean—Canada, Kingdom of Denmark (with Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and
2300-667: The Arctic poppy ). Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare , lemming , muskox , and reindeer (caribou). They are preyed on by the snowy owl , Arctic fox , grizzly bear , and Arctic wolf . The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines , moose , Dall sheep , ermines , and Arctic ground squirrels . Marine mammals include seals , walruses , and several species of cetacean — baleen whales and also narwhals , orcas , and belugas . An excellent and famous example of
2392-605: The Ilulissat Declaration , blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims." As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf based on the Lomonosov Ridge between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the exclusive economic zone of Russia . The Russian Federation
2484-603: The Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture. The Dorset culture ( Inuktitut : Tuniit or Tunit ) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during the period of 1050–550 BCE. With the exception of the Quebec / Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 CE. Supported by genetic testing , evidence shows that descendants of
2576-510: The Portuguese explorers first arrived in Brazil in April 1500, they found, to their astonishment, a wide coastline rich in resources and teeming with hundreds of thousands of Indigenous people living in a "paradise" of natural abundance. Pero Vaz de Caminha , the official scribe of Pedro Álvares Cabral , the commander of the discovery fleet that landed in the present state of Bahia , wrote a letter to
2668-986: The Tamoio Confederation , and the Portuguese. Occasionally, the Amerindians allied with Portugal’s enemies, such as the French during the France Antarctique episode in Rio de Janeiro . At other times, they sided with Portugal against rival tribes. During this period, a German soldier named Hans Staden was captured by the Tupinambá and later released. He documented his experiences in his famous book Warhaftige Historia und Beschreibung eyner Landtschafft der Wilden Nacketen, Grimmigen Menschfresser-Leuthen in der Newenwelt America gelegen (1557), which translates to True Story and Description of
2760-825: The UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf began to consider Russia's submission. Canada claims the Northwest Passage as part of its internal waters belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations regards it as an international strait , which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage. Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian-side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian crewed drifting ice stations . Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on
2852-541: The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development , on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic Treaty System . The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic. The Arctic has climate change rates that are amongst the highest in the world. Due to
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2944-642: The Xingu National Park , was established by the federal government in 1961. During the social and political upheaval of the 1960s, reports of mistreatment of Amerindians increasingly reached Brazil's urban centers and began to affect public opinion. In 1967, following the publication of the Figueiredo Report , commissioned by the Ministry of the Interior, the military government launched an investigation into
3036-430: The drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometres by the ice flow. The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport pollutants , and in some places
3128-424: The permafrost thaws. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about 56 km (35 mi) per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There
3220-573: The "relatives of the ancients" (Tupinambá), which could mean relatives of the Tamoio or a Tamoio term for relatives of the old Tupi in the upper Amazon basin. The "grandsons" (Temiminó) might represent a splinter group, while the "side-neighbors" (Tupiniquim) could denote recent arrivals still establishing their presence. However, by 1870, the Tupi tribes' population had declined to 250,000 Indigenous people, and by 1890, it had diminished to approximately 100,000. When
3312-480: The 1950s, American archaeologist Betty Meggers , in some of her earliest research, suggested that the society migrated from the Andes and settled on the island. Many researchers believed that the Andes were populated by Paleoindian migrants from North America, who gradually moved south after being hunters on the plains. In the 1980s, American archaeologist Anna Curtenius Roosevelt led excavations and geophysical surveys of
3404-441: The Amazon are believed to be ancient garbage dumps ( middens ). Recent excavations of these deposits in the middle and upper Amazon have uncovered remains of massive settlements, containing tens of thousands of homes, indicating a complex social and economic structure. Studies of the wear patterns of precontact inhabitants of coastal Brazil found that the surfaces of anterior teeth facing the tongue were more worn than those facing
3496-511: The Amazon, was a natural explorer with a keen curiosity. In 1910, he helped establish the Serviço de Proteção aos Índios (SPI), now known as FUNAI ( Fundação Nacional do Índio , National Foundation for Indians). SPI was the first federal agency tasked with protecting Amerindians and preserving their culture. In 1914, Rondon accompanied Theodore Roosevelt on his famous expedition to map the Amazon and discover new species. During these travels, Rondon
3588-582: The Americas across the Bering Strait and along the western coast of North America in at least three separate waves. In Brazil, most native tribes living in the land by 1500 are thought to be descended from the first wave of Siberian migrants, who are believed to have crossed the Bering Land Bridge at the end of the last Ice Age, between 13,000 and 17,000 years ago. This initial migration would have taken some time to reach present-day Brazil, likely entering
3680-542: The Americas via a coastal route around 16,000 years ago, following a period of isolation in eastern Beringia for approximately 2,400 to 9,000 years after separating from eastern Siberian populations. After spreading rapidly throughout the Americas, limited gene flow in South America resulted in a distinct phylogeographic structure of populations, which persisted over time. All ancient mitochondrial lineages detected in this study were absent from modern data sets, suggesting
3772-697: The Americas. Two 2015 autosomal DNA genetic studies confirmed the Siberian origins of the Native peoples of the Americas. However, an ancient signal of shared ancestry with the Indigenous peoples of Australia and Melanesia was detected among the Native populations of the Amazon region . This migration from Siberia is estimated to have occurred around 23,000 years ago. Brazilian native peoples, unlike those in Mesoamerica and
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3864-550: The Amerindians. Instead, the SPI sought to integrate tribal groups into mainstream Brazilian society. The promise of wealth from reservation lands attracted cattle ranchers and settlers, who continued encroaching on Indigenous territories, with the SPI facilitating this intrusion. Between 1900 and 1967, an estimated 98 Indigenous tribes were wiped out. Due largely to the efforts of the Villas-Bôas brothers , Brazil's first Indigenous reserve,
3956-680: The Arctic than the global average, resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide. The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost , leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms. Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent greenhouse gases . Climate change
4048-469: The Bear, northern" and from the word ἄρκτος ( arktos ), meaning bear. The name refers either to the constellation known as Ursa Major , the "Great Bear", which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere , or to the constellation Ursa Minor , the "Little Bear", which contains the celestial north pole (currently very near Polaris , the current north Pole Star, or North Star). There are
4140-591: The Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut , survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands , until the beginning of the 20th century. The Dorset / Thule culture transition dates around the ninth–10th centuries CE. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with
4232-517: The Dorset people in "an example of prehistoric genocide." By 1300 CE, the Inuit , present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century ( Inughuit , Kalaallit and Tunumiit are modern Greenlandic Inuit groups descended from Thule). Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Eastern Russia,
4324-789: The Europeans, against which they had no natural immunity , leading to high mortality rates. Jesuit priests arrived with the first Governor General as clerical assistants to the colonists, with the intention of converting the Indigenous people to Catholicism . They argued that the Indigenous people should be regarded as human and succeeded in obtaining a Papal bull , Sublimis Deus , which declared that, regardless of their beliefs, they should be recognized as fully rational human beings with rights to freedom and private property, and thus should not be enslaved. Jesuit priests, such as Fathers José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega , studied and recorded
4416-423: The Indigenous languages and founded mixed settlements, such as São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga , where colonists and Amerindians lived side by side, spoke the same Língua Geral (common language), and freely intermarried. They also began to establish more remote villages inhabited only by "civilized" Amerindians, known as Missions or reductions (see the article on the Guarani people for more details). By
4508-409: The Indigenous people, including establishing the first Indigenous reserves. The situation for the Amerindians improved around the turn of the century when Cândido Rondon , a man of both Portuguese and Bororo ancestry, and an explorer and progressive officer in the Brazilian army, began working to gain the Amerindians' trust and establish peace. Rondon, assigned to extend telegraph communications into
4600-423: The Jesuits attempted to 'Europeanize' the Indigenous Peoples of Brazil. In the mid-1770s, the fragile coexistence between the Indigenous peoples and the colonists was once again threatened. Due to a complex diplomatic situation involving Portugal, Spain, and the Vatican , the Jesuits were expelled from Brazil, and their missions were confiscated and sold. A number of wars broke out between various tribes, such as
4692-555: The King of Portugal describing in glowing terms the beauty of the land. In "Histoire des découvertes et conquêtes des Portugais dans le Nouveau Monde," Lafitau described the natives as people who wore no clothing but painted their entire bodies red. Their ears, noses, lips, and cheeks were pierced. The men would shave the front, top of the head, and over the ears, while women typically wore their hair loose or in braids. Both men and women accessorized with noisy porcelain collars and bracelets, feathers, and dried fruits. Lafitau also described
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#17328632356274784-475: The North , and Saami Council ). The council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes. Though Arctic policy priorities differ , every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters. Arctic shipping
4876-484: The SPI was disbanded. The same year, the government established the Fundação Nacional do Índio (National Indian Foundation), known as FUNAI, which is responsible for protecting the interests, cultures, and rights of Indigenous peoples in Brazil. Some tribes have become significantly integrated into Brazilian society. The unacculturated tribes that have been contacted by FUNAI are supposed to be protected and accommodated within Brazilian society to varying degrees. By 1987, it
4968-439: The SPI. It was soon revealed that the SPI was corrupt and failing to protect natives, their lands, and their culture. The 5,000-page report cataloged atrocities including slavery, sexual abuse, torture, and mass murder. It was alleged that agency officials, in collaboration with land speculators, were systematically slaughtering the Amerindians by intentionally distributing disease-laced clothing. Criminal prosecutions followed, and
5060-423: The Timbira. The clothing infected the entire tribe, who had neither immunity nor a cure. Similar incidents occurred in other villages throughout South America. The 1840s brought trade and wealth to the Amazon with the development of the vulcanization process for rubber , leading to a worldwide surge in demand. The best rubber trees in the world grew in the Amazon, and thousands of rubber tappers began working
5152-422: The United States ( Alaska ), Canada ( Yukon , Northwest Territories , Nunavut ), Danish Realm ( Greenland ), and northern Iceland ( Grímsey and Kolbeinsey ), along with the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas. Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost under the tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places. The Arctic region
5244-631: The United States, Canada, and Greenland. Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi , Evenks , Iñupiat , Khanty , Koryaks , Nenets , Sámi , Yukaghir , Gwichʼin , and Yupik . The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Kingdom of Denmark [Greenland & The Faroe Islands], Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and US) are all members of the Arctic Council , as are organizations representing six indigenous populations (The Aleut International Association , Arctic Athabaskan Council , Gwich'in Council International , Inuit Circumpolar Council , Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of
5336-443: The United States—are limited to a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean. Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea , a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone. Due to this, Norway (which ratified
5428-400: The ancestors," Tupiniquim means "side-neighbors," Tamoio means "grandfather," Temiminó means "grandson," Tabajara means "in-laws," and so on. Some etymologists believe these names reflect the ordering of migration waves of Tupi people from the interior to the coasts. For example, the first Tupi wave to reach the coast might have been referred to as "grandfathers" (Tamoio), soon joined by
5520-474: The coastal Tupi and Tapuia tribes were primarily agriculturalists. The subtropical Guarani cultivated maize , tropical Tupi cultivated manioc ( cassava ), and highland Jês cultivated peanuts as the staple of their diet. Supplementary crops included beans , sweet potatoes , cará ( yam ), jerimum ( pumpkin ), and cumari ( capsicum pepper). Behind the coasts, the interior of Brazil was primarily dominated by Tapuia (Jê) people, although significant sections of
5612-408: The coastal Tupi were divided into sub-tribes that were frequently hostile to each other, they were culturally and linguistically homogeneous. The fact that early Europeans encountered essentially the same people and language along the Brazilian coast greatly facilitated communication and interaction. Coastal Sequence c. 1500 (north to south): With the exception of the hunter-gatherer Goitacases ,
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#17328632356275704-448: The coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C (−90 °F). Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming , leading to climate change in the Arctic , including Arctic sea ice decline , diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet , and Arctic methane emissions as
5796-549: The colonists, compounded by slavery and European violence. The Indigenous people were traditionally semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migratory agriculture. For centuries, they lived semi-nomadic lives, managing the forests to meet their needs. When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the natives primarily inhabited the coast and the banks of major rivers. Initially, Europeans viewed them as noble savages , and miscegenation began almost immediately. Portuguese claims of tribal warfare, cannibalism , and
5888-399: The concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze , which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCB's ( polychlorinated biphenyls ) in Arctic wildlife and people. There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of stars at
5980-413: The convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and the Kingdom of Denmark (ratified in 2004) launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories. On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes , MIR-1 and MIR-2 , for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there
6072-411: The country with the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world. Questions about the original settlement of the Americas have led to various hypothetical models. The origins of these Indigenous peoples remain a matter of debate among archaeologists . Anthropological and genetic evidence suggests that most Amerindian people descended from migrants from Siberia and Mongolia who entered
6164-463: The deaths of tens of thousands. The diseases spread rapidly along Indigenous trade routes, likely leading to the annihilation of entire tribes without direct contact with Europeans. By 1800, the population of Colonial Brazil had reached approximately 2.33 million, of which only around 174,900 were Indigenous. By 1850, that number had dwindled to an estimated 78,400 out of a total population of 5.8 million. The mutual feeling of wonderment and goodwill
6256-406: The first evidence of a complex society on Marajó. Further evidence of mound building suggests that well-populated, complex, and sophisticated settlements developed on the island, as only such settlements were believed capable of undertaking extensive projects like major earthworks. The extent, level of complexity, and resource interactions of the Marajoara culture have been subjects of dispute. In
6348-614: The general Brazilian population . The Indigenous population was decimated by European diseases, declining from a pre-Columbian high of 2 million to 3 million to approximately 300,000 by 1997, distributed among 200 tribes. According to the 2022 IBGE census, 1,693,535 Brazilians classified themselves as Indigenous, and the census recorded 274 Indigenous languages spoken by 304 different Indigenous ethnic groups. On 18 January 2007, Fundação Nacional do Índio reported 67 remaining uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 known in 2005. With this increase, Brazil surpassed New Guinea , becoming
6440-429: The ground, forming tundra . An example of a dwarf shrub is the bearberry . As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause
6532-424: The increase. The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic to
6624-486: The initial colonization of the region. According to a 2012 autosomal DNA genetic study, Native Americans descend from at least three main migrant waves from Siberia. Most of their ancestry traces back to a single ancestral population, referred to as the 'First Americans'. However, Inuit-speaking populations from the Arctic inherited nearly half of their ancestry from a second Siberian migrant wave, while Na-dene speakers inherited about one-tenth of their ancestry from
6716-501: The interior (notably the upper reaches of the Xingu , Teles Pires , and Juruena Rivers , roughly corresponding to modern Mato Grosso state) were the original pre-migration Tupi-Guarani homelands. In addition to the Tupi and Tapuia, two other Indigenous mega-groups were commonly identified in the interior: the Caribs , who inhabited much of what is now northwestern Brazil, including both shores of
6808-456: The interior to claim territory for the Portuguese crown and to search for gold and precious stones . Intending to profit from the sugar trade , the Portuguese decided to cultivate sugar cane in Brazil and to use Indigenous slaves as the workforce, following the example of the Spanish colonies. However, capturing Indigenous people proved difficult. They were soon afflicted by diseases brought by
6900-447: The large-scale agriculture needed to support large populations and complex social formations, such as chiefdoms . The Xingu peoples built large settlements connected by roads and bridges, often featuring moats. Their development peaked between 1200 CE and 1600 CE, with their population reaching into the tens of thousands. On the eve of the Portuguese arrival in 1500, the coastal areas of Brazil were dominated by two major groups:
6992-486: The leading economies of the world. Construction began on a transcontinental highway across the Amazon basin, designed to encourage migration to the region and facilitate trade. Funded by the World Bank , thousands of square miles of forest were cleared without regard for reservation status. Following the highway projects, giant hydroelectric projects were initiated, and vast areas of forest were cleared for cattle ranching. As
7084-411: The lips. Researchers believe this wear was caused by using teeth to peel and shred abrasive plants . The Marajoara culture flourished on Marajó island at the mouth of the Amazon River . Archaeologists have uncovered sophisticated pottery in their excavations on the island. These pieces are large, elaborately painted, and incised with representations of plants and animals. This discovery provided
7176-457: The major impacts to the region from climate change the near climate future of the region will be extremely different under all scenarios of warming. The effects of climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet . Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates ,
7268-429: The maternal ancestry of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas traces back to a few founding lineages from Siberia, likely arriving via the Bering Strait . According to this study, the ancestors of Native Americans likely remained near the Bering Strait for a time before rapidly spreading throughout the Americas and eventually reaching South America . A 2016 study on mtDNA lineages found that "a small population entered
7360-566: The middle of the 16th century, Jesuit priests, at the behest of Portugal's monarchy, had established missions throughout the country's colonies. They aimed to Europeanize and convert the Indigenous populations to Catholicism. Some historians argue that the Jesuits provided a period of relative stability for the Amerindians and opposed using them for slave labor. However, the Jesuits also contributed to European imperialism. Many historians view Jesuit involvement as an ethnocide of Indigenous culture, where
7452-404: The mound Teso dos Bichos. She concluded that the society that constructed the mounds originated on the island itself. The pre-Columbian culture of Marajó may have developed social stratification and supported a population as large as 100,000 people. The Native Americans of the Amazon rainforest may have used their method of developing and working in terra preta to make the land suitable for
7544-464: The northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region. The climate of the Arctic region is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 in). High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as −40 °C (−40 °F), and
7636-417: The plantations. When the Amerindians proved to be a difficult labor force, peasants from surrounding areas were brought in. This created ongoing tension between the Indigenous population and the new arrivals, as the Amerindians felt their lands were being invaded in the pursuit of wealth. In the 20th century, the Brazilian government adopted a more humanitarian approach and began offering official protection to
7728-655: The possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route . One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship. In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts. These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over
7820-510: The predecessor culture. The evidence suggested that Inuit descend from the Birnirk of Siberia, who through the Thule culture expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they genetically and culturally completely replaced the Indigenous Dorset people some time after 1300 CE. The question of why the Dorset disappeared so completely has led some to suggest that Thule invaders wiped out
7912-536: The pursuit of Amazonian brazilwood for its prized red dye convinced the colonists that they needed to "civilize" the natives (originally, the Portuguese named Brazil Terra de Santa Cruz , but it later acquired its current name (see List of meanings of countries' names ) from the brazilwood ). However, like the Spanish in North America, the Portuguese brought diseases to which many Amerindians had no immunity. Measles , smallpox , tuberculosis , and influenza caused
8004-756: The region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply. During the Cretaceous time period , the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus , Hypacrosaurus , Troodon , and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as
8096-420: The ritualistic nature of their cannibalism practices and highlighted the important role of women in the household. Before the arrival of Europeans, the territory of present-day Brazil had an estimated population of between 1 and 11.25 million inhabitants. During the first 100 years of contact, the Amerindian population was reduced by 90%. This drastic decline was primarily due to diseases and illnesses brought by
8188-432: The size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height; sedges , mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like
8280-458: Was appalled by the treatment of the Indigenous people by settlers and developers, and he became their lifelong friend and protector. Rondon, who died in 1958, is considered a national hero in Brazil. The Brazilian state of Rondônia is named in his honor. After Rondon's pioneering work, the SPI was handed over to bureaucrats and military officers, and its effectiveness declined after 1957. The new officials did not share Rondon's deep commitment to
8372-405: Was recognized that unnecessary contact with these tribes was causing illness and social disintegration. Uncontacted tribes are now meant to be shielded from intrusion and interference in their lifestyle and territory. However, the exploitation of rubber and other Amazonian natural resources has led to a new cycle of invasion, expulsion, massacres, and death, which continues to this day. In 1964,
8464-436: Was to end in the subsequent years. The Portuguese colonists , all males, began to have children with female Amerindians, creating a new generation of mixed-race people who spoke Amerindian languages, including a Tupi language called Nheengatu . The children of these Portuguese men and Amerindian women soon formed the majority of the population. Groups of fierce explorers organized expeditions known as " bandeiras " (flags) into
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