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88-762: The commune covers an area of 7,256 km (2,802 sq mi) and as of 2013 had a population of 221,108 people., while the Tchaourou city proper has a population of 106,852 people, making it the 10th largest settlement in Benin. The main languages of Tchaourou are Bariba , Fula ( Fula : Fulfulde ; French : Peul ), Yoruba , Otamari and Yom Lokpa . The commune is divided administratively into 7 arrondissements, in 5 quarters and 31 villages. 8°53′N 2°36′E  /  8.883°N 2.600°E  / 8.883; 2.600 Bariba people The Bariba people , self designation Baatonu (plural Baatombu), are

176-507: A caste system, and caste systems are not divinely ordained. In Mauritanian context, the Kafa'ah doctrine has been developed as a justification for considering family status before marriage, annulment of marriages between unequal people, and endogamy. Moors have owned slaves for centuries. The slaves are traditionally called Haratin and `Abid , and they were the lowest status endogamous castes, largely segregated oasis -dwelling black people, in

264-638: A caste system. The Fula caste system has been fairly rigid and has medieval roots. It was well established by the 15th century, and it has survived into modern age. The four major castes, states Martin Kich, in their order of status are "nobility, traders, tradesmen (such as blacksmiths) and descendants of slaves". According to the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, the Fulani people have held on to "a strict caste system". The upper caste consists of

352-491: A cavalry charge, the culminating point of which is the simultaneous shooting of their firearms. In some regions camels are used instead of horses and in others the attack is carried out on foot. The Baatonu have been featuring the fantasia for the Gaani since the days of Sime Dobidia, as well as on the occasion of important events such as wed-dings, births and religious festivals. Due to increasing interest, demonstrations or parades in

440-593: A distinct tenant-peasant strata lives around oases known as izeggaren (or haratin in Arabic). Traditionally, these local peasants were subservient to the warrior nobles who owned the oasis and the land. The peasants tilled these fields, whose output they gave to the nobles after keeping a fifth part of the produce. Their Tuareg patrons were usually responsible for supplying agricultural tools, seed and clothing. The peasants' origins are also unclear. One theory postulates that they are descendants of ancient people who lived in

528-573: A heavy toll on the noble warrior strata, and thereafter the vassals carried weapons as well and were recruited as warriors. After the start of the French colonial rule which dislodged the nobles from their powers over war and taxation, the Tuaregs belonging to the noble strata disdained tending cattle and tilling the land, seeking instead warrior or intellectual work. A semi-noble strata of the Tuareg people has been

616-699: A large Berber ethnic confederation found in North Africa. They principally inhabit the Sahara desert, in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria , Niger , Mali and Burkina Faso . Traditionally nomadic pastoralists , small groups of Tuareg are also found in northern Nigeria . Tuareg society has traditionally featured clan membership, social status and caste hierarchies within each political confederation. These hierarchical systems have included nobles, clerics, craftsmen and unfree strata of people. In Tuareg hierarchical caste system,

704-464: A mix of admiration and distrust. According to Rasmussen, the Tuareg castes are not only hierarchical, as each caste differs in mutual perception, food and eating behaviors. On this point, she relates an explanation by a smith on why there is endogamy among castes among Tuareg in Niger. The smith explained, "Nobles are like rice, Smiths are like millet, Slaves are like corn." In the Tuareg areas of Algeria,

792-448: A noble, forms a confederation called amanokal , whose chieftain is elected from among the nobles by the tribal chiefs. The chietain is the overlord during times of war, and receives tribute and taxes from tribes as a sign of their submission to his authority. The vassal-herdsmen are the second free strata within Tuareg society, occupying a position just below that of the nobles. They are known as ímɣad ( Imghad , singular Amghid ) in

880-548: A number of Bariba communities have their own indigenous beliefs. Baatonum , also known as Bariba (also Baatombu, Baatonu , Barba, Baruba, Berba and many other names and spellings), is the language of the Bariba people of Benin and Nigeria. It was the language of the state of Borgu . According to some versions of their history, the Wasangari first settled in the region of Nikki-Wenu around 1480, it having been occupied from 1350 by

968-472: A particular occupation such as iron working, carpentry, weapon making, pottery, weaving, leather working and hunting. The castes in the Oromo society have had a designated name, such as Tumtu were smiths, Fuga were potters, Faqi were tanners and leatherworkers, Semmano for weavers, Gagurtu were bee keepers and honey makers, Watta were hunters and foragers. While slaves were an endogamous strata within

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1056-431: A patrilineal society, predominantly Muslim, who favor endogamous cross-cousin marriages with polygynous households common. They have a caste system like all Manding-speaking peoples of West Africa, where the artisans such as smiths, carpenters, musicians, jewelers and leatherworkers are separate castes, and believed to have descended from the medieval era slavery. The Susu people, like other Manding-speaking peoples, have

1144-552: A professor of African History, the term Bidan is a "caste synecdoche" that refers to Hassani (warrior) and Zwaya (clerical) clans. In the slave castes, they recognized two layers, the `Abid (slaves) and Haratins (freed slaves). According to Remco Ensel – a professor of anthropology specializing in Maghreb studies – the word "Haratin" in Moroccan is a pejorative that connotes "subordination, disrepute" and in contemporary literature, it

1232-635: A professor of anthropology – the widespread purchase of non-Somali African slaves during the medieval age helped structure the complex status hierarchy among the Somalis. However, adds Besteman, the Somali people from the upper strata have also been egalitarian in matters of clan leadership, while they have included concepts of social status, inferiority and exclusion of Sáb and slaves. In the northern regions where Somalis are traditionally found, states Iaon Lewis, Somali communities have traditionally distinguished between

1320-731: A professor of history specializing in African studies. They along with Swasin in Morocco and other northern fringe societies of the Sahara, were a part of a social hierarchy that included the upper strata of nobles, religious specialists and literati, followed by freemen, nomadic pastoral strata and slaves. The Haratin were hierarchically higher than the `Abid (descendant of slaves) at the very bottom, but lower than Ahrar . This hierarchy, states Ensel, has been variously described as ethnic groups, estates, quasi-castes, castes or classes. The Tuareg people are

1408-457: A resident of Nikki-Wenu, rode to Nikki on horseback to visit his son Sime Dobidia during the Gaani. Sime Dobidia established the tradition and transformed the Gaani into an equestrian demonstration assembling horsemen from throughout the empire. The sacred drums and royal trumpets symbolize the power of the Empire and are the embodiment of its memory and continuity. The dense, nonchalant sound of

1496-480: A talking tom-tom and a drum contribute to the sound of the Sinsennu, producing the particular harmony specific to the dance. The Gbangba, danced by young Wasangari aged between 18 and 25, is identified by its solemn, mournful rhythm. It was for-merly used to announce the death of a king and to accompany the preparations for burial ceremonies. A war dance, it also an-nounces the start of a conflict. The Fulbe carry out

1584-577: A traditional occupation, and (6) inherited caste membership. This caste system has been a rigid, endogamous and occupationally closed social stratification among Amhara and other Afro-Asiatic-speaking Ethiopian ethnic groups. However, some state it as an economically closed, endogamous class system or as occupational minorities, whereas others such as the historian David Todd state that this system can be unequivocally labelled as caste-based. The Borana people are found in southern Ethiopia and northeastern Kenya. They have historically had castes, among which

1672-417: Is danced in pairs and in general, six to eight couples confront each other on the floor. The many varying rhythms are associated with specific dance steps. The Sinsennu dance is carried out by young men. Its name refers to the chains of balls made from the leaves of Palmyra palm shoots decorated with small stones that the dancers wrap round their calves, making a sound similar to that of castanets . A flute ,

1760-651: Is deployed within government, Church and indigenous communities. Among the Mande societies in Mali , Senegal , the Gambia , Guinea , Sierra Leone , Liberia , Ivory Coast and Ghana , people are divided by occupation and ethnic ties. The highest hierarchy in the Mande caste system, the Horon (nobles/freeborn), are traditionally farmers, fisherman, warriors and animal breeders, the lowest caste are

1848-535: Is estimated to be over 2 million. The cultural practices of Soninke people are similar to the Mandé peoples, and includes social stratification. According to the anthropologist Tal Tamari, the Soninke society became highly stratified after the thirteenth century. The Soninke strata have included a free category called Horro or Horon , a caste system category called Namaxala or Nyaxamalo , and slaves called Komo . In

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1936-586: Is now sometimes replaced by corn paste mixed with manioc. Manioc is also used to make gari. Although the Baatonu regularly consume corn and bean-based dishes in their daily life, they generally only sell Waakye (mixture of rice and beans). Caste system in Africa Caste systems in Africa are a form of social stratification found in numerous ethnic groups, found in over fifteen countries, particularly in

2024-452: Is often replaced with "Drawi", "Drawa", "Sahrawi", "Sahrawa" or other regional terms. The Haratins historically lived segregated from the main society, in a rural isolation. Their subjugation regardless of their religion was sometimes ideologically justified by nobles and some Islamic scholars, even though some scholars took a more nuanced view that Muslims can only enslave non-Muslims and they should not enslave other Muslims, states Hamel –

2112-432: Is sometimes used as an under-garment. The Sokoto or large-waisted tapered trousers, has a matching fabric belt. The ber-muda-style demberu is made from fabric for the Wasangari or animal skin for the hunters and farmers. Luxury attire for important days takes the form of the more elegant tako with its tasteful colours. A Tako-gonna, which is the same colour as guinea fowl, can be worth as much as three oxen. Generally speaking,

2200-487: Is unclear exactly when and how these caste systems developed, some likely emerged sometime between the 9th century and 15th century in various ethnic groups. Others, such as the occupational segregation and caste-based endogamy practiced by the Ari people , have been revealed by advances in archaeogenetics to be among the oldest continuous caste systems in existence. There has been much recent scholarship on caste systems in

2288-642: The Amhara people of Ethiopia includes castes. According to Donald Levine – a professor of sciology specializing in Ethiopian society – the Amhara society has consisted of high-ranking clans, low-ranking clans, caste groups (artisans), and slaves. The Amhara caste system was hierarchically higher than its lowest slaves strata. The Amhara caste system consisted of: (1) endogamy, (2) hierarchical status, (3) restraints on commensality, (4) pollution concepts, (5) each caste has had

2376-509: The Horn of Africa . They have been studied in communities that speak Semitic , Cushitic , and Omotic languages . The term "Manja" or ""Manjo" is found repeatedly. The terminology used by various scholars has varied but they have found consistently found links between social groupings and occupations, often potters, metal workers, weavers, leather workers. This list of sources is incomplete, but contains important sources. The social stratification of

2464-808: The Igbo people can be traced back to Odinani , the traditional Igbo religion. It is the belief of many Igbo traditionalists that the Osus are people historically owned by deities, and are therefore considered to be a 'living sacrifice', an outcast, untouchable and sub-human (similar to the Roman practice of homo sacer ). This system received literary attention when it became a key plot point in No Longer at Ease by Chinua Achebe . People regarded as modern-day Osu in Igboland are descendants of individuals who volunteered and were sacrificed to

2552-800: The Sahel , West Africa , and North Africa . These caste systems feature endogamy , hierarchical status, inherited occupation, membership by birth, pollution concepts and restraints on commensality. The specifics of the caste systems in Africa vary among the ethnic groups. Some societies have a rigid and strict caste system with embedded slavery , whereas others are more diffuse and complex. Countries in Africa that have societies with caste systems include Mali , Mauritania , Senegal , Gambia , Guinea , Ivory Coast , Niger , Burkina Faso , Cameroon , Liberia , Sudan , Sierra Leone , Algeria , Nigeria , Chad , Ethiopia , Somalia , Djibouti , Eritrea and others. It

2640-516: The Yibir have been the saddle and prayer mat makers and magician caste. Below the castes have been the Somali Bantus Jareer community, and these have been descendants of former slaves, including those who were runaway and emancipated slaves. According to Mohamed Eno and Abdi Kusow, the Somali caste communities are ethnically indistinguishable from each other, but upper castes have stigmatized

2728-532: The garanke (leather workers) below the fune (bard), the fune below the gesere or jeli (griots, singers), the jeli below the tage or numu (smiths, pottery workers). The Susu people are a West African ethnic group , one of the Mandé peoples living primarily in Guinea . Influential in Guinea, smaller communities of Susu people are also found in the neighboring Sierra Leone and Guinea-Bissau . The Susu are

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2816-520: The 13th-century. The Mandinka castes are hereditary, and marriages outside the caste was forbidden. Their caste system is similar to those of other ethnic groups of the African Sahel region, and found across the Mandinka communities such as those in Gambia, Mali, Guinea and other countries. The Senufo people are found in a region spanning the northern Ivory Coast , the southeastern Mali and

2904-592: The Baatonu favour dyed loincloths as opposed to the Fulbe who are happier wearing white loin-cloths, sometimes with brightly-coloured stripes. Fabric hats, whether ecru or brightly coloured, are primordial for the men; indeed, wearing hats in public used to be compulsory. The white Furogomba and the black-and-white Furogona are worn by princes and dignitaries. Dawani caps wrapped in long white or red turbans are used by Baatonu chiefs and Muslims. Furobakuro hats are worn by ordinary citizens, whereas village chiefs and horsemen have

2992-556: The Baatonu natives. Coming from the East , they initially settled in Bussa in what is now Nigeria , where Kisra , the legendary Wasangari horseman from Persia had formed an alliance with Mansa Doro left Bussa for Nikki-Wenu with his groom Sero, the son of Kisra who entrusted Mansa Doro with the education of Sero. Before leaving the region again to join Kisra , Mansa Doro nominated his protégé Sero as

3080-473: The Emperor and receive his blessing. More than 150,000 persons converge to Nikki from all over to participate in the spectacular ceremony where the vitality of the Baatonu culture is celebrated and parental and fraternal links between dynasties are nurtured. Everyone brings presents, however modest, to contribute to the magnificence of the festivities. The Gaani is the second festival in the Baatonu calendar, following

3168-661: The Emperor’s entrance by initiates and used during the Gaani, but also for other events during the year: enthronement, Friday prayers, etc. Another drum, the Bara Kaaru, which is still kept in a small temple on the Baro Kpira farm in the Banikuara region, is played by the Bara Yogo who is a member of the ancient family of griots . Like spurs, trumpets were introduced to the Baatonu country by

3256-528: The Fulani equivalent of the Tuareg Ikelan known as Bouzou (Buzu)/Bella in the Hausa and Songhay languages respectively. The Fulani castes are endogamous in nature, meaning individuals marry only within their caste. This caste system, however, wasn't as elaborate in places like northern Nigeria , Eastern Niger or Cameroon . According to some estimates, by the late 19th century, slaves constituted about 50% of

3344-503: The Gambia and the Guinea where they are the largest ethnic group. Major populations of the Mandinka people also live in Mali , Sierra Leone , Ivory Coast , Senegal , Burkina Faso , Liberia , Guinea-Bissau , Niger and Mauritania . Their traditional society has featured socially stratified castes, from at least the 13th century. The Mandinka society, states Arnold Hughes – a professor of West African studies and African politics–,has been "divided into three endogamous castes –

3432-676: The Igbo community – in Enugu and Delta states, and most especially in Anambra and Imo states – Osu caste system remains a social issue. The Osu caste is determined by one's birth into a particular family irrespective of the religion practised by the individual. Once born into the Osu caste, this Nigerian person is an outcast, with limited opportunities or acceptance, regardless of his or her ability or merit. Obinna discusses how this caste system-related identity and power

3520-461: The Jaara subgroup of the Soninke people, the nobility called Tunkanlenmu was another strata. The slaves were the largest strata, one at the bottom among the Soninke like other West African ethnic groups, and constituted up to half of the population. The slaves among the Soninke people were hierarchically arranged into three strata. The village slaves were a privileged servile group who lived apart from

3608-590: The Jonow, a "slave" caste, made up of people whose ancestors were enslaved by other Africans during wars. An important feature of this system are castes based on trade, such as blacksmiths and griots . The Mandinka people are a West African ethnic group with an estimated population of eleven million with roots in western Sahel , in Mali , but now widely dispersed. Over 99% of Mandinka are Muslim.< The Mandinka people live primarily in West Africa, particularly in

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3696-457: The Maghreb where it was also known as the “powder game” or “horse game”, the fantasia is an Arab - Turkish - Berber equestrian art tradition. Recorded since the 16th century, it was formally recognized in the 18th century and became a popular subject for artists from Delacroix to Orientalist painters such as Eugene Fromentin and Maria Fortuny. The horsemen, astride richly harnessed mounts and carrying rifles loaded with black powder, simulate

3784-567: The Moors society. The Haratin of Mauritania , states Joseph Hellweg – a professor of anthropology specializing in West African studies – were part of a social caste-like hierarchy that likely developed between 1300 and 1500 CE because of a Bedouin legacy. The "Hassan" monopolized the occupations related to war and politics, the "Zwaya" ( Zawaya ) the religious roles, the "Bidan" (White Moors) owned property and held slaves (Haratins, Black Moors), and

3872-907: The Oromo society, they themselves were also victims of slavery. By the 19th century, Oromo slaves were sought after and a major part of slaves sold in Gondar and Gallabat slave markets at Ethiopia–Sudan border , as well as the Massawa and Tajura markets on the Red Sea . The Somalis are an ethnic group of between 15 and 20 million people, constituting the largest ethnicity in Somalia, many of whom also live in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti. They have historically exhibited social stratification that has included embedded castes referred to as Higal (or Higalki , Argobba ). The upper noble strata has been called Gob (or Asha), while

3960-416: The Sahara before they were dominated by invading groups. Some speak a Songhay dialect along with Tuareg and Arabic. In contemporary times, these peasant strata have blended in with freed black slaves and farm arable lands together. According to the historian Starratt, the Tuareg evolved a system of slavery that was highly differentiated. They established strata among their slaves, which determined rules as to

4048-506: The Sinna which imitates flagellation, and the Gesegesere. Yams are the queen of cultures in Baatonu gastronomy. Their traditional dish is Sokuru, prepared from yams and served with different types of sauce: aubergine , bissap , Guinea sorrel , climbing leaves, beef , mutton or chicken . Yams are also eaten pureed (Pereku) or ground and dried (Yennu). The traditional dish of millet paste

4136-562: The Somali people. Similarly, equivalent terms for castes in other northeast and east African ethnic groups mirror other castes such as the Tomal and the Yibir of Somali people. The Muslim Moors society in the Maghreb parts of the North Africa was traditionally (and still is, to some extent) stratified. According to Rebecca Popenoe, a professor of anthropology, the Islamic scriptures do not dictate

4224-440: The Tuareg community. In Niger and Mali, where the largest Tuareg populations are found, the artisan castes were attached as clients to a family of nobles or vassals, and carried messages over distances for their patron family. They also are the ones who traditionally sacrifice animals during Islamic festivals. These social strata, like caste systems found in many parts of West Africa, included singers, musicians and story tellers of

4312-529: The Tuareg language. Although the vassals were also free, they did not own camels but instead kept donkeys and herds of goats, sheep and oxen. They pastured and tended their own herds as well those owned by the nobles of the confederation. The vassal strata have traditionally paid an annual tiwse , or tribute to the nobles as a part of their status obligations, and also hosted any noble who is traveling through their territory. In late medieval era, states Prasse, this weapon monopoly broke down after regional wars took

4400-441: The Tuareg, who kept their oral traditions . They are called Agguta by Tuareg, have been called upon to sing during ceremonies such as weddings or funerals. The origins of the artisanal castes are unclear. One theory posits a Jewish derivation, a proposal that Prasse calls "a much vexed question". Their association with fire, iron and precious metals and their reputation for being cunning tradesman has led others to treat them with

4488-519: The Wasangari under the influence of the Hausa of Nigeria . The instrument, unknown to the Baatonu natives, originates from India and was introduced to Africa by caravan travellers. The sacred trumpet is directly associated with power and is used by the Baatonu people in the royal courts of the Atacora , Donga and Borgou . Since all sacred instruments are the property of the king, only a few kings and chiefs have

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4576-570: The artisanal Somali castes and their slaves, but in the south they have blurred these distinctions. The castes among Somali people have also existed in other East African ethnic groups. For instance, cognates to Somali castes have been recorded in 16th century texts among the Oromo people , states Cornelius Jaenen. The table below illustrate some alternate terms for castes mirroring the Somali Madhiban in other ethnic groups that share this region with

4664-413: The assembly, sometimes to the point of fright-ening them. The rapid pace of the dance is set by the pounding rhythm of their accessories: a gravel-filled gourd in one hand and a piece of animal skin in the other. The popular Teke dance, which has no sacred function, is carried out by mature men using 40-centimetre cylindrical sticks. In this dance, rival groups or villages compete with each other. The Teke

4752-501: The basis of the political structure established by the Wasangari. The royal dynasties are founded by: The Bariba society features the caste divisions typical of the West African region. There are caste divisions . The yearly Gaani festival, presided over by the Emperor of Nikki, or in his absence the chiefs of the Bouay, Kika and Sandiro provinces, assembles all the provincial chiefs and their populations, who come to renew allegiance to

4840-586: The craftsman and the noble are ritually forbidden to enter the house of the other. Low caste people are expected not to handle farm equipment or cattle. The Oromo people are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia , also found in northern Kenya and Somalia, with an estimated total population of over 35 million. Like other ethnic groups in East Africa, Oromo people regionally developed social stratification consisting of four hierarchical strata. The highest strata were

4928-591: The drums and the suave timbre of the trumpets, as well as the myths the instruments perpetuate, accompany the Gaani festivities and resound in the hearts of the faithful throughout the year. To parade before the illustrious drums is a privilege granted by the clan. Two noteworthy sacred instruments are the imposing male and female sacred drums, the Barabakaru and the Barapiibu, which are between 125 and 127 centimetres high and made of baobab wood and beef hide. They are played at

5016-506: The endogamous religious clerics, the marabouts (Tuareg: Ineslemen , a loan word that means Muslim in Arabic). After the adoption of Islam, they became integral to the Tuareg social structure. According to Norris, this strata of Muslim clerics has been a sacerdotal caste, which propagated Islam in North Africa and the Sahel between the 7th and the 17th centuries. Adherence to the faith was initially centered around this caste, but later spread to

5104-568: The equestrian tradition can also be organized for visitors The horse, a central element in Baatonu tradition, is a prevailing symbol of the Empire, and festivals are greatly enhanced by their presence. The majestic horses’ harnesses and richly-coloured riders’ costumes are meticulously prepared several months in advance. The horsemen, mainly from the class of the dignitaries, compete in dexterity and audacity in powerful demonstrations of strength and mastery with their audacious stunts and dazzling processions. The equestrian tradition began when Sunon Sero,

5192-458: The fire festival or Donkonru, that takes place at the New Year. The Gaani is associated with the notion of nasara, evoking joy, victory and freedom and is a time for ecstasy and communion. By animating and perpetrating the memories that unite them, it nourishes and re-news solidarity and fraternity within the Baatonu people, endorsing their values of welcome and sharing. An animistic tribal ceremony, it

5280-441: The freeborn ( foro ), slaves ( jongo ), and artisans and praise singers ( nyamolo ). The freeborn castes are primarily farmers, while the slave strata included labor providers to the farmers, as well as leather workers, pottery makers, metal smiths, griots and others. The Mandinka Muslim clerics and scribes have traditionally been a separate endogamous occupational caste called Jakhanke , with their Islamic roots traceable to about

5368-499: The holy day Friday and during grand ceremonies (Gaani or the Shaving of princes). Despite their sacred status, these trumpets are now reproduced in a somewhat anarchic manner. The men’s costumes are varied and indicate their social status. Their day-to-day outfit, the Turu, is a large ankle-length, generally sleeve-less tunic made from thick ecru cotton hessian. The knee-length Dansigi or shirt

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5456-542: The hunters and artisans have constituted the depressed strata. These are endogamous castes each with a specialized inherited occupation, and include a stratum that constitutes outcastes. They are found in virtually every Cushitic or Semitic community of this region. The lower castes of the Borana people, states Herbert Lewis – a professor of anthropology specializing in East African societies – show no physical differences from

5544-412: The imposition of an Anglo-French artificial border, ended Bariba trade in the region. One of their noted festivals is the annual Gani festival of which horse riding is a prominent element. The Bariba people hold an important place in the history of the country. During the late 19th century, Bariba was known to constitute independent states and dominate with kingdoms in cities like Nikki and Kandi in

5632-447: The lower ones with mythical narratives such as they being of unholy origins or being engaged in dirty occupations. The four strata social system – high lineage, low lineage, caste groups and slaves – found among the Somalis has been common in the Horn of Africa region, states Donald Levine , and is also found among ethnic groups such as Afar, Amhara, Borana, Leqa, Sidamo, Kefa, Janjero and other peoples. According to Catherine Besteman –

5720-421: The lower servile strata have been referred to as Sáb . The three main Somali castes are called Tumal (sometimes spelled Tomal ), Midgan and Yibir (sometimes spelled Yebir ). These fell outside of the traditional clan structure. The castes have been endogamous, a person born into it inherited its occupation. The Midgan have been the hunters, Tumal were the smiths, pottery and leatherworking caste, and

5808-476: The new chief. Decked out in hunting attire, the groom was established by the populations of Nikki-Wenu as Sounon Sero, King of Nikki . Sabi Sime, the youngest son of Sounon Sero, later became Sime Dobidia, and through marriages with the native clans Baatonu, Boko and Hausa, founded the dynasties of the Empire of Nikki. His sons, endowed with the royal emblems of trumpets and white spurs, took control of villages of their respective mothers. Those parental ties were

5896-426: The noble castes of Somalia and Somalilands. Other than endogamy and occupational differences between the castes, their ritual, social and political positions are different, as are the beliefs held by each about the nature of the other. For example, the castes have long considered each other as ritually impure, and food prepared by either nobles or artisans castes is considered a taboo to others. Similarly, traditionally,

5984-426: The nobles called the Borana , below them were the Gabbaro (some 17th to 19th century Ethiopian texts refer them as the dhalatta ). Below these two upper castes were the despised castes of artisans, and at the lowest level were the slaves. In the Islamic Kingdom of Jimma , the Oromo society's caste strata predominantly consisted of endogamous, inherited artisanal occupations. Each caste group has specialized in

6072-586: The nobles constitute the highest caste. They are known in the Tuareg language as imúšaɣ ( Imajaghan , "the proud and free" in the amazigh language ). The nobles had a monopoly on carrying arms and camels, were the warriors of the Tuareg regions. They may have achieved their social status by subjugating other Tuareg castes, keeping arms to defend their properties and vassals. They have also collected tribute from their vassals. This warrior nobility has traditionally married within their caste, not to individuals in strata below their own. A collection of tribes, each led by

6160-420: The nobles. Below these are the marabouts or clerics, then the cattle owning Fula people. Below all these are the artisan castes, which includes the blacksmiths, potters, griots , genealogists, woodworkers, and dressmakers. They belong to castes but are not enslaved and are free people . Then there are those castes of captive, slave or serf ancestry: the Maccuɗo , Rimmayɓe , Dimaajo , and less often Ɓaleeɓe ,

6248-423: The northeast of the country. In the town of Pehunko , there are approximately 200,000 Bariba people out of 365,000 inhabitants. Agriculture is the dominant occupation for the Bariba. They grow corn , sorghum , rice , cotton , cassava (tapioca), yams , beans , palm oil , peanuts and some poultry and livestock. Religion plays an important role in the Bariba tribe and they are primarily Islamic . However,

6336-522: The only aspect of Igbo life that keeps the Osu segregation intact is marriage. An Osu could and could only marry a fellow Osu, and no more. It is a taboo and abhorrent for an Osu to marry a non-Osu – love or lust being immaterial. Some suggest that due to the introduction of modernization, the Osu system is gradually leaving Igboland and tradition. The influence of Christianity (specifically Roman Catholicism ) has caused Odinani to start slowly disappearing from Igboland . Obinna, in 2012, reports that in

6424-409: The political superiority of farmers over artisan castes". The Soninke people are a West African ethnic group found in eastern Senegal and its capital Dakar , northwestern Mali and southern Mauritania . Predominantly Muslims, the Soninke were one of the early ethnic groups from Sub-Saharan West Africa to convert to Islam about the 10th century. The contemporary population of Soninke people

6512-516: The population (9.2%). The Bariba are concentrated primarily in the north-east of the country, especially around the city of Nikki , which is considered the traditional Bariba capital. At the end of the 18th century (1782), they became independent from the Yoruba of Oyo and formed several kingdoms in the Borgou region. The colonization of Benin (then Dahomey) by the French at the end of the 19th century, and

6600-728: The population of the Fulɓe-ruled Adamawa Emirate , where they were referred to as jeyaɓe (singular jeyado ). Though very high, these figures are representative of many other emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate , of which Adamawa formed a part. The castes-based social stratification among the Fula people was widespread and seen across the Sahel, such as Burkina Faso, Niger, Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Sudan, and others. The Osu caste system in Nigeria and southern Cameroon of

6688-511: The principal inhabitants of Borgou and Alibori Departments , Benin , and cofounders of the Borgu kingdom of what is now northeast Benin and west-central Nigeria . In Nigeria, they are found spread between western Kwara State and the Borgu section of Niger State . There are perhaps a million Bariba, 70% of them in Benin, where they are the fourth largest ethnic group and comprise approximately 1/11 of

6776-449: The privilege of owning one. Its manufacture and use are exclusive to initiated members of the royal court. The Kankangi ancestor of trumpeters was himself a member of the royal family. The Kankangi trumpet comprises two parts that fit together. The male trumpets are longer than the female ones (171 cm as opposed to 158 cm on average). The trumpets are played to the glory of the Emperor or to accompany his travels, but also to announce

6864-408: The privilege of wear-ing brimmed bowl-shaped or cone-shaped Keseru. The subtleties to wear-ing hats comprise a language unto itself. A hat folded at the front evokes a prince who aspires to a superior status. The braggart wears a mounted hat. A hat sitting on the back of the head indicates bravado: this man fears nothing and no-one! Ordinarily, the hat would sit on the right or the left. Compared with

6952-513: The richness of the men’s clothing, women’s outfits can appear more modest, simply comprising a loincloth, skirt and head-scarf. The clothes correspond to their ages: young girls wear long loincloths or short skirts whereas married women wear two loincloths and a headscarf. Their relatively simple outfits are enhanced by the numerous items of jewellery acquired since the development of the caravan trade: earrings, silver bracelets, necklaces with carved porcelain or glass pendants and mirrors contribute to

7040-600: The slave's expected behavior, marriageability, inheritance rights if any, and occupation. The Ikelan later became a bonded caste within Tuareg society. According to Heath, the Bella in the Tuareg society were the slave caste whose occupation was rearing and herding livestock such as sheep and goats. The Fula people are one of the largest and a widely dispersed Muslim ethnic group in Sahel and West Africa . They number between 20 and 25 million people in total across many countries of this region, and they have historically featured

7128-461: The slaves constituted the lowest of the social strata. Each of these were castes, endogamous, with hereditary occupations and where the upper strata collected tribute ( horma ) from the lower strata of Mauritanian society, considered them socially inferior, and denied them the right to own land or weapons thereby creating a socio-economically closed system. Among Hassaniya Arabic speakers in southern Morocco and Mauritania, states Sean Hanretta –

7216-503: The songs are aimed at in-stilling a responsible attitude towards sexuality in young people, especially girls. Others accentuate courage and persistence when faced with an enemy. The Wuru dance, which used to be performed during funeral ceremonies for native Baatonu families, remains a prestigious ritual dance also performed at popular celebrations. The dancers’ costumes, made from animal skins and native fabrics covered with several rows of cowrie shells and amulets, make quite an impression on

7304-530: The various gods. These fore-fathers pledged themselves and their descendants to these gods. They enjoyed protection and privileges but were segregated from ordinary folks. These Osu people married, fraternized and socialized among themselves. The practice continued to this day. An ordinary Igbo person would not marry or permit any of his relations to marry an Osu person. In a few instances where that has happened, every member of that non-Osu who married an Osu became infested and were regarded as Osu. It can be said that

7392-458: The village and took orders from the village chief. The domestic slaves lived in with a family and could not be sold. The lowest level among slaves were the trade slaves who could be bought and sold. With time, each of these strata became endogamous, states Daniel Littlefield – a professor of history. Above the slaves were the castes of Soninke, which too were hereditary, endogamous and had an embedded hierarchical status. They included, for example,

7480-642: The western Burkina Faso . One sub-group, the Nafana , is found in north-western Ghana . The Senufo people have traditionally been a socially stratified society that has included castes and slaves. These endogamous divisions are locally called Katioula , and one of the strata in this division includes slaves and descendants of slaves. According to Dolores Richter, the caste system found among Senufo people features "hierarchical ranking including despised lower castes, occupational specificity, ritual complementarity, endogamy, hereditary membership, residential isolation and

7568-502: The wider Tuareg community. The marabouts have traditionally been the judges ( qadi ) and religious leaders ( imam ) of a Tuareg community. According to the anthropologist Jeffrey Heath, Tuareg artisans belong to separate endogamous castes known as the Inhædˤæn ( Inadan ). These have included the blacksmith, jewelers, wood workers and leather artisan castes. They produced and repaired the saddles, tools, household items and other items for

7656-524: The women’s style and seductiveness. Singing is extremely important to the Baatonu and they have repertoires covering all aspects of daily life in the Empire. Wuru songs retrace the life of hunters and daily scenes, but can sometimes branch out into more erotic subject matter. Teke songs celebrate the typical values of Baatonu humanism and often use opposites to illustrate their messages – generosity and rapacity, bravery and cowardice, fidelity and infidelity, etc. – to encourage virtuous behaviour; thus, some of

7744-578: Was later incorporated into the Muslim calendar and thus coincides with the Mawlid which is celebrated by Muslims to commemorate the birth of the Prophet . The festival is organized according to the lunar calendar and is always held on a Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday or Sunday; it cannot be held on any other day of the week.* The Fantasia , a traditional equestrian show, simulates military at-tacks. Initially practised in

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