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116-658: In the history of Lithuania , the Council of Lithuania ( Lithuanian : Lietuvos Taryba ; German : Litauischer Staatsrat ; Polish : Rada Litewska ), after July 11, 1918, the State Council of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Valstybės Taryba ) was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between 18 and 23 September 1917. The twenty men who composed the council at first were of different ages, social status, professions, and political affiliations. The council

232-448: A patrimonial power structure. Gediminid rule was hereditary, but the ruler would choose the son he considered most able to be his successor. Councils existed, but could only advise the duke. The huge state was divided into a hierarchy of territorial units administered by designated officials who were also empowered in judicial and military matters. The Lithuanians spoke in a number of Aukštaitian and Samogitian (West-Baltic) dialects. But

348-658: A boys' high school for Lithuanians in Voronezh with Martynas Yčas , with whom he also participated in the First and Second Lithuanian Conferences in Stockholm to organize Lithuania's government during and after World War I . On October 25, 1915, Šilingas, Balys Sruoga , and Ignas Šeinius met with Maxim Gorki to discuss publishing a book in Russian about Lithuania. He was always an activist for Lithuanian causes, being an able lobbyist with

464-629: A cathedral. In 1253, Mindaugas was crowned and a Kingdom of Lithuania was established for the first and only time in Lithuanian history. Mindaugas "granted" parts of Yotvingia and Samogitia that he did not control to the Knights in 1253–1259. A peace with Daniel of Galicia in 1254 was cemented by a marriage deal involving Mindaugas' daughter and Daniel's son Shvarn . Mindaugas' nephew Tautvilas returned to his Duchy of Polotsk and Samogitia separated, soon to be ruled by another nephew, Treniota . In 1260,

580-424: A closer relationship with Germany would depend on whether it recognized the new state. On 21 September, the attendees at the conference elected a 20-member Council of Lithuania to establish this resolution. The German authorities did not allow that resolution to be published, but they did permit the council to proceed. The authorities censored the council's newspaper, Lietuvos aidas ( Echo of Lithuania ), preventing

696-578: A convention of the National Guard, stressing as always the necessity of reclaiming Vilnius. After the adoption of his drafted Lithuanian State Constitution , he declined the position Chairman of State Council of Lithuania. He did not support acceptance of the Polish ultimatum in 1938 and thus advised that Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius should assume Chairmanship in 1940. He was awarded with the Italian Cross of

812-484: A doctor, a publisher, and an engineer. Eight of the members were Christian democrats and seven were not affiliated. All except one had gained degrees in tertiary education . The council's last surviving member, Aleksandras Stulginskis , died in September 1969. During the first meeting on 24 September, Antanas Smetona was elected as the chairman of the council. The chairman, two vice-chairmen, and two secretaries made up

928-825: A few feudal subjects or, more often, slave workers if the boyar could afford them. For their military and administrative services, Lithuanian boyars were compensated by exemptions from public contributions, payments, and Ruthenian land grants. The majority of the ordinary rural workers were free. They were obligated to provide crafts and numerous contributions and services; for not paying these types of debts (or for other offences), one could be forced into slavery. The Ruthenian princes were Orthodox, and many Lithuanian princes also converted to Eastern Orthodoxy , even some who resided in Lithuania proper, or at least their wives. The masonry Ruthenian churches and monasteries housed learned monks, their writings (including Gospel translations such as

1044-524: A grand duke since 1377, was himself still a pagan at the start of his reign. In 1386, agreed to the offer of the Polish crown by leading Polish nobles, who were eager to take advantage of Lithuania's expansion, if he become a Catholic and married the 13-year-old crowned king (not queen) Jadwiga . For the near future, Poland gave Lithuania a valuable ally against increasing threats from the Teutonic Knights and

1160-473: A great Baltic power, the Knights used German and other volunteer fighters. They unleashed 96 onslaughts in Lithuania during the period 1345–1382, against which the Lithuanians were able to respond with only 42 retributive raids of their own. Lithuania's Ruthenian empire in the east was also threatened by both the unification of Rus' ambitions of Moscow and the centrifugal activities pursued by the rulers of some of

1276-619: A lack of suitable tools to cultivate the land. Crafts and trade also started to form at this time. Speakers of North-Western Indo-European might have arrived with the Corded Ware culture around 3200/3100 BC. The first Lithuanian people were a branch of an ancient group known as the Balts . The main tribal divisions of the Balts were the West Baltic Old Prussians and Yotvingians , and

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1392-621: A large extent assimilated already into the Orthodox Christianity and became Russified (in part a result of the deliberate policy of the Gediminid ruling house). Catholic influence and contacts, including those derived from German settlers, traders and missionaries from Riga, had been increasing for some time around the northwest region of the empire, known as Lithuania proper. The Franciscan and Dominican friar orders existed in Vilnius from

1508-573: A middle path that would involve some kind of union with Germany. In the light of upcoming peace negotiations with Russia, the Germans agreed to allow the Vilnius Conference, hoping that it would proclaim that the Lithuanian nation wanted to be detached from Russia and wished for a closer relationship with Germany. However, the conference, held between 18 and 23 September 1917, adopted a resolution that an independent Lithuania should be established and that

1624-483: A more limited privilege improving their legal rights. Vilnius' townspeople were granted self-government. The Church proceeded with its civilizing mission of literacy and education, and the estates of the realm started to emerge with their own separate identities. Jogaila's orders for his court and followers to convert to Catholicism were meant to deprive the Teutonic Knights of the justification for their practice of forced conversion through military onslaughts. In 1403

1740-523: A much lesser degree than in nearby Prussia or Livonia . Outside of Ruthenia, the only cities were Vilnius (Gediminas' capital from 1323), the old capital of Trakai and Kaunas . Kernavė and Kreva were the other old political centers. Vilnius in the 14th century was a major social, cultural and trading center. It linked economically central and eastern Europe with the Baltic area . Vilnius merchants enjoyed privileges that allowed them to trade over most of

1856-574: A nation ("Litua") comes from the Annals of the Quedlinburg monastery , dated 9 March 1009. In 1009, the missionary Bruno of Querfurt arrived in Lithuania and baptized the Lithuanian ruler "King Nethimer." From the 9th to the 11th centuries, coastal Balts were subjected to raids by the Vikings , and the kings of Denmark collected tribute at times. During the 10–11th centuries, Lithuanian territories were among

1972-572: A powerful anti-Mindaugas (and "anti-pagan") coalition that included Mindaugas' rivals, Yotvingians, Samogitians and the Livonian Teutonic Knights. Mindaugas, however, took advantage of the divergent interests in the coalition he faced. In 1250, Mindaugas entered into an agreement with the Teutonic Order; he consented to receive baptism (the act took place in 1251) and relinquish his claim over some lands in western Lithuania, for which he

2088-567: A rebellion in Polotsk , he entered Vilnius in order to remove Jogaila from the throne. A Lithuanian civil war ensued. Kęstutis' two raids against Teutonic possessions in 1382 brought back the tradition of his past exploits, but Jogaila retook Vilnius during his uncle's absence. Kęstutis was captured and died in Jogaila's custody. Kęstutis' son Vytautas escaped. Jogaila agreed to the Treaty of Dubysa with

2204-469: A stable administrative system. It received small funds to cover its expenses only in September 1918. The situation changed when the German Revolution started and Germany lost the war in the fall of 1918 – it was no longer in a position to dictate terms. On 2 November, the council adopted the first provisional constitution. The decision to invite King Mindaugas II was annulled and this helped to reconcile

2320-587: A supplement of Lithuanian folklore which he collected, called Vasaros darbai . In 1915 he single-handedly published Baras (First Forum) which included works by Kazys Binkis , Balys Sruoga , Ignas Šeinius , Sofija Kymantaitė-Čiurlionienė , Vincas Krėvė and others. Also included was his own poem Tautos dainų genezė ("Genesis of a Nation's Songs"). While still a student, he began collecting funds to preserve Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis ’ paintings and other Lithuanian works of art. Over 25 years, his private collection grew to over 100 works of Lithuanian art. He

2436-483: Is celebrated as Lithuania's State Restoration Day. The Germans were not satisfied with the new declaration and demanded that the council go back to the 11 December decision. On 3 March 1918, Germany and Bolshevik Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk . It declared that the Baltic nations were in the German interest zone and that Russia renounced any claims to them. On 23 March, Germany recognized independent Lithuania on

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2552-659: The Church Slavonic liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Christian religion, a written language (Chancery Slavonic) that was developed to serve the Lithuanian court's document-producing needs for a few centuries, and a system of laws. By these means, Ruthenians transformed Vilnius into a major center of Kievan Rus' civilization. By the time of Jogaila's acceptance of Catholicism at the Union of Krewo in 1385, many institutions in his realm and members of his family had been to

2668-573: The Council of Lithuania . He was one of the main advisors and supporters of the authoritarian President Antanas Smetona . He was twice Minister of Justice, in 1926–1928 and in 1934–1938, and chairman of the State Council of Lithuania in 1928–1938. From 1920 to 1926 he was director of the Fine Art association. He also served as vice-chancellor of the Order of Vytautas the Great . After the occupation of Lithuania by

2784-586: The Golden Horde for some of the outlying localities. Ruthenian lands may have been ruled jointly by Lithuania and the Golden Horde as condominiums until the time of Vytautas , who stopped paying tribute. Gediminas' state provided a counterbalance against the influence of Moscow and enjoyed good relations with the Ruthenian principalities of Pskov , Veliky Novgorod and Tver . Direct military confrontations with

2900-669: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania developed. In 1231, the Danish Census Book mentions Baltic lands paying tribute to the Danes, including Lithuania ( Littonia ). From the early 13th century, frequent foreign military excursions became possible due to the increased cooperation and coordination among the Baltic tribes. Forty such expeditions took place between 1201 and 1236 against Ruthenia, Poland, Latvia and Estonia, which were then being conquered by

3016-507: The Grand Duchy of Moscow . Lithuania, in which Ruthenians outnumbered ethnic Lithuanians by several times, could ally with either the Grand Duchy of Moscow or Poland. A Russian deal was also negotiated with Dmitry Donskoy in 1383–1384, but Moscow was too distant to be able to assist with the problems posed by the Teutonic orders and presented a difficulty as a center competing for the loyalty of

3132-636: The Lithuanian Wars of Independence . However the Polish-Lithuanian War (1 September - 7 October 1920) resulted in the fall of Vilnius and its surrounding territory to the forces of the Second Polish Republic . The captured area was organized by the Poles as a new regime, the so-called Republic of Central Lithuania . Due to his previous high-profile activities, Šilingas was arrested in Vilnius by

3248-645: The Livonian Order . Pskov was pillaged and burned in 1213. In 1219, twenty-one Lithuanian chiefs signed a peace treaty with the state of Galicia–Volhynia . This event is widely accepted as the first proof that the Baltic tribes were uniting and consolidating. From the early 13th century, two German crusading military orders , the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Teutonic Knights , became established at

3364-548: The Mongols , who from the 1230s sponsored a Mongol invasion of Rus' . The collapse of the political structure of Kievan Rus' created a partial regional power vacuum that Lithuania was able to exploit. Through alliances and conquest, in competition with the Principality of Moscow , the Lithuanians eventually gained control of vast expanses of the western and southern portions of the former Kievan Rus'. Gediminas' conquests included

3480-488: The Ostromir Gospels ) and collections of religious art. A Ruthenian quarter populated by Lithuania's Orthodox subjects, and containing their church, existed in Vilnius from the 14th century. The grand dukes' chancery in Vilnius was staffed by Orthodox churchmen, who, trained in the Church Slavonic language , developed Chancery Slavonic , a Ruthenian written language useful for official record keeping. The most important of

3596-565: The Principality of Tver . Halych was ceded by Lithuania, which brought peace with Poland in 1352. Secured by those alliances, Algirdas and Kęstutis embarked on the implementation of policies to expand Lithuania's territories further. Bryansk was taken in 1359, and in 1362, Algirdas captured Kyiv after defeating the Mongols at the Battle of Blue Waters . Volhynia , Podolia and left-bank Ukraine were also incorporated. Kęstutis heroically fought for

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3712-585: The Russian Empire until the 20th century, although there were several major rebellions, especially in 1830–1831 and 1863 . On 16 February 1918, Lithuania was re-established as a democratic state. It remained independent until the onset of World War II , when it was occupied by the Soviet Union under the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . Following a brief occupation by Nazi Germany after

3828-659: The Russian Empire . During the 19th century, the Poles and the Lithuanians attempted to restore their independence. They rebelled during the November Uprising in 1830 and the January Uprising in 1863, but the first realistic opportunity came about during World War I . In 1915, Germany occupied Lithuania as its troops marched towards Russia. After the Russian Revolution in 1917, opportunities for independence opened up. Germany, avoiding direct annexation, tried to find

3944-633: The Second Northern War , the Grand Duchy sought protection under the Swedish Empire through the Union of Kėdainiai in 1655. However, it soon returned to being a part of the Polish–Lithuanian state, which persisted until 1795 when the last of the Partitions of Poland erased both independent Lithuania and Poland from the political map. After the dissolution , Lithuanians lived under the rule of

4060-585: The Soviet Union , he was deported in 1941 to the Russian Arctic. Šilingas was born in Vilnius . He was a Baron through his maternal grandfather, Count Stanislav Šilingas of Paberžė , who was exiled to Siberia and whose property and estate were confiscated by the authorities of the Russian Empire for his monetary support of the failed Uprising of 1863 . Šilingas spurned the title using it only when it served to advance his country’s causes in giving him access to

4176-566: The State of the Teutonic Order (Old Prussians, Yotvingians, Sambians , Skalvians , and Galindians ). The Baltic tribes did not maintain close cultural or political contacts with the Roman Empire , but they did maintain trade contacts (see Amber Road ). Tacitus , in his study Germania , described the Aesti people, inhabitants of the south-eastern Baltic Sea shores who were probably Balts, around

4292-666: The United States , Australia , and Canada , and with former colleagues who had been allowed to return to the Lithuanian SSR. His voluminous letters are philosophical, scholarly, and historical and reveal some details of his life in exile. Allowed to return to the Lithuanian SSR only in 1961, he died in Kelmė within a year, on November 13, 1962. He was first buried in Kelmė, but in 1999, his remains, and those of his wife and daughter, were reburied in

4408-550: The Yotvingians in 1283. The Livonian Order completed its conquest of Semigalia, the last Baltic ally of Lithuania, in 1291. The family of Gediminas , whose members were about to form Lithuania's great native dynasty , took over the rule of the Grand Duchy in 1285 under Butigeidis . Vytenis (r. 1295–1315) and Gediminas (r. 1315–1341), after whom the Gediminid dynasty is named, had to deal with constant raids and incursions from

4524-463: The 11 December declaration. The declaration, seen as pro-German, was an obstacle in establishing diplomatic relations with England, France and the United States, the enemies of Germany. On 8 January 1918, the same day that Woodrow Wilson announced his Fourteen Points , the council proposed amendments to the declaration of 11 December calling for a constituent assembly. The amendments were rejected by

4640-687: The 14th century). A formidable power, it became the largest state in Europe in the 15th century spread from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea , through the conquest of large groups of East Slavs who resided in Ruthenia . In 1385, the Grand Duchy formed a dynastic union with Poland through the Union of Krewo . Later, the Union of Lublin (1569) created the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . During

4756-514: The 7th century. Traditional Lithuanian pagan customs and mythology , with many archaic elements, were long preserved. Rulers' bodies were cremated up until the Christianization of Lithuania : the descriptions of the cremation ceremonies of the grand dukes Algirdas and Kęstutis have survived. The Lithuanian tribe is thought to have developed more recognizably toward the end of the first millennium . The first known reference to Lithuania as

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4872-663: The Council on 11 December 1918. Among them two were Zionists ( Jakub Wygodzki and Shimshon Rosenboim ) and one was Folkist ( Nachman Rachmilewitz ). By the spring of 1919, the council had almost doubled in size. Soon after the council was elected, major developments took place in Russia. The October Revolution brought the Bolsheviks to power. They signed a truce with Germany on 2 December 1917 and started peace negotiations. Germany needed some documentation of its relationship with Lithuania. In

4988-545: The East Baltic Lithuanians and Latvians . The Balts spoke forms of the Indo-European languages . Today, the only remaining Baltic nationalities are the Lithuanians and Latvians, but there were more Baltic groups or tribes in the past. Some of these merged into Lithuanians and Latvians ( Samogitians , Selonians , Curonians , Semigallians ), while others no longer existed after they were conquered and assimilated by

5104-651: The First Order , the National Guard Star Order, and the first class Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas . In private life, he was friend to many innovative Lithuanian artists and writers, encouraging and publishing their works, now considered classics, including M. K. Čiurlionis, Balys Sruoga, Vincas Krėvė, Kazys Šimonis , and Adomas Varnas who drew caricatures of Šilingas to Šilingas' amusement. He married Emilija Bytautaitė who

5220-437: The German Knights finalized their conquests of Western Baltic tribes, and they could concentrate on Lithuania, especially on Samogitia, to connect the two branches of the Order. A particular opportunity opened in 1274 after the conclusion of the Great Prussian Rebellion and the conquest of the Old Prussian tribe. The Teutonic Knights then proceeded to conquer other Baltic tribes: the Nadruvians and Skalvians in 1274–1277 and

5336-401: The Germans and it was made clear that the council would serve only advisory functions. The council was torn apart and a few members threatened to leave. On 16 February, the council, temporarily chaired by Jonas Basanavičius , decided to re-declare independence, this time mentioning nothing specific about a relationship with Germany. That was left for a constituent assembly to decide. 16 February

5452-409: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had initiated the processes leading to its imminent acceptance of European Christendom . The Teutonic Knights aimed at a territorial unification of their Prussian and Livonian branches by conquering Samogitia and all of Lithuania proper, following the earlier subordination of the Prussian and Latvian tribes. To dominate the neighboring Baltic and Slavic people and expand into

5568-445: The Grand Duchy's documents, the Lithuanian Metrica , the Lithuanian Chronicles and the Statutes of Lithuania , were all written in that language. German, Jewish and Armenian settlers were invited to live in Lithuania; the last two groups established their own denominational communities directly under the ruling dukes. The Tatars and Crimean Karaites were entrusted as soldiers for the dukes' personal guard. Towns developed to

5684-426: The Knights, but the Knights and other interests had been able to block the process. In the 14th century, Gediminas' attempts to become baptized (1323–1324) and establish Catholic Christianity in his country were thwarted by the Samogitians and Gediminas' Orthodox courtiers. In 1325, Casimir , the son of the Polish king Władysław I , married Gediminas' daughter Aldona , who became queen of Poland when Casimir ascended

5800-485: The Livonian Knights was also accomplished in 1367. In 1368, 1370 and 1372, Algirdas invaded the Grand Duchy of Moscow and each time approached Moscow itself. An "eternal" peace (the Treaty of Lyubutsk ) was concluded after the last attempt, and it was much needed by Lithuania due to its involvement in heavy fighting with the Knights again in 1373–1377. The two brothers and Gediminas' other offspring left many ambitious sons with inherited territory. Their rivalry weakened

5916-406: The Nazis waged war on the Soviet Union , Lithuania was again absorbed into the Soviet Union for nearly 50 years. In 1990–1991, Lithuania restored its sovereignty with the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania . Lithuania joined the NATO alliance in 2004 and the European Union as part of its enlargement in 2004 . The first humans arrived on the territory of modern Lithuania in

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6032-474: The North" during his student years. He would go on to translate Lithuanian works into Polish and Russian, and other works into Lithuanian, including works by both Friedrich Nietzsche and Rabindranath Tagore . He graduated from Moscow University in 1912 with a degree in law. During his student years, he was active in the Student Union serving as its chairman. He published newspapers and journals for students and educators, including Aušrinė , eventually adding

6148-504: The Order in 1382, an indication of his weakness. A four-year truce stipulated Jogaila's conversion to Catholicism and the cession of half of Samogitia to the Teutonic Knights. Vytautas went to Prussia in seek of the support of the Knights for his claims, including the Duchy of Trakai , which he considered inherited from his father. Jogaila's refusal to submit to the demands of his cousin and the Knights resulted in their joint invasion of Lithuania in 1383. Vytautas, however, having failed to gain

6264-422: The Orthodox Lithuanian Ruthenians. Jogaila was baptized, given the baptismal name Władysław, married Queen Jadwiga, and was crowned King of Poland in February 1386. Jogaila's baptism and crowning were followed by the final and official Christianization of Lithuania . In the fall of 1386, the king returned to Lithuania and the next spring and summer participated in mass conversion and baptism ceremonies for

6380-405: The Polish throne in 1333. The marriage confirmed the prestige of the Lithuanian state under Gediminas, and a defensive alliance with Poland was concluded the same year. Yearly incursions of the Knights resumed in 1328–1340, to which the Lithuanians responded with raids into Prussia and Latvia. The reign of Grand Duke Gediminas constituted the first period in Lithuanian history in which the country

6496-459: The Principality of Moscow under Ivan I occurred around 1335. Around 1318, Gediminas' elder son Algirdas married Maria of Vitebsk , the daughter of Prince Yaroslav of Vitebsk , and settled in Vitebsk to rule the principality. Of Gediminas' seven sons, four remained pagan and three converted to Orthodox Christianity. Upon his death, Gediminas divided his domains among the seven sons, but Lithuania's precarious military situation, especially on

6612-423: The Russian Empire and to publish Liberty's Officer for army personnel. He also began to draft the statutes for the election of the Petrograd Seimas . He returned to Vilnius in 1918 at the end of World War I and was a member of the State Council of Lithuania , creating a National Militia as Minister of Defence. He declared that he was philosophically opposed to dictatorial rule but that he was ready to do whatever

6728-429: The Russian elite. He participated in the Russian Revolution of 1905 , manning the barricades and even firing a pistol at the Imperial Russian Army . Since childhood he spoke only Polish and Russian until he and Ramūnas Bytautas , his close friend, studied Lithuanian in Berlin in 1907. Šilingas learned Lithuanian to perfection. For this and for his oratorical skill, he was called "silver-throated" and "Cicero of

6844-437: The Russians while serving as Chairman of the State Council of Lithuanians in Russia in 1917 when he also founded the Democratic National Freedom League (Santara), a democratic party whose purpose was to restore Lithuania as an independent nation. He was elected its vice-chairman and began publishing weekly issues of Santara which he personally funded. The same year he began to organize Lithuania's military scattered throughout

6960-421: The Ruthenia lands accepted Eastern Christianity and assumed Ruthenian custom and names in order to appeal to the culture of their subjects. Through this means, integration into the Lithuanian state structure was accomplished without disturbing local ways of life. The Ruthenian territories acquired were vastly larger, more densely populated and more highly developed in terms of church organization and literacy than

7076-448: The Ruthenian empire of Lithuania. The Knights exploited the differences between Jogaila and Kęstutis and procured a separate armistice with the older duke in 1379. Jogaila then made overtures to the Teutonic Order and concluded the secret Treaty of Dovydiškės with them in 1380, contrary to Kęstutis' principles and interests. Kęstutis felt he could no longer support his nephew and in 1381, when Jogaila's forces were preoccupied with quenching

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7192-432: The Ruthenian lands. The increasingly differentiated Lithuanian society was led by princes of the Gediminid and Rurik dynasties and the descendants of former kunigas chiefs from families such as the Giedraitis , Olshanski and Svirski. Below them in rank was the regular Lithuanian nobility (or boyars ), in Lithuania proper strictly subjected to the princes and generally living on modest family farms, each tended by

7308-468: The Samogitians, victorious over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Durbe , agreed to submit themselves to Mindaugas' rule on the condition that he abandons the Christian religion; the king complied by terminating the emergent conversion of his country, renewed anti-Teutonic warfare (in the struggle for Samogitia) and expanded further his Ruthenian holdings. It is not clear whether this was accompanied by his personal apostasy . Mindaugas thus established

7424-468: The State Council of the Republic of Lithuania (1917, 1918, 1929) and was decorated with the National Guard Star and the Vytautas the Great Star in 1931. In 1933 he completed the statutes for the Judicial System, for National and State Security, and for the Press, all of which were adopted. In 1934 he was named Minister of Justice a second time serving until 1938 at which time he withdrew from public life after delivering his "Testament to Lithuania" speech before

7540-441: The Teutonic Order continued from 1345, and in 1348, the Knights defeated the Lithuanians at the Battle of Strėva . Kęstutis requested King Casimir of Poland to mediate with the pope in hopes of converting Lithuania to Christianity, but the result was negative, and Poland took from Lithuania in 1349 the Halych area and some Ruthenian lands further north. Lithuania's situation improved from 1350, when Algirdas formed an alliance with

7656-437: The Teutonic frontier, forced the brothers to keep the country together. From 1345, Algirdas took over as the Grand Duke of Lithuania. In practice, he ruled over Lithuanian Ruthenia only, whereas Lithuania proper was the domain of his equally able brother Kęstutis . Algirdas fought the Golden Horde Tatars and the Principality of Moscow; Kęstutis took upon himself the demanding struggle with the Teutonic Order. The warfare with

7772-457: The Teutonic orders that were costly to repulse. Vytenis fought them effectively around 1298 and at about the same time was able to ally Lithuania with the German burghers of Riga . For their part, the Prussian Knights instigated a rebellion in Samogitia against the Lithuanian ruler in 1299–1300, followed by twenty incursions there in 1300–15. Gediminas also fought the Teutonic Knights, and besides that made shrewd diplomatic moves by cooperating with

7888-404: The aggression from the Teutonic Order, the pope forced the Knights to observe a four-year peace with Lithuania in 1324–1327. Opportunities for the Christianization of Lithuania were investigated by the pope's legates, but they met with no success. From the time of Mindaugas, the country's rulers attempted to break Lithuania's cultural isolation, join Western Christendom and thus be protected from

8004-451: The basic tenets of medieval Lithuanian policy: defense against the German Order expansion from the west and north and conquest of Ruthenia in the south and east. Mindaugas was the principal founder of the Lithuanian state. He established for a while a Christian kingdom under the pope rather than the Holy Roman Empire , at a time when the remaining pagan peoples of Europe were no longer being converted peacefully, but conquered. Mindaugas

8120-486: The basis of the 11 December declaration. However, nothing, in essence, changed either in Lithuania or in the council's status: any efforts to establish administration were hindered. The form of government, however, was left undecided. Germany, ruled by a kaiser , preferred a monarchy. It proposed a personal union with the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty . As an alternative, on 4 June 1918, the council voted to invite Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach , Count of Württemberg, to become

8236-418: The climate became much warmer, and forests developed. The inhabitants of what is now Lithuania then traveled less and engaged in local hunting, gathering and fresh-water fishing. During the 6th–5th millennium BC, various animals were domesticated and dwellings became more sophisticated in order to shelter larger families. Agriculture did not emerge until the 3rd millennium BC due to a harsh climate and terrain and

8352-410: The council adopted a resolution agreeing to a "firm and permanent alliance" with Germany on the basis of the four conventions. Only fifteen members voted for this resolution, but all twenty signed it. The Germans broke their promise and did not recognize the state and did not invite its delegation to the negotiations of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk . Lithuanians, including those living abroad, disapproved of

8468-444: The council from reaching a wider public audience. The conference also resolved that a constituent assembly be elected "in conformity with democratic principles by all the inhabitants of Lithuania". The twenty men who composed the initial council were of different ages (the youngest was 25; the oldest 66), social status, professions, and political affiliations. There were eight lawyers, four priests, three agronomists , two financiers ,

8584-621: The council, despite a petition that gathered 20,000 signatures. The Freedom Wars started and political processes were derailed during the turmoil. Lithuanian elections to the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania were not held until April 1920. The council was not replaced by a parliament ( Seimas ) until 2 August 1922, when the Constitution of Lithuania was adopted. History of Lithuania The history of Lithuania dates back to settlements founded about 10,000 years ago, but

8700-466: The country in the face of the Teutonic expansion and the newly assertive Grand Duchy of Moscow, buoyed by the 1380 victory over the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo and intent on the unification of all Rus' lands under its rule. Algirdas died in 1377, and his son Jogaila became grand duke while Kęstutis was still alive. The Teutonic pressure was at its peak, and Jogaila was inclined to cease defending Samogitia in order to concentrate on preserving

8816-526: The end of the 12th century. In the 12th century and afterwards, mutual raids involving Lithuanian and Polish forces took place sporadically, but the two countries were separated by the lands of the Yotvingians . The late 12th century brought an eastern expansion of German settlers (the Ostsiedlung ) to the mouth of the Daugava River area. Military confrontations with Lithuanians followed at that time and at

8932-455: The entire duchy, established contacts with the grand duke. Upon receiving from him the areas of Grodno , Podlasie and Brest , Vytautas switched sides in 1384 and destroyed the border strongholds entrusted to him by the Order. In 1384, the two Lithuanian dukes, acting together, waged a successful expedition against the lands ruled by the Order. By that time, for the sake of its long-term survival,

9048-441: The first written record of the name for the country dates back to 1009 AD. Lithuanians , one of the Baltic peoples , later conquered neighboring lands and established the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13th century (and also a short-lived Kingdom of Lithuania ). The Grand Duchy was a successful and lasting warrior state. It remained fiercely independent and was one of the last areas of Europe to adopt Christianity (beginning in

9164-678: The four socialists ( Steponas Kairys , Jonas Vileišis , Mykolas Biržiška , Stanisław Narutowicz ) resigned (in protest over the election of Mindaugas II). After the capture of Minsk by the Bolshevik army, hoping some level of autonomy within the Lithuanian state, six members of the Vilnius Belarusian Council joined the Council of Lithuania. ( Vaclau Lastouski , Ivan Luckievich , Jan Stankievič , Dominik Semashko , Władysław Tołoczko , Kazimierz Falkiewic) on 27 November 1918. Sharing similar hopes for autonomy, three Jewish activists joined

9280-549: The general population. The establishment of a bishopric in Vilnius in 1387 was accompanied by Jogaila's extraordinarily generous endowment of land and peasants to the Church and exemption from state obligations and control. This instantly transformed the Lithuanian Church into the most powerful institution in the country (and future grand dukes lavished even more wealth on it). Lithuanian boyars who accepted baptism were rewarded with

9396-474: The government of Riga in 1322–23 and taking advantage of the conflict between the Knights and Archbishop Friedrich von Pernstein of Riga. Gediminas expanded Lithuania's international connections by conducting correspondence with Pope John XXII as well as with rulers and other centers of power in Western Europe, and he invited German colonists to settle in Lithuania. Responding to Gediminas' complaints about

9512-514: The lands paying tribute to Kievan Rus' , and Yaroslav the Wise was among the Ruthenian rulers who invaded Lithuania (from 1040). From the mid-12th century, it was the Lithuanians who were invading Ruthenian territories. In 1183, Polotsk and Pskov were ravaged, and even the distant and powerful Novgorod Republic was repeatedly threatened by the excursions from the emerging Lithuanian war machine toward

9628-456: The last 7 years of his life incarcerated at an Invalid Home in the Ukrainian SSR . At one time he shared a cell with former Lithuanian President Aleksandras Stulginskis and other Lithuanian dignitaries such as Juozas Urbšys , former Foreign Affairs Minister . Finally allowed to write letters, in 1956 he was able to communicate for the first time with his surviving daughters who now lived in

9744-449: The monarch of Lithuania. He agreed and was elected King of Lithuania as Mindaugas II on 13 July 1918. The decision was very controversial and four members of the council left in protest. Germany did not recognize the new king and its relationship with the council remained tense. The council was not allowed to determine the borders of Lithuania, establish an embassy in Berlin, or begin forming

9860-409: The more distant provinces. The Lithuanian state of the later 14th century was primarily binational, Lithuanian and Ruthenian (in territories that correspond to the modern Belarus and Ukraine). Of its 800,000 square kilometers total area, 10% comprised ethnic Lithuania, probably populated by no more than 300,000 inhabitants. Lithuania was dependent for its survival on the human and material resources of

9976-481: The mouth of the Daugava River and in Chełmno Land respectively. Under the pretense of converting the population to Christianity, they proceeded to conquer much of the area that is now Latvia and Estonia , in addition to parts of Lithuania. In response, a number of small Baltic tribal groups united under the rule of Mindaugas . Mindaugas, originally a kunigas or major chief, one of the five senior dukes listed in

10092-706: The new Polish-controlled regime in August, 1921, but released in November of the same year in deference to his title of Baron. He returned to Lithuanian territory remaining under the control of the Kaunas government. He was co-founder of the M. K. Čiurlionis Art Museum in Kaunas. He was twice elected as representative of the Lithuanian Farmers' Union to the Parliament ( Seimas ) to accomplish land reforms in making land accessible to

10208-414: The organization of the state and its structure of power. Following the establishment of Western Christianity at the end of the 14th century, the occurrence of pagan cremation burial ceremonies markedly decreased. As the power of the Lithuanian warlord dukes expanded to the south and east, the cultivated East Slavic Ruthenians exerted influence on the Lithuanian ruling class. They brought with them

10324-477: The party bickering which he could not tolerate. Politically, he was to the right of the left-wing and supported the Lithuanian National Union (Tautininkai) drafting that party's statutes in 1933. Among his accomplishments, he drafted the Constitution of Lithuania which was adopted in 1938 and organized the National Guard which successfully repelled an attempted Bolshevik invasion in 1918, during

10440-587: The people. He was Chairman of the Foreign Affairs committee. From 1920-1926, he was Chairman of the State Art Council, at which time he also practiced law to support his family. He supported the dissolution of Parliament in 1926 in order to bring stability to the nascent nation, and he became Minister of Justice , reigning in the Bar Association for which he was duly criticized. He was thrice chairman of

10556-524: The political factions. The functions of government were entrusted to a three-member presidium, and Augustinas Voldemaras was invited to form the first Cabinet of Ministers. The first government was formed on 11 November 1918, the day that Germany signed the armistice in Compiègne . The council began to organize an army, police, local government, and other institutions. It also expanded to include ethnic minorities ( Jews and Belarusians ). There were no women in

10672-496: The pope prohibited the Order from conducting warfare against Lithuania, and its threat to Lithuania's existence (which had endured for two centuries) was indeed neutralized. In the short term, Jogaila needed Polish support in his struggle with his cousin Vytautas. Stasys %C5%A0ilingas When the independence of Lithuania was proclaimed on February 16, 1918, Šilingas served first as vice-president and then in 1919, as president of

10788-511: The presidium. The vice-chairs and secretaries would change from time to time, but Smetona retained the chairmanship until 1919 when he was elected the first President of Lithuania . Smetona was succeeded by Stasys Šilingas as the chairman. He was not among the original twenty members. The first change in membership took place on 13 July 1918, when six new members ( Martynas Yčas , Augustinas Voldemaras , Juozas Purickis , Eliziejus Draugelis , Jurgis Alekna and Stasys Šilingas ) were admitted and

10904-498: The proclamation of independence despite the presence of German troops in the country until the autumn of 1918. By the spring of 1919, the council had almost doubled in size. The council continued its efforts until the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Steigiamasis Seimas ) first met on 15 May 1920. After the last Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, Lithuania had become part of

11020-483: The ruler of Yotvingia, Semigalia and eastern Prussia. Friendly relations with Poland followed, and in 1279, Tradenis' daughter Gaudemunda of Lithuania married Bolesław II of Masovia , a Piast duke. Pagan Lithuania was a target of northern Christian crusades of the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order . In 1241, 1259 and 1275, Lithuania was also ravaged by raids from the Golden Horde , which earlier (1237–1240) debilitated Kievan Rus' . After Traidenis' death,

11136-474: The second half of the 10th millennium BC after the glaciers receded at the end of the last glacial period . According to the historian Marija Gimbutas , these people came from two directions: the Jutland Peninsula and from present-day Poland . They brought two different cultures, as evidenced by the tools they used. They were traveling hunters and did not form stable settlements. In the 8th millennium BC,

11252-469: The so-called Berlin Protocol Germany offered to recognize Lithuanian independence if the latter agreed to form a firm and permanent federation with Germany, based on conventions concerning military affairs, transportation, customs , and currency. The council agreed, on the condition that Lithuania would decide its own internal affairs and foreign policy. The Germans rejected this proposal. On 11 December,

11368-468: The survival of ethnic Lithuanians by attempting to repel about thirty incursions by the Teutonic Knights and their European guest fighters. Kęstutis also attacked the Teutonic possessions in Prussia on numerous occasions, but the Knights took Kaunas in 1362. The dispute with Poland renewed itself and was settled by the peace of 1366, when Lithuania gave up a part of Volhynia including Volodymyr . A peace with

11484-446: The territories of core Lithuania. Thus the Lithuanian state was able to function because of the contributions of the Ruthenian culture representatives. Historical territories of the former Ruthenian dukedoms were preserved under the Lithuanian rule, and the further they were from Vilnius, the more autonomous the localities tended to be. Lithuanian soldiers and Ruthenians together defended Ruthenian strongholds, at times paying tribute to

11600-407: The territories of the Lithuanian state. Of the passing Ruthenian, Polish and German merchants (many from Riga), many settled in Vilnius and some built masonry residencies. The city was ruled by a governor named by the grand duke and its system of fortifications included three castles. Foreign currencies and Lithuanian currency (from the 13th century) were widely used. The Lithuanian state maintained

11716-474: The time of Gediminas . Kęstutis in 1349 and Algirdas in 1358 negotiated Christianization with the pope, the Holy Roman Empire and the Polish king. The Christianization of Lithuania thus involved both Catholic and Orthodox aspects. Conversion by force as practiced by the Teutonic Knights had actually been an impediment that delayed the progress of Western Christianity in the grand duchy. Jogaila ,

11832-586: The treaty of 1219, is referred to as the ruler of all Lithuania as of 1236 in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle . In 1236 the pope declared a crusade against the Lithuanians. The Samogitians , led by Vykintas , Mindaugas' rival, soundly defeated the Livonian Brothers and their allies in the Battle of Saule in 1236, which forced the Brothers to merge with the Teutonic Knights in 1237. But Lithuania

11948-437: The tribal peculiarities were disappearing and the increasing use of the name Lietuva was a testimony to the developing Lithuanian sense of separate identity. The forming Lithuanian feudal system preserved many aspects of the earlier societal organization, such as the family clan structure, free peasantry and some slavery. The land belonged now to the ruler and the nobility. Patterns imported primarily from Ruthenia were used for

12064-414: The turn of the century, but for the time being the Lithuanians had the upper hand. From the late 12th century, an organized Lithuanian military force existed; it was used for external raids, plundering and the gathering of slaves. Such military and pecuniary activities fostered social differentiation and triggered a struggle for power in Lithuania. This initiated the formation of early statehood, from which

12180-504: The western Smolensk region, southern Polesia and (temporarily) Kyiv , which was ruled around 1330 by Gediminas' brother Fiodor . The Lithuanian-controlled area of Ruthenia grew to include most of modern Belarus and Ukraine (the Dnieper River basin) and comprised a massive state that stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea in the 14th and 15th centuries. In the 14th century, many Lithuanian princes installed to govern

12296-599: The year 97 AD. The Western Balts differentiated and became known to outside chroniclers first. Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD knew of the Galindians and Yotvingians, and early medieval chroniclers mentioned Prussians, Curonians and Semigallians. Lithuania, located along the lower and middle Neman River basin, comprised mainly the culturally different regions of Samogitia (known for its early medieval skeletal burials), and further east Aukštaitija , or Lithuania proper (known for its early medieval cremation burials). The area

12412-987: Was co-founder of the Lithuanian Art Society with Antanas Žmuidzinavičius and formally established the M. K. Čiurlionis collection. He also organized and staged Folk Art exhibits. As Chairman of the Opera Guild in Kaunas , he introduced La Traviata at the opening of the Opera Theater in Kaunas in 1920. From 1915 to 1917, he worked at the Foreign Affairs Ministry in Saint Petersburg , initially under minister Sergey Sazonov . During this two-year period of service, Šilingas gathered and dispensed funds to aid Lithuanians displaced by war in Saint Petersburg, particularly to writers and artists. He also opened

12528-500: Was granted the executive authority of the Lithuanian people and was entrusted to establish an independent Lithuanian state. On 16 February 1918, the members of the council signed the Act of Independence of Lithuania and declared Lithuania an independent state based on democratic principles. 16 February is celebrated as Lithuania's State Restoration Day . The council managed to establish

12644-458: Was killed in 1267. A power struggle between Shvarn and Traidenis resulted; it ended in a victory for the latter. Traidenis' reign (1269–1282) was the longest and most stable during the period of unrest. Tradenis reunified all Lithuanian lands, repeatedly raided Ruthenia and Poland with success, defeated the Teutonic Knights in Prussia and in Livonia at the Battle of Aizkraukle in 1279. He also became

12760-494: Was murdered in 1263 by Daumantas of Pskov and Treniota , an event that resulted in great unrest and civil war. Treniota, who took over the rule of the Lithuanian territories, murdered Tautvilas, but was killed himself in 1264. The rule of Mindaugas' son Vaišvilkas followed. He was the first Lithuanian duke known to become an Orthodox Christian and settle in Ruthenia, establishing a pattern to be followed by many others. Vaišvilkas

12876-544: Was recognized as a great power, mainly due to the extent of its territorial expansion into Ruthenia. Lithuania was unique in Europe as a pagan-ruled "kingdom" and fast-growing military power suspended between the worlds of Byzantine and Latin Christianity. To be able to afford the extremely costly defense against the Teutonic Knights, it had to expand to the east. Gediminas accomplished Lithuania's eastern expansion by challenging

12992-488: Was remote and unattractive to outsiders, including traders, which accounts for its separate linguistic, cultural and religious identity and delayed integration into general European patterns and trends. The Lithuanian language is considered to be very conservative for its close connection to Indo-European roots. It is believed to have differentiated from the Latvian language , the most closely related existing language, around

13108-538: Was required for Lithuanian solidarity. With President Antanas Smetona and other government officials abroad in December 1918, they left a political and military vacuum, and Šilingas was able to hold both state and military together. In 1919, he and Lithuania's government withdrew to Kaunas where he was elected Chairman of the State Council of Lithuania, serving until 1920. He had earlier resigned from Santara to protest

13224-892: Was the sister of his closest friend Ramūnas Bytautas, a philosopher. He and Emilija had nine daughters. When he retired from public life in 1938, he moved with his family to Misiūnai , part of an old estate which he had purchased in 1925. There he designed and built his family home, a gathering place for colleagues and friends as well. On June 14, 1941, during the June deportation , the Soviets arrested him, his wife Emilija, and daughter Raminta. They were separated before being deported to Siberia . Emilija died within 2 years of gangrene from frostbite ; Raminta died less than year later of encephalitis . Šilingas learned of their location only after Emilija's death, and he never saw any of his family again. He spent over 20 years in exile: in camps and prisons of Siberia,

13340-455: Was to receive a royal crown in return. Mindaugas was then able to withstand a military assault from the remaining coalition in 1251, and, supported by the Knights, emerge as a victor to confirm his rule over Lithuania. On 17 July 1251, Pope Innocent IV signed two papal bulls that ordered the Bishop of Chełmno to crown Mindaugas as King of Lithuania , appoint a bishop for Lithuania, and build

13456-641: Was trapped between the two branches of the Order. Around 1240, Mindaugas ruled over all of Aukštaitija . Afterwards, he conquered the Black Ruthenia region (which consisted of Grodno , Brest , Navahrudak and the surrounding territories). Mindaugas was in process of extending his control to other areas, killing rivals or sending relatives and members of rival clans east to Ruthenia so they could conquer and settle there. They did that, but they also rebelled. The Ruthenian duke Daniel of Galicia sensed an occasion to recover Black Ruthenia and in 1249–1250 organized

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