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114-539: Manganese is mined here. For at least two decades it has been considered the most potentially lucrative mining resource in Burkina, and is believed the region's largest Manganese deposit, estimated at 20 million tonnes at %52 to %53 Manganese to ore, making it one of the cryptomelane -richest ore resources in the world. The site's inaccessibility and lack of infrastructure have prevented wide scale exploitation. Most recently, in 2010, mining companies refused bid on construction of

228-455: A = m 1 x 1 + m 2 x 2 + . . . + m N x N {\displaystyle {\overline {m}}_{a}=m_{1}x_{1}+m_{2}x_{2}+...+m_{N}x_{N}} where m 1 , m 2 , ..., m N are the atomic masses of each individual isotope, and x 1 , ..., x N are the relative abundances of these isotopes. Several applications exist that capitalize on

342-511: A chemical symbol is used, e.g. "C" for carbon, standard notation (now known as "AZE notation" because A is the mass number , Z the atomic number , and E for element ) is to indicate the mass number (number of nucleons) with a superscript at the upper left of the chemical symbol and to indicate the atomic number with a subscript at the lower left (e.g. 2 He , 2 He , 6 C , 6 C , 92 U , and 92 U ). Because

456-467: A half-life of 3.7 million years, Mn with a half-life of 312.2 days, and Mn with a half-life of 5.591 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than three hours, and the majority of less than one minute. The primary decay mode in isotopes lighter than the most abundant stable isotope, Mn, is electron capture and the primary mode in heavier isotopes is beta decay . Manganese also has three meta states . Manganese

570-409: A magnesia nigra (the black ore) from magnesia alba (a white ore, also from Magnesia, also useful in glassmaking). Michele Mercati called magnesia nigra manganesa , and finally the metal isolated from it became known as manganese ( German : Mangan ). The name magnesia eventually was then used to refer only to the white magnesia alba (magnesium oxide), which provided the name magnesium for

684-500: A 1913 suggestion to the British chemist Frederick Soddy , who popularized the term. The number of protons within the atom's nucleus is called its atomic number and is equal to the number of electrons in the neutral (non-ionized) atom. Each atomic number identifies a specific element, but not the isotope; an atom of a given element may have a wide range in its number of neutrons . The number of nucleons (both protons and neutrons) in

798-505: A double pairing of 2 protons and 2 neutrons prevents any nuclides containing five ( 2 He , 3 Li ) or eight ( 4 Be ) nucleons from existing long enough to serve as platforms for the buildup of heavier elements via nuclear fusion in stars (see triple alpha process ). Only five stable nuclides contain both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. The first four "odd-odd" nuclides occur in low mass nuclides, for which changing

912-419: A given element all have the same number of electrons and share a similar electronic structure. Because the chemical behaviour of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, different isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behaviour. The main exception to this is the kinetic isotope effect : due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of

1026-482: A given element have similar chemical properties, they have different atomic masses and physical properties. The term isotope is derived from the Greek roots isos ( ἴσος "equal") and topos ( τόπος "place"), meaning "the same place"; thus, the meaning behind the name is that different isotopes of a single element occupy the same position on the periodic table . It was coined by Scottish doctor and writer Margaret Todd in

1140-407: A glowing patch on the plate at the point it struck. Thomson observed two separate parabolic patches of light on the photographic plate (see image), which suggested two species of nuclei with different mass-to-charge ratios. He wrote "There can, therefore, I think, be little doubt that what has been called neon is not a simple gas but a mixture of two gases, one of which has an atomic weight about 20 and

1254-596: A lesser extent as rhodochrosite ( MnCO 3 ). The most important manganese ore is pyrolusite ( MnO 2 ). Other economically important manganese ores usually show a close spatial relation to the iron ores, such as sphalerite . Land-based resources are large but irregularly distributed. About 80% of the known world manganese resources are in South Africa; other important manganese deposits are in Ukraine, Australia, India, China, Gabon and Brazil. According to 1978 estimate,

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1368-468: A nonoptimal number of neutrons or protons decay by beta decay (including positron emission ), electron capture , or other less common decay modes such as spontaneous fission and cluster decay . Most stable nuclides are even-proton-even-neutron, where all numbers Z , N , and A are even. The odd- A stable nuclides are divided (roughly evenly) into odd-proton-even-neutron, and even-proton-odd-neutron nuclides. Stable odd-proton-odd-neutron nuclides are

1482-427: A nucleus. As the number of protons increases, so does the ratio of neutrons to protons necessary to ensure a stable nucleus (see graph at right). For example, although the neutron:proton ratio of 2 He is 1:2, the neutron:proton ratio of 92 U is greater than 3:2. A number of lighter elements have stable nuclides with the ratio 1:1 ( Z = N ). The nuclide 20 Ca (calcium-40)

1596-442: A primitive cubic structure with 20 atoms per unit cell at two types of sites, which is as complex as that of any other elemental metal. It is easily obtained as a metastable phase at room temperature by rapid quenching. It does not show magnetic ordering , remaining paramagnetic down to the lowest temperature measured (1.1 K). Gamma manganese (γ-Mn) forms when heated above 1,370 K (1,100 °C; 2,010 °F). It has

1710-405: A product of stellar nucleosynthesis or another type of nucleosynthesis such as cosmic ray spallation , and have persisted down to the present because their rate of decay is very slow (e.g. uranium-238 and potassium-40 ). Post-primordial isotopes were created by cosmic ray bombardment as cosmogenic nuclides (e.g., tritium , carbon-14 ), or by the decay of a radioactive primordial isotope to

1824-506: A proton to a neutron or vice versa would lead to a very lopsided proton-neutron ratio ( 1 H , 3 Li , 5 B , and 7 N ; spins 1, 1, 3, 1). The only other entirely "stable" odd-odd nuclide, 73 Ta (spin 9), is thought to be the rarest of the 251 stable nuclides, and is the only primordial nuclear isomer , which has not yet been observed to decay despite experimental attempts. Many odd-odd radionuclides (such as

1938-478: A radioactive radiogenic nuclide daughter (e.g. uranium to radium ). A few isotopes are naturally synthesized as nucleogenic nuclides, by some other natural nuclear reaction , such as when neutrons from natural nuclear fission are absorbed by another atom. As discussed above, only 80 elements have any stable isotopes, and 26 of these have only one stable isotope. Thus, about two-thirds of stable elements occur naturally on Earth in multiple stable isotopes, with

2052-399: A rubber additive; and in glass making, fertilisers, and ceramics. Manganese sulfate can be used as a fungicide. Manganese is also an essential human dietary element, important in macronutrient metabolism, bone formation, and free radical defense systems. It is a critical component in dozens of proteins and enzymes. It is found mostly in the bones, but also the liver, kidneys, and brain. In

2166-447: A simple face-centered cubic structure (four atoms per unit cell). When quenched to room temperature it converts to β-Mn, but it can be stabilized at room temperature by alloying it with at least 5 percent of other elements (such as C, Fe, Ni, Cu, Pd or Au), and these solute-stabilized alloys distort into a face-centered tetragonal structure. Delta manganese (δ-Mn) forms when heated above 1,406 K (1,130 °C; 2,070 °F) and

2280-424: A single stable isotope (of these, 19 are so-called mononuclidic elements , having a single primordial stable isotope that dominates and fixes the atomic weight of the natural element to high precision; 3 radioactive mononuclidic elements occur as well). In total, there are 251 nuclides that have not been observed to decay. For the 80 elements that have one or more stable isotopes, the average number of stable isotopes

2394-492: A stable (non-radioactive) element was found by J. J. Thomson in 1912 as part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays (positive ions). Thomson channelled streams of neon ions through parallel magnetic and electric fields, measured their deflection by placing a photographic plate in their path, and computed their mass to charge ratio using a method that became known as the Thomson's parabola method. Each stream created

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2508-622: A total 30 + 2(9) = 48 stable odd-even isotopes. There are also five primordial long-lived radioactive odd-even isotopes, 37 Rb , 49 In , 75 Re , 63 Eu , and 83 Bi . The last two were only recently found to decay, with half-lives greater than 10 years. Actinides with odd neutron number are generally fissile (with thermal neutrons ), whereas those with even neutron number are generally not, though they are fissionable with fast neutrons . All observationally stable odd-odd nuclides have nonzero integer spin. This

2622-681: Is aluminium-26 , which is not naturally found on Earth but is found in abundance on an astronomical scale. The tabulated atomic masses of elements are averages that account for the presence of multiple isotopes with different masses. Before the discovery of isotopes, empirically determined noninteger values of atomic mass confounded scientists. For example, a sample of chlorine contains 75.8% chlorine-35 and 24.2% chlorine-37 , giving an average atomic mass of 35.5 atomic mass units . According to generally accepted cosmology theory , only isotopes of hydrogen and helium, traces of some isotopes of lithium and beryllium, and perhaps some boron, were created at

2736-547: Is 251/80 ≈ 3.14 isotopes per element. The proton:neutron ratio is not the only factor affecting nuclear stability. It depends also on evenness or oddness of its atomic number Z , neutron number N and, consequently, of their sum, the mass number A . Oddness of both Z and N tends to lower the nuclear binding energy , making odd nuclei, generally, less stable. This remarkable difference of nuclear binding energy between neighbouring nuclei, especially of odd- A isobars , has important consequences: unstable isotopes with

2850-436: Is MnO 2 . It is the dark brown pigment of many cave drawings but is also a common ingredient in dry cell batteries. Complexes of Mn(IV) are well known, but they require elaborate ligands . Mn(IV)-OH complexes are an intermediate in some enzymes , including the oxygen evolving center (OEC) in plants. Simple derivatives Mn are rarely encountered but can be stabilized by suitably basic ligands. Manganese(III) acetate

2964-430: Is a chemical element ; it has symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is a hard, brittle, silvery metal, often found in minerals in combination with iron . Manganese was first isolated in the 1770s. It is a transition metal with a multifaceted array of industrial alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels . It improves strength, workability, and resistance to wear. Manganese oxide is used as an oxidising agent; as

3078-466: Is a brown pigment for paint and is a constituent of natural umber . Tetravalent manganese is used as an activator in red-emitting phosphors . While many compounds are known which show luminescence , the majority are not used in commercial application due to low efficiency or deep red emission. However, several Mn activated fluorides were reported as potential red-emitting phosphors for warm-white LEDs. But to this day, only K 2 SiF 6 :Mn

3192-552: Is a commonly used laboratory reagent because of its oxidizing properties; it is used as a topical medicine (for example, in the treatment of fish diseases). Solutions of potassium permanganate were among the first stains and fixatives to be used in the preparation of biological cells and tissues for electron microscopy. Aside from various permanganate salts, Mn(VII) is represented by the unstable, volatile derivative Mn 2 O 7 . Oxyhalides (MnO 3 F and MnO 3 Cl) are powerful oxidizing agents . The most prominent example of Mn in

3306-635: Is a radioactive form of carbon, whereas C and C are stable isotopes. There are about 339 naturally occurring nuclides on Earth, of which 286 are primordial nuclides , meaning that they have existed since the Solar System 's formation. Primordial nuclides include 35 nuclides with very long half-lives (over 100 million years) and 251 that are formally considered as " stable nuclides ", because they have not been observed to decay. In most cases, for obvious reasons, if an element has stable isotopes, those isotopes predominate in

3420-494: Is a silvery-gray metal that resembles iron. It is hard and very brittle, difficult to fuse, but easy to oxidize. Manganese and its common ions are paramagnetic . Manganese tarnishes slowly in air and oxidizes ("rusts") like iron in water containing dissolved oxygen. Naturally occurring manganese is composed of one stable isotope , Mn. Several radioisotopes have been isolated and described, ranging in atomic weight from 46 u ( Mn) to 72 u ( Mn). The most stable are Mn with

3534-456: Is a species of an atom with a specific number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, for example, carbon-13 with 6 protons and 7 neutrons. The nuclide concept (referring to individual nuclear species) emphasizes nuclear properties over chemical properties, whereas the isotope concept (grouping all atoms of each element) emphasizes chemical over nuclear. The neutron number greatly affects nuclear properties, but its effect on chemical properties

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3648-549: Is also seen in the mineral rhodochrosite ( manganese(II) carbonate ). Manganese(II) commonly exists with a high spin, S = 5/2 ground state because of the high pairing energy for manganese(II). There are no spin-allowed d–d transitions in manganese(II), which explain its faint color. Manganese forms a large variety of organometallic derivatives, i.e., compounds with Mn-C bonds. The organometallic derivatives include numerous examples of Mn in its lower oxidation states, i.e. Mn(−III) up through Mn(I). This area of organometallic chemistry

3762-568: Is an oxidant useful in organic synthesis . Solid compounds of manganese(III) are characterized by its strong purple-red color and a preference for distorted octahedral coordination resulting from the Jahn-Teller effect . A particularly common oxidation state for manganese in aqueous solution is +2, which has a pale pink color. Many manganese(II) compounds are known, such as the aquo complexes derived from manganese(II) sulfate (MnSO 4 ) and manganese(II) chloride (MnCl 2 ). This oxidation state

3876-464: Is attractive because Mn is inexpensive and of relatively low toxicity. Of greatest commercial interest is "MMT", methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl , which is used as an anti-knock compound added to gasoline (petrol) in some countries. It features Mn(I). Consistent with other aspects of Mn(II) chemistry, manganocene ( Mn(C 5 H 5 ) 2 ) is high-spin. In contrast, its neighboring metal iron forms an air-stable, low-spin derivative in

3990-663: Is because the single unpaired neutron and unpaired proton have a larger nuclear force attraction to each other if their spins are aligned (producing a total spin of at least 1 unit), instead of anti-aligned. See deuterium for the simplest case of this nuclear behavior. Only 78 Pt , 4 Be , and 7 N have odd neutron number and are the most naturally abundant isotope of their element. Elements are composed either of one nuclide ( mononuclidic elements ), or of more than one naturally occurring isotopes. The unstable (radioactive) isotopes are either primordial or postprimordial. Primordial isotopes were

4104-421: Is better known than nuclide and is still sometimes used in contexts in which nuclide might be more appropriate, such as nuclear technology and nuclear medicine . An isotope and/or nuclide is specified by the name of the particular element (this indicates the atomic number) followed by a hyphen and the mass number (e.g. helium-3 , helium-4 , carbon-12 , carbon-14 , uranium-235 and uranium-239 ). When

4218-453: Is commercially available for use in warm-white LEDs . Isotope Isotopes are distinct nuclear species (or nuclides ) of the same chemical element . They have the same atomic number (number of protons in their nuclei ) and position in the periodic table (and hence belong to the same chemical element), but different nucleon numbers ( mass numbers ) due to different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. While all isotopes of

4332-435: Is denoted with symbols "u" (for unified atomic mass unit) or "Da" (for dalton ). The atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes of an element determine the standard atomic weight of the element. When the element contains N isotopes, the expression below is applied for the average atomic mass m ¯ a {\displaystyle {\overline {m}}_{a}} : m ¯

4446-421: Is dominant in a given soil. At pH values less than 6 or under anaerobic conditions, Mn(II) dominates, while under more alkaline and aerobic conditions, Mn(III,IV) oxides and hydroxides predominate. These effects of soil acidity and aeration state on the form of Mn can be modified or controlled by microbial activity. Microbial respiration can cause both the oxidation of Mn to the oxides, and it can cause reduction of

4560-545: Is found throughout the world's oceans, 90% of which originates from hydrothermal vents. Particulate Mn develops in buoyant plumes over an active vent source, while the dMn behaves conservatively. Mn concentrations vary between the water columns of the ocean. At the surface, dMn is elevated due to input from external sources such as rivers, dust, and shelf sediments. Coastal sediments normally have lower Mn concentrations, but can increase due to anthropogenic discharges from industries such as mining and steel manufacturing, which enter

4674-404: Is intended to imply comparison (like synonyms or isomers ). For example, the nuclides 6 C , 6 C , 6 C are isotopes (nuclides with the same atomic number but different mass numbers ), but 18 Ar , 19 K , 20 Ca are isobars (nuclides with the same mass number ). However, isotope is the older term and so

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4788-458: Is low spin, which contrasts with the high spin character of its precursor, MnBr 2 (dmpe) 2 ( dmpe = (CH 3 ) 2 PCH 2 CH 2 P(CH 3 ) 2 ). Polyalkyl and polyaryl derivatives of manganese often exist in higher oxidation states, reflecting the electron-releasing properties of alkyl and aryl ligands. One example is [Mn(CH 3 ) 6 ] . The origin of the name manganese is complex. In ancient times, two black minerals were identified from

4902-408: Is mainly mined in South Africa, Australia, China, Gabon, Brazil, India, Kazakhstan, Ghana, Ukraine and Malaysia. For the production of ferromanganese , the manganese ore is mixed with iron ore and carbon, and then reduced either in a blast furnace or in an electric arc furnace. The resulting ferromanganese has a manganese content of 30–80%. Pure manganese used for the production of iron-free alloys

5016-418: Is negligible for most elements. Even for the lightest elements, whose ratio of neutron number to atomic number varies the most between isotopes, it usually has only a small effect although it matters in some circumstances (for hydrogen, the lightest element, the isotope effect is large enough to affect biology strongly). The term isotopes (originally also isotopic elements , now sometimes isotopic nuclides )

5130-628: Is observationally the heaviest stable nuclide with the same number of neutrons and protons. All stable nuclides heavier than calcium-40 contain more neutrons than protons. Of the 80 elements with a stable isotope, the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten (for the element tin ). No element has nine or eight stable isotopes. Five elements have seven stable isotopes, eight have six stable isotopes, ten have five stable isotopes, nine have four stable isotopes, five have three stable isotopes, 16 have two stable isotopes (counting 73 Ta as stable), and 26 elements have only

5244-501: Is part of the iron group of elements, which are thought to be synthesized in large stars shortly before the supernova explosion. Mn decays to Cr with a half-life of 3.7 million years. Because of its relatively short half-life, Mn is relatively rare, produced by cosmic rays impact on iron . Manganese isotopic contents are typically combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology and radiometric dating . Mn–Cr isotopic ratios reinforce

5358-424: Is produced by leaching manganese ore with sulfuric acid and a subsequent electrowinning process. A more progressive extraction process involves directly reducing (a low grade) manganese ore by heap leaching . This is done by percolating natural gas through the bottom of the heap; the natural gas provides the heat (needs to be at least 850 °C) and the reducing agent (carbon monoxide). This reduces all of

5472-442: Is stable up to the manganese melting point of 1,519 K (1,250 °C; 2,270 °F). It has a body-centered cubic structure (two atoms per cubic unit cell). Common oxidation states of manganese are +2, +3, +4, +6, and +7, although all oxidation states from −3 to +7 have been observed. Manganese in oxidation state +7 is represented by salts of the intensely purple permanganate anion MnO − 4 . Potassium permanganate

5586-405: Is unusual among elemental metals in having a very complex unit cell, with 58 atoms per cell (29 atoms per primitive unit cell) in four different types of site. It is paramagnetic at room temperature and antiferromagnetic at temperatures below 95 K (−178 °C). Beta manganese (β-Mn) forms when heated above the transition temperature of 973 K (700 °C; 1,290 °F). It has

5700-412: Is used as a reagent in organic chemistry for the oxidation of benzylic alcohols (where the hydroxyl group is adjacent to an aromatic ring ). Manganese dioxide has been used since antiquity to oxidize and neutralize the greenish tinge in glass from trace amounts of iron contamination. MnO 2 is also used in the manufacture of oxygen and chlorine and in drying black paints. In some preparations, it

5814-469: The Big Bang , while all other nuclides were synthesized later, in stars and supernovae, and in interactions between energetic particles such as cosmic rays, and previously produced nuclides. (See nucleosynthesis for details of the various processes thought responsible for isotope production.) The respective abundances of isotopes on Earth result from the quantities formed by these processes, their spread through

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5928-444: The CNO cycle . The nuclides 3 Li and 5 B are minority isotopes of elements that are themselves rare compared to other light elements, whereas the other six isotopes make up only a tiny percentage of the natural abundance of their elements. 53 stable nuclides have an even number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. They are a minority in comparison to

6042-490: The Middle Ages until modern times and is evident in 14th-century glass from Venice . Because it was used in glassmaking, manganese dioxide was available for experiments by alchemists, the first chemists. Ignatius Gottfried Kaim (1770) and Johann Glauber (17th century) discovered that manganese dioxide could be converted to permanganate , a useful laboratory reagent. Kaim also may have reduced manganese dioxide to isolate

6156-597: The Spartan steel exceptionally hard. Around the beginning of the 19th century, manganese was used in steelmaking and several patents were granted. In 1816, it was documented that iron alloyed with manganese was harder but not more brittle. In 1837, British academic James Couper noted an association between miners' heavy exposure to manganese and a form of Parkinson's disease . In 1912, United States patents were granted for protecting firearms against rust and corrosion with manganese phosphate electrochemical conversion coatings, and

6270-410: The binding energy of the nucleus (see mass defect ), the slight difference in mass between proton and neutron, and the mass of the electrons associated with the atom, the latter because the electron:nucleon ratio differs among isotopes. The mass number is a dimensionless quantity . The atomic mass, on the other hand, is measured using the atomic mass unit based on the mass of the carbon-12 atom. It

6384-465: The fissile 92 U . Because of their odd neutron numbers, the even-odd nuclides tend to have large neutron capture cross-sections, due to the energy that results from neutron-pairing effects. These stable even-proton odd-neutron nuclides tend to be uncommon by abundance in nature, generally because, to form and enter into primordial abundance, they must have escaped capturing neutrons to form yet other stable even-even isotopes, during both

6498-513: The ocean floor has 500 billion tons of manganese nodules . Attempts to find economically viable methods of harvesting manganese nodules were abandoned in the 1970s. In South Africa, most identified deposits are located near Hotazel in the Northern Cape Province , ( Kalahari manganese fields ), with a 2011 estimate of 15 billion tons. In 2011 South Africa produced 3.4 million tons, topping all other nations. Manganese

6612-436: The residual strong force . Because protons are positively charged, they repel each other. Neutrons, which are electrically neutral, stabilize the nucleus in two ways. Their copresence pushes protons slightly apart, reducing the electrostatic repulsion between the protons, and they exert an attractive nuclear force on each other and on protons. For this reason, one or more neutrons are necessary for two or more protons to bind into

6726-421: The s-process and r-process of neutron capture, during nucleosynthesis in stars . For this reason, only 78 Pt and 4 Be are the most naturally abundant isotopes of their element. 48 stable odd-proton-even-neutron nuclides, stabilized by their paired neutrons, form most of the stable isotopes of the odd-numbered elements; the very few odd-proton-odd-neutron nuclides comprise

6840-476: The +6 oxidation state is the green anion manganate , [MnO 4 ] . Manganate salts are intermediates in the extraction of manganese from its ores. Compounds with oxidation states +5 are somewhat elusive, and often found associated to an oxide (O ) or nitride (N ) ligand. One example is the blue anion hypomanganate [MnO 4 ] . Mn(IV) is somewhat enigmatic because it is common in nature but far rarer in synthetic chemistry. The most common Mn ore, pyrolusite ,

6954-487: The 2020s. The real mission of Hughes Glomar Explorer was to raise a sunken Soviet submarine, the K-129 , with the goal of retrieving Soviet code books. An abundant resource of manganese in the form of manganese nodules found on the ocean floor. These nodules, which are composed of 29% manganese, are located along the ocean floor . The environmental impacts of nodule collection are of interest. Dissolved manganese (dMn)

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7068-424: The 20th century, manganese dioxide was widely used as the cathodic for commercial disposable dry batteries of both the standard (zinc–carbon) and alkaline types. Manganese is essential to iron and steel production by virtue of its sulfur -fixing, deoxidizing , and alloying properties. This application was first recognized by the British metallurgist Robert Forester Mushet (1811–1891) who, in 1856, introduced

7182-583: The Burkinabe government tendered a series of openings for mining operations in Tambao, with Wadi Al Rawda Industrial Investments one early candidate thought likely to gain at least some concession. In 2010 two consortia emerged offering to develop an integrated mining and rail system which, in some proposals, would not only mine and process ore, but build longer rail lines to feed into the Ivorian rail network for export at

7296-465: The Solar System. Four allotropes (structural forms) of solid manganese are known, labeled α, β, γ and δ, and occurring at successively higher temperatures. All are metallic, stable at standard pressure, and have a cubic crystal lattice, but they vary widely in their atomic structures. Alpha manganese (α-Mn) is the equilibrium phase at room temperature. It has a body-centered cubic lattice and

7410-564: The alloys particularly useful in harsh automotive and industrial environments. Manganese oxide and sulfate are components of fertilizers. In the year 2000, an estimated 20,000 tons of these compounds were used in fertilizers in the US alone. A comparable amount of Mn compounds was also used in animal feeds. Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl is an additive in some unleaded gasoline to boost octane rating and reduce engine knocking . Manganese(IV) oxide (manganese dioxide, MnO 2 )

7524-429: The almost integral masses for the two isotopes Cl and Cl. After the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932, the ultimate root cause for the existence of isotopes was clarified, that is, the nuclei of different isotopes for a given element have different numbers of neutrons, albeit having the same number of protons. A neutral atom has the same number of electrons as protons. Thus different isotopes of

7638-463: The atomic number is given by the element symbol, it is common to state only the mass number in the superscript and leave out the atomic number subscript (e.g. He , He , C , C , U , and U ). The letter m (for metastable) is sometimes appended after the mass number to indicate a nuclear isomer , a metastable or energetically excited nuclear state (as opposed to

7752-635: The beta decay of actinium-230 forms thorium-230. The term "isotope", Greek for "at the same place", was suggested to Soddy by Margaret Todd , a Scottish physician and family friend, during a conversation in which he explained his ideas to her. He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry in part for his work on isotopes. In 1914 T. W. Richards found variations between the atomic weight of lead from different mineral sources, attributable to variations in isotopic composition due to different radioactive origins. The first evidence for multiple isotopes of

7866-435: The biggest hurdle to commercial exploitation of the Tambao reserves is the lack of an all weather roadway capable of supporting the transport fleet needed to move ore the 210 kilometres (130 mi) to Kaya , the nearest city connected to the Burkinabe road network. In 2010, the Burkinabe government carried out talks with investors from India aimed at building a 250 km railway line from Tambao to Kaya. Later that year,

7980-477: The element, in the form of Spiegeleisen . Manganese comprises about 1000  ppm (0.1%) of the Earth's crust and is the 12th most abundant element. Soil contains 7–9000 ppm of manganese with an average of 440 ppm. The atmosphere contains 0.01 μg/m . Manganese occurs principally as pyrolusite ( MnO 2 ), braunite (Mn Mn 6 )SiO 12 ), psilomelane (Ba,H 2 O) 2 Mn 5 O 10 , and to

8094-439: The elemental abundance found on Earth and in the Solar System. However, in the cases of three elements ( tellurium , indium , and rhenium ) the most abundant isotope found in nature is actually one (or two) extremely long-lived radioisotope(s) of the element, despite these elements having one or more stable isotopes. Theory predicts that many apparently "stable" nuclides are radioactive, with extremely long half-lives (discounting

8208-410: The even-even isotopes, which are about 3 times as numerous. Among the 41 even- Z elements that have a stable nuclide, only two elements (argon and cerium) have no even-odd stable nuclides. One element (tin) has three. There are 24 elements that have one even-odd nuclide and 13 that have two odd-even nuclides. Of 35 primordial radionuclides there exist four even-odd nuclides (see table at right), including

8322-454: The evidence from Al and Pd for the early history of the Solar System . Variations in Cr/ Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites suggest an initial Mn/ Mn ratio, which indicate that Mn–Cr isotopic composition must result from in situ decay of Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence, Mn provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of

8436-491: The form of ferrocene ( Fe(C 5 H 5 ) 2 ). When conducted under an atmosphere of carbon monoxide , reduction of Mn(II) salts gives dimanganese decacarbonyl Mn 2 (CO) 10 , an orange and volatile solid. The air-stability of this Mn(0) compound (and its many derivatives) reflects the powerful electron-acceptor properties of carbon monoxide. Many alkene complexes and alkyne complexes are derived from Mn 2 (CO) 10 . In Mn(CH 3 ) 2 (dmpe) 2 , Mn(II)

8550-461: The free element when it was isolated much later. Manganese dioxide, which is abundant in nature, has long been used as a pigment. The cave paintings in Gargas that are 30,000 to 24,000 years old are made from the mineral form of MnO 2 pigments. Manganese compounds were used by Egyptian and Roman glassmakers, either to add to, or remove, color from glass. Use as "glassmakers soap" continued through

8664-486: The galaxy, and the rates of decay for isotopes that are unstable. After the initial coalescence of the Solar System , isotopes were redistributed according to mass, and the isotopic composition of elements varies slightly from planet to planet. This sometimes makes it possible to trace the origin of meteorites . The atomic mass ( m r ) of an isotope (nuclide) is determined mainly by its mass number (i.e. number of nucleons in its nucleus). Small corrections are due to

8778-401: The ground state of tantalum-180) with comparatively short half-lives are known. Usually, they beta-decay to their nearby even-even isobars that have paired protons and paired neutrons. Of the nine primordial odd-odd nuclides (five stable and four radioactive with long half-lives), only 7 N is the most common isotope of a common element. This is the case because it is a part of

8892-410: The human brain, the manganese is bound to manganese metalloproteins , most notably glutamine synthetase in astrocytes . It is familiar in the laboratory in the form of the deep violet salt potassium permanganate . It occurs at the active sites in some enzymes . Of particular interest is the use of a Mn-O cluster , the oxygen-evolving complex , in the production of oxygen by plants. Manganese

9006-409: The integers 20 and 22 and that neither is equal to the known molar mass (20.2) of neon gas. This is an example of Aston's whole number rule for isotopic masses, which states that large deviations of elemental molar masses from integers are primarily due to the fact that the element is a mixture of isotopes. Aston similarly showed in 1920 that the molar mass of chlorine (35.45) is a weighted average of

9120-464: The largest number of stable isotopes for an element being ten, for tin ( 50 Sn ). There are about 94 elements found naturally on Earth (up to plutonium inclusive), though some are detected only in very tiny amounts, such as plutonium-244 . Scientists estimate that the elements that occur naturally on Earth (some only as radioisotopes) occur as 339 isotopes ( nuclides ) in total. Only 251 of these naturally occurring nuclides are stable, in

9234-482: The least common. The 146 even-proton, even-neutron (EE) nuclides comprise ~58% of all stable nuclides and all have spin 0 because of pairing. There are also 24 primordial long-lived even-even nuclides. As a result, each of the 41 even-numbered elements from 2 to 82 has at least one stable isotope , and most of these elements have several primordial isotopes. Half of these even-numbered elements have six or more stable isotopes. The extreme stability of helium-4 due to

9348-402: The longest-lived isotope), and thorium X ( Ra) are impossible to separate. Attempts to place the radioelements in the periodic table led Soddy and Kazimierz Fajans independently to propose their radioactive displacement law in 1913, to the effect that alpha decay produced an element two places to the left in the periodic table, whereas beta decay emission produced an element one place to

9462-696: The lowest-energy ground state ), for example 73 Ta ( tantalum-180m ). The common pronunciation of the AZE notation is different from how it is written: 2 He is commonly pronounced as helium-four instead of four-two-helium, and 92 U as uranium two-thirty-five (American English) or uranium-two-three-five (British) instead of 235-92-uranium. Some isotopes/nuclides are radioactive , and are therefore referred to as radioisotopes or radionuclides , whereas others have never been observed to decay radioactively and are referred to as stable isotopes or stable nuclides . For example, C

9576-412: The manganese content reaches 4%, the embrittlement of the steel becomes a dominant feature. The embrittlement decreases at higher manganese concentrations and reaches an acceptable level at 8%. Steel containing 8 to 15% of manganese has a high tensile strength of up to 863 MPa. Steel with 12% manganese was discovered in 1882 by Robert Hadfield and is still known as Hadfield steel (mangalloy) . It

9690-503: The manganese ore to manganese oxide (MnO), which is a leachable form. The ore then travels through a grinding circuit to reduce the particle size of the ore to between 150 and 250 μm, increasing the surface area to aid leaching. The ore is then added to a leach tank of sulfuric acid and ferrous iron (Fe ) in a 1.6:1 ratio. The iron reacts with the manganese dioxide (MnO 2 ) to form iron hydroxide (FeO(OH)) and elemental manganese (Mn). This process yields approximately 92% recovery of

9804-457: The manganese. For further purification, the manganese can then be sent to an electrowinning facility. In 1972, the CIA 's Project Azorian , through billionaire Howard Hughes , commissioned the ship Hughes Glomar Explorer with the cover story of harvesting manganese nodules from the sea floor. That triggered a rush of activity to collect manganese nodules, which was not actually practical until

9918-619: The metal, but that is uncertain. By the mid-18th century, the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele used manganese dioxide to produce chlorine . First, hydrochloric acid , or a mixture of dilute sulfuric acid and sodium chloride was made to react with manganese dioxide, and later hydrochloric acid from the Leblanc process was used and the manganese dioxide was recycled by the Weldon process . The production of chlorine and hypochlorite bleaching agents

10032-569: The metals and organic compounds can then cause them to be oxidized while the Mn(III,IV) oxides are reduced to Mn (e.g., Cr to Cr(VI) and colorless hydroquinone to tea-colored quinone polymers). Manganese is essential to iron and steel production by virtue of its sulfur -fixing, deoxidizing , and alloying properties. Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in these applications in metallurgy. Steelmaking , including its ironmaking component, has accounted for most manganese demand, presently in

10146-481: The necessary infrastructure for mining unless the government granted them mining concessions in the area. In 1993 InterStar Mining carried out 6 months of operations here, but were plagued by lack of supportive resources. Large scale exploitation was only again attempted by the Fompex consortium in 2004 and was quickly halted. Apart from total lack of operations infrastructure (power, water, construction or employment base)

10260-425: The nucleus is the atom's mass number , and each isotope of a given element has a different mass number. For example, carbon-12 , carbon-13 , and carbon-14 are three isotopes of the element carbon with mass numbers 12, 13, and 14, respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6, which means that every carbon atom has 6 protons so that the neutron numbers of these isotopes are 6, 7, and 8 respectively. A nuclide

10374-524: The ocean from river inputs. Surface dMn concentrations can also be elevated biologically through photosynthesis and physically from coastal upwelling and wind-driven surface currents. Internal cycling such as photo-reduction from UV radiation can also elevate levels by speeding up the dissolution of Mn-oxides and oxidative scavenging, preventing Mn from sinking to deeper waters. Elevated levels at mid-depths can occur near mid-ocean ridges and hydrothermal vents. The hydrothermal vents release dMn enriched fluid into

10488-417: The other about 22. The parabola due to the heavier gas is always much fainter than that due to the lighter, so that probably the heavier gas forms only a small percentage of the mixture." F. W. Aston subsequently discovered multiple stable isotopes for numerous elements using a mass spectrograph . In 1919 Aston studied neon with sufficient resolution to show that the two isotopic masses are very close to

10602-689: The other naturally occurring nuclides are radioactive but occur on Earth due to their relatively long half-lives, or else due to other means of ongoing natural production. These include the afore-mentioned cosmogenic nuclides , the nucleogenic nuclides, and any radiogenic nuclides formed by ongoing decay of a primordial radioactive nuclide, such as radon and radium from uranium. An additional ~3000 radioactive nuclides not found in nature have been created in nuclear reactors and in particle accelerators. Many short-lived nuclides not found naturally on Earth have also been observed by spectroscopic analysis, being naturally created in stars or supernovae . An example

10716-726: The others. There are 41 odd-numbered elements with Z = 1 through 81, of which 39 have stable isotopes ( technetium ( 43 Tc ) and promethium ( 61 Pm ) have no stable isotopes). Of these 39 odd Z elements, 30 elements (including hydrogen-1 where 0 neutrons is even ) have one stable odd-even isotope, and nine elements: chlorine ( 17 Cl ), potassium ( 19 K ), copper ( 29 Cu ), gallium ( 31 Ga ), bromine ( 35 Br ), silver ( 47 Ag ), antimony ( 51 Sb ), iridium ( 77 Ir ), and thallium ( 81 Tl ), have two odd-even stable isotopes each. This makes

10830-441: The oxides to the divalent cation. The Mn(III,IV) oxides exist as brownish-black stains and small nodules on sand, silt, and clay particles. These surface coatings on other soil particles have high surface area and carry negative charge. The charged sites can adsorb and retain various cations, especially heavy metals (e.g., Cr , Cu , Zn , and Pb ). In addition, the oxides can adsorb organic acids and other compounds. The adsorption of

10944-631: The port of Abidjan . Major contenders were a Singaporean/Indian joint venture, the Nice Group company, and a tie up of the Japanese firm Mitsui Rail Capital and Brazilian mining giant Vale S.A. An extension of the Abidjan-Niger Railway was approved in 2014 and service was expected to begin by the end of 2016. The Tambao Airport serves the deposit and corresponding villages. www.tambao.co.uk Informative website Manganese Manganese

11058-415: The possibility of proton decay , which would make all nuclides ultimately unstable). Some stable nuclides are in theory energetically susceptible to other known forms of decay, such as alpha decay or double beta decay, but no decay products have yet been observed, and so these isotopes are said to be "observationally stable". The predicted half-lives for these nuclides often greatly exceed the estimated age of

11172-432: The primary exceptions). The vibrational modes of a molecule are determined by its shape and by the masses of its constituent atoms; so different isotopologues have different sets of vibrational modes. Because vibrational modes allow a molecule to absorb photons of corresponding energies, isotopologues have different optical properties in the infrared range. Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together by

11286-571: The process has seen widespread use ever since. The invention of the Leclanché cell in 1866 and the subsequent improvement of batteries containing manganese dioxide as cathodic depolarizer increased the demand for manganese dioxide. Until the development of batteries with nickel–cadmium and lithium, most batteries contained manganese. The zinc–carbon battery and the alkaline battery normally use industrially produced manganese dioxide because naturally occurring manganese dioxide contains impurities. In

11400-457: The properties of the various isotopes of a given element. Isotope separation is a significant technological challenge, particularly with heavy elements such as uranium or plutonium. Lighter elements such as lithium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are commonly separated by gas diffusion of their compounds such as CO and NO. The separation of hydrogen and deuterium is unusual because it is based on chemical rather than physical properties, for example in

11514-400: The range of 85% to 90% of the total demand. Manganese is a key component of low-cost stainless steel . Often ferromanganese (usually about 80% manganese) is the intermediate in modern processes. Small amounts of manganese improve the workability of steel at high temperatures by forming a high-melting sulfide and preventing the formation of a liquid iron sulfide at the grain boundaries. If

11628-476: The regions of the Magnetes (either Magnesia , located within modern Greece, or Magnesia ad Sipylum , located within modern Turkey). They were both called magnes from their place of origin, but were considered to differ in sex. The male magnes attracted iron, and was the iron ore now known as lodestone or magnetite , and which probably gave us the term magnet . The female magnes ore did not attract iron, but

11742-586: The relative mass difference between isotopes is much less so that the mass-difference effects on chemistry are usually negligible. (Heavy elements also have relatively more neutrons than lighter elements, so the ratio of the nuclear mass to the collective electronic mass is slightly greater.) There is also an equilibrium isotope effect . Similarly, two molecules that differ only in the isotopes of their atoms ( isotopologues ) have identical electronic structures, and therefore almost indistinguishable physical and chemical properties (again with deuterium and tritium being

11856-451: The right. Soddy recognized that emission of an alpha particle followed by two beta particles led to the formation of an element chemically identical to the initial element but with a mass four units lighter and with different radioactive properties. Soddy proposed that several types of atoms (differing in radioactive properties) could occupy the same place in the table. For example, the alpha-decay of uranium-235 forms thorium-231, whereas

11970-415: The same basic reaction, but a different electrolyte mixture. In 2002, more than 230,000 tons of manganese dioxide was used for this purpose. Copper alloys of manganese, such as Manganin , are commonly found in metal element shunt resistors used for measuring relatively large amounts of current. These alloys have very low temperature coefficient of resistance and are resistant to sulfur. This makes

12084-441: The same element. This is most pronounced by far for protium ( H ), deuterium ( H ), and tritium ( H ), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium and tritium has three times the mass of protium. These mass differences also affect the behavior of their respective chemical bonds, by changing the center of gravity ( reduced mass ) of the atomic systems. However, for heavier elements,

12198-406: The sense of never having been observed to decay as of the present time. An additional 35 primordial nuclides (to a total of 286 primordial nuclides), are radioactive with known half-lives, but have half-lives longer than 100 million years, allowing them to exist from the beginning of the Solar System. See list of nuclides for details. All the known stable nuclides occur naturally on Earth;

12312-420: The universe, and in fact, there are also 31 known radionuclides (see primordial nuclide ) with half-lives longer than the age of the universe. Adding in the radioactive nuclides that have been created artificially, there are 3,339 currently known nuclides . These include 905 nuclides that are either stable or have half-lives longer than 60 minutes. See list of nuclides for details. The existence of isotopes

12426-589: The water. The dMn can then travel up to 4,000 km due to the microbial capsules present, preventing exchange with particles, lowing the sinking rates. Dissolved Mn concentrations are even higher when oxygen levels are low. Overall, dMn concentrations are normally higher in coastal regions and decrease when moving offshore. Manganese occurs in soils in three oxidation states: the divalent cation, Mn and as brownish-black oxides and hydroxides containing Mn (III,IV), such as MnOOH and MnO 2 . Soil pH and oxidation-reduction conditions affect which of these three forms of Mn

12540-478: Was a large consumer of manganese ores. Scheele and others were aware that pyrolusite (mineral form of manganese dioxide) contained a new element. Johan Gottlieb Gahn isolated an impure sample of manganese metal in 1774, which he did by reducing the dioxide with carbon . The manganese content of some iron ores used in Greece led to speculations that steel produced from that ore contains additional manganese, making

12654-513: Was first suggested in 1913 by the radiochemist Frederick Soddy , based on studies of radioactive decay chains that indicated about 40 different species referred to as radioelements (i.e. radioactive elements) between uranium and lead, although the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements between lead and uranium inclusive. Several attempts to separate these new radioelements chemically had failed. For example, Soddy had shown in 1910 that mesothorium (later shown to be Ra), radium ( Ra,

12768-572: Was used for British military steel helmets and later by the U.S. military. Manganese is used in production of alloys with aluminium. Aluminium with roughly 1.5% manganese has increased resistance to corrosion through grains that absorb impurities which would lead to galvanic corrosion . The corrosion-resistant aluminium alloys 3004 and 3104 (0.8 to 1.5% manganese) are used for most beverage cans . Before 2000, more than 1.6 million tonnes of those alloys were used; at 1% manganese, this consumed 16,000 tonnes of manganese. Manganese(IV) oxide

12882-414: Was used in the original type of dry cell battery as an electron acceptor from zinc, and is the blackish material in carbon–zinc type flashlight cells. The manganese dioxide is reduced to the manganese oxide-hydroxide MnO(OH) during discharging, preventing the formation of hydrogen at the anode of the battery. The same material also functions in newer alkaline batteries (usually battery cells), which use

12996-438: Was used to decolorize glass. This female magnes was later called magnesia , known now in modern times as pyrolusite or manganese dioxide . Neither this mineral nor elemental manganese is magnetic. In the 16th century, manganese dioxide was called manganesum (note the two Ns instead of one) by glassmakers, possibly as a corruption and concatenation of two words, since alchemists and glassmakers eventually had to differentiate

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