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114-476: Beginning in 1879 he led a resistance movement against the Abyssinian emperors Yohannes IV and later Menelik II due to the states hostile policies towards Muslims in the region. At first Mikael of Wollo did not take Talha's revolt seriously and dismissed him as merely an individual intoxicated by the narcotic chat leaf, however Mikael was proven wrong when Talha's forces managed to defeat an army sent to quell

228-556: A 6.5% growth in GDP and a 3.6% rise in per capita income. Instead per capita income declined 0.8% over this period. Famine scholar Alex de Waal observes that while the famine that struck the country in the mid-1980s is usually ascribed to drought, "closer investigation shows that widespread drought occurred only some months after the famine was already under way". Hundreds of thousands fled economic misery, conscription, and political repression, and went to live in neighboring countries and all over

342-480: A couple of months. The farmers are adapted to this, but the problem arises when rains are less than normal. Another major challenge is providing water to urban areas. Smaller towns, but particularly Mekelle, face endemic water shortages . Reservoirs have been built, but their management is sub-optimal. Besides elephants in Western Tigray and the endemic gelada baboon on the highest mountains, large mammals in

456-790: A different direction. In 2018 and 2019, after multiple village discussions that were often vigorous in the more remote areas, 21 independent urban administrations were added and other boundaries re-drawn, resulting in an increase from 35 to 88 woredas in January 2020. Following the 2020 Tigray regional election , on 4 November, after the attacks by TDF on Northern Command units in Tigray, the Ethiopian military launched counterattacks. Ethiopian and Amhara forces advanced through southern Tigray, while Eritrean troops occupied northern border towns. Amhara militias continued to control Western Tigray as of 2023. Warfare,

570-501: A diplomatic dispute between Tewodros and the British government led the expedition to Abyssinia in order to free the European captives imprisoned there by Tewodros. From February 1868, Yohannes came into contact with British officers, including the commander of the expedition, Sir Robert Napier , who sends Major James Augustus Grant , a British explorer, to meet the ruler of Tigray. Yohannes

684-517: A few years earlier). He died hours later. Although the Ethiopian army had almost annihilated their opponents in this battle, hearing that their ruler had been slain shattered their morale and they were scattered by the nearly beaten Sudanese army. Yohannes's body was carried back to Tigray guarded by a small party, who were overtaken by the Mahdist troops of Zeki Tummal near the Atbara River , who captured

798-579: A group of military officers. The committee elected Major Mengistu Haile Mariam as its chairman and Major Atnafu Abate as its vice-chairman. In July 1974, the Derg obtained key concessions from the emperor, Haile Selassie, which included the power to arrest not only military officers but government officials at every level. Soon both former Prime Ministers Tsehafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold and Endalkachew Makonnen , along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers and officials of

912-519: A nationalist by policy, and a soldier and emperor by profession Yohannes undoubtedly had his weaknesses; they were not his own making, but rather imposed on him either by external pressure or inherited by his deep-seated values and traditional norms. During the eighteen years of his reign, he was preoccupied with defending his country against external aggressions perpetrated by the Egyptians, the Italians, and

1026-440: A notable on procedural matters. Apparently, he had a long-prepared plan for the council, as he had a letter from the patriarch of Alexandria read out at the end of the disputation which endorsed the imperial tenet. The policy transcended Yohannes's reign, though there were indications that the suppressed tenets had by no means been eradicated. Any Śost Lədät supporters who protested the council had their tongues cut out. Yohannes

1140-622: A policy of touring entire regions and meetings with governors. He assisted the British in their British expedition to Abyssinia which ended in Tewodros' suicide, from which Yohannes was rewarded in ammunition and artillery. He regarded Islam as a hindrance to the stability of the state and worked to strengthen Christian dominance in Ethiopia. Its estimated that he had converted 550,000 Oromos and Jebertis to Christianity. In foreign policy, he had disagreements and military conflicts with both Isma'il Pasha of

1254-484: A range of enemy shots as victory was going to his side. Mortally wounded from a gunshot. Reportedly, the Emperor sustained two gunshot wounds: the first, a rifle shot to his arm, and shortly thereafter, a severe gunshot to his chest. Subsequently, he was transported to his tent, where he revealed that his nephew, Ras Mengesha, was in fact his biological son and declared him as his heir (his elder son Ras Araya Selassie had died

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1368-409: A rebellion broke out all over southern and eastern Tigray under the slogan, "there is no government; let's organize and govern ourselves". Throughout Enderta Awraja, including Mekelle , Didibadergiajen, Hintalo , Saharti, Samre and Wajirat, Raya Awraja, Kilte-Awlaelo Awraja and Tembien Awraja, local assemblies, called gerreb, were formed. The gerreb sent representatives to a central congress, called

1482-554: A renegade province of Ethiopia, and Egyptian seizure of the Emirate was not welcomed to either of them. The Egyptians then marched into northern Ethiopia from their coastal possessions around the port of Massawa . Yohannes pleaded with the British to stop their Egyptian allies and even withdrew from his own territory in order to show the Europeans that he was the wronged party and that the Khedive

1596-545: A result of the war. As of 2023, the region is run by the Interim Regional Administration of Tigray . Tigray is often regarded as the cradle of Ethiopian civilization. Its landscape has many historic monuments. Three major monotheistic religions, Judaism , Christianity and Islam arrived in Ethiopia through the Red Sea and then Tigray. Given the presence of a large temple complex and fertile surroundings,

1710-441: A step below famine. Tigray is situated between 12° – 15°N and 36° 30' – 40° 30'E. A 2006 national statistics report stated the land area as 50,079 km (19,336 sq mi). The 2011 National Statistics gave an area of 41,410 km (15,990 sq mi), but the sum of the figures it gave for the Tigray zones was substantially different, rendering the 2011 report internally inconsistent. The figure of 50,079 km

1824-731: A treaty signed with the British at Adwa known as the Hewett Treaty . According to the treaty, the Ethiopians would allow the Egyptians to safely evacuate out of certain cities such as Kassala , which aggravated the Mahdists even more. Ras Alula Engida defeated an invading Mahdist army at the Battle of Kufit on 23 September 1885. About the same time, Italy took control of the port of Massawa, frustrating Ethiopian hopes and angering Yohannes. Yohannes attempted to work out some kind of understanding with

1938-411: Is Tigrinya , similar to that of southern Eritrea. The estimated population as of 2019 is approximately 5,443,000. The majority of the population (c. 80%) are farmers, contributing 46% to the regional gross domestic product (2009). The highlands have the highest population density, especially in eastern and central Tigray. The much less densely populated lowlands comprise 48% of Tigray's area. Although

2052-1243: Is a birdwatcher 's paradise. Detailed inventories list at least 170 bird species, including numerous endemic species. Species belonging to the Afrotropical Highland Biome occur in the dry evergreen montane forests of the highland plateau but can also occupy other habitats. Wattled Ibis can be found feeding in wet grassland and open woodland. Black-winged Lovebird , Banded Barbet , Golden-mantled or Abyssinian Woodpecker , Montane White-eye , Rüppell's Robin-chat , Abyssinian Slaty Flycatcher and Tacazze Sunbird are found in evergreen forest, mountain woodlands and areas with scattered trees including fig trees , Euphorbia abyssinica and Juniperus procera . Erckel's spurfowl , Dusky Turtle Dove , Swainson's or Grey-headed Sparrow , Baglafecht Weaver , African Citril , Brown-rumped Seedeater and Streaky Seedeater are common Afrotropical breeding residents of woodland edges, scrubland and forest edges. White-billed Starling and Little Rock Thrush can be found on steep cliffs; Speckled or African rock pigeon and White-collared Pigeon in gorges and rocky places but also in towns and villages. Species belonging to

2166-561: Is added to the already important arsenal of Yohannes. After the Magdala expedition, the British disengaged completely and Yohannes' offers of cooperation were rejected or ignored. Even after his seizure of imperial power, he failed to arouse the interest of the British. Nevertheless, the Napier expedition had an impact on the struggle for power; in addition to military equipment, a British instructor, John C. Kirkham , agrees to stay in Ethiopia to train

2280-1036: Is an Ethiopian relative of Lilac-breasted Roller , which is an intra-tropical breeding migrant of south and east Africa, and of European Roller , an uncommon Palearctic passage migrant. Black-billed Barbet , Yellow-breasted Barbet and Grey-headed Batis are species from the Sahel and Northern Africa but also occur in Acacia woodlands in the area. The most regularly observed raptor birds in crop fields in Tigray are Augur buzzard ( Buteo augur ), Common Buzzard ( Buteo buteo ), Steppe Eagle ( Aquila nipalensis ), Lanner falcon ( Falco biarmicus ), Black kite ( Milvus migrans ), Yellow-billed kite ( Milvus aegyptius ) and Barn owl ( Tyto alba ). Birdwatching can be done particularly in exclosures and forests. Eighteen bird-watching sites have been inventoried in Enderta and Degua Tembien and mapped. Like other Regions in Ethiopia, Tigray

2394-426: Is evidence of a Semitic-speaking presence in Tigray, Eritrea and northern Ethiopia at least as early as 2000 BC. It is now believed that Sabaean influence was minor, limited to a few localities and disappearing after a few decades or a century, It may have represented a trading or military colony, in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with the civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto- Aksumite state. After

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2508-598: Is subdivided into administrative zones, and further into woredas or districts. Up to January 2020, these were the woredas of Tigray: In 2018 and 2019, after multiple village discussions that were often vigorous in the more remote areas, 21 independent urban administrations were added and other boundaries re-drawn, resulting in an increase from 35 to 94 woredas in January 2020: Mekelle , home to Mekelle University , Mekelle Institute of Technology , Tigray Institute of Policy Studies , Admas University, Microlink College, Nile College, and Mekelle College of Teacher Education

2622-630: Is supported by the Google Maps area calculator. The East African Orogeny led to the growth of a mountain chain in the Precambrian (up to 800 Ma [million years ago]), which was largely eroded afterwards. Around 600 Ma, the Gondwana break-up led to the presence of tectonic structures and a Palaeozoic planation surface , that extents to the north and west of the Dogu'a Tembien massif. Subsequently, there

2736-845: Is the fifth-largest by area, the fourth-most populous, and the fifth-most densely populated of the 11 regional states. Tigray is bordered by Eritrea to the north, the Amhara Region to the south, the Afar Region to the east, and Sudan to the west. Towns in Tigrai include: Mekelle , Adigrat , Axum , Shire , Adwa , Humera , Dansha , Mai Kadra , Enticho , Wukro , Agula'e , Freweyni , Korarit , Adi Daero , Ketema Ngus , Adi Remets , Sheraro , Abiy Addi , Atsbi , Hawzen , Adi Gudom , Adi Shu , Chercher , Korem , Maychew , Alamata , Mekoni , Rama , May Tsebri , Addi Remets , Hagere Selam , Dowhan and Zalambessa . Tigray's official language

2850-463: Is then perceived by James as a “weak and easily manipulated man, aspiring to become a great leader of the Ethiopian Empire ." After three hearings, Yohannes officially agrees to help Napier. This then facilitates the provisioning of the troops by installing markets near the main camp sites. Yohannes assures the British that he will help them “with all [his] power." Yohannes undertakes to protect

2964-472: The Bahre Negash , based in the district of Serae . The Book of Aksum , written and compiled mainly in the period from the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries, shows a traditional schematic map of Tigray with the city of Aksum at its center, surrounded by the 13 principal provinces: "Tembien, Shire, Serae, Hamasien, Bur , Sam’a, Agame , Amba Senayt, Garalta , Enderta , Sahart and Abergele." During

3078-510: The COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia , and a locust outbreak contributed to an emergency food situation in the region by January 2021 . Approximately two million people faced food shortages, with a critical situation in Shire Inda Selassie , hosting 100,000 refugees. The Famine Early Warning Systems Network indicated that parts of central and eastern Tigray were likely in emergency phase 4,

3192-562: The Egyptian-Ethiopian War and undisputed Neguse Negest , in 1878 Yohannes was at the high point of his reign. (See Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles ). Emperor Yohannes also convened a general council of the Ethiopian Church at Boru Meda later in 1878, which brought an end to the ongoing theological dispute in the local church; Christians, Muslims, and pagans were given respectively two, three and five years to conform to

3306-484: The Khedivate of Egypt and Muhammad Ahmad during the latter's Mahdist War . On the side of his father, Mercha Wolde Kidan , Yohannes descended from the ruling family of Tembien where both his father and grandfather bore the traditional title of šum Tembien , while his mother, Silas Dimtsu, was a daughter of balgäda Demtsu of Enderta and Tabotu Woldu of Agame, hence a niece of Sabagadis Woldu . He thus descended from

3420-535: The Mareb River , which is currently constitutes the border between the Ethiopian province of Tigray and Eritrea. After the loss of power of the Bahr negus in the aftermath of Bahr negus Yeshaq 's rebellions, the title of Tigray mekonnen gained power in relation to the Bahr negus and at times included ruling over parts of what is now Eritrea, especially in the 19th century. By the unsettled Zemene Mesafint period ("Era of

3534-400: The Red Sea . Others, including Joseph Michels, Henri de Contenson, Tekletsadik Mekuria, and Stanley Burstein, have viewed Dʿmt as the result of a mixture of Sabaean and indigenous peoples. The most recent research, however, shows that Ge'ez , the ancient Semitic language spoken in Tigray, Eritrea and northern Ethiopia in ancient times, is not likely to have been derived from Sabaean . There

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3648-806: The Somali-Masai Biome . Hemprich's Hornbill and White-rumped Babbler are found in bushland, scrubland and dense secondary forest, often near cliffs, gorges or water. Chestnut-Winged or Somali Starling and Rüppell's Weaver are found in bushy and shrubby areas. Black-billed wood hoopoes have some red at the base of the bill or an entirely red bill in this area. Species belonging to the Sudan-Guinea Savanna Biome : Green-backed eremomela and Chestnut-crowned Sparrow-Weaver . Species that are neither endemic nor biome-restricted but that have restricted ranges or that can be more easily seen in Ethiopia than elsewhere in their range: Abyssinian Roller

3762-583: The Treaty of Wuchale with the Italians which later on led to the Battle of Adwa. Although a group of Tigrean nobles led by Ras Alula attempted to promote the claim of Ras Mengesha Yohannes (the "natural" son of Yohannes) as Emperor, many of the dead monarch's other relatives on both the Enderta and Tembien sides of his family objected and went into open rebellion against Mengesha. Many refused to accept Ras Mengesha as

3876-650: The Western world , creating an Ethiopian diaspora . Toward the end of January 1991, a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) captured Gondar , the ancient capital city, Bahar Dar , and Dessie . John Young, who visited the area several times in the early 1990s, attributes this delay in part to "central budget restraint, structural readjustment, and lack of awareness by government bureaucrats in Addis Ababa of conditions in

3990-560: The "Reino de Tigr" (Kingdom of Tigray) extended from Hamasien to Temben , from the borders of Dankel to the Adwa mountain. He also stated that Tigray-Mereb Melash was divided into 24 smaller political units (principalities), twelve of which were located south of the Mereb and governed by the Tigray Mekonen, based in Enderta . The other twelve were located north of the Mereb, under the authority of

4104-580: The 11th century the Tigrinya-speaking lands (Tigray- Mareb Melash ) were divided into two provinces, separated by the Mereb River, by the newly enthroned Agaw emperors. The governor of the northern province received the title Bahre Negash (Ruler of the sea), whereas the governor of the southern province was given the title of Tigray Mekonen (Lord of Tigray). The Portuguese Jesuit Emanuele Baradas's work titled "Do reino de Tigr", written in 1633–34, states that

4218-512: The 1974 Revolution toppled the Ethiopian monarchy. Ras Mengesha Seyoum is married to Princess Aida Desta , a granddaughter of Emperor Haile Selassie and is the current head of the Tigrean branch of the Solomonic dynasty. Mengesha Seyum is the last person alive today who bears the title of Leul Ras . A nobleman by birth, a cleric by education, a zealot by faith, moralist by tendency, a monk by practice,

4332-465: The British officers stating that: “The British army could not have reached Magdala during this season, without having received the help of the chiefs and the people of the country”. In return for the help that Yohannes provided the British, he received military equipment, estimated at 500,000 Pounds sterling , including: six mortars , six howitzers , approximately 900 muskets and rifles, ammunition, powder and 585,480 primers percussion. This armament

4446-545: The Derg's violent rule, coupled with the draining effects of constant warfare with the separatist guerrilla movements in Tigray, led to a drastic fall in general productivity of food and cash crops. In October 1978, the Derg announced the National Revolutionary Development Campaign to mobilize human and material resources to transform the economy, which led to a Ten-Year Plan (1984/1985-1993/1994) to expand agricultural and industrial output, forecasting

4560-631: The Ethiopians were led again by the Emperor, and his loyal general, the capable (and future Ras ) Alula Engida . This victory was followed by Menelik's submission to Yohannes on 20 March 1878, and in return, Yohannes recognized Menelik's hereditary right to the title of King ( Negus ) of Shewa , and re-crowned him on 26 March. Yohannes took this opportunity to tie the Shewan King more closely to him by arranging for Menelik's daughter Zewditu (the future Empress of Ethiopia in her own right), to be married to his own son and heir, Ras Araya Selassie . Victor of

4674-731: The Gojjame rebellion, but before he could turn his attention to Shewa news arrived that the Mahdist forces had sacked Gondar and burned its holy churches. He marched north from Gojjam to confront the armies of the Mahdi. Yohannes was killed by the Mahdists at the Battle of Gallabat that took place on 9–10 March 1889 in Metemma near the Sudanese border. Evidence suggests that Emperor Yohannes had acted rashly and had made himself vulnerable, going beyond enemy lines in

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4788-635: The Imperial court and lost its position and influence. The second, "natural" line is through Ras Mengesha Yohannes and is the better-known line. Although Ras Mengesha Yohannes ended his days under house arrest for his repeated rebelling against Emperor Menelik II. Ras Mengesha's son Ras Seyoum Mengesha first became governor of western Tigray, and following the treason of his cousin Dejazmatch Haile Selassie Gugsa, became Governor ( Shum ) of all of Tigray in 1936. He commanded troops against

4902-517: The Imperial court were imprisoned. In August 1974, after a proposed constitution creating a constitutional monarchy was presented to the emperor, the Derg began a program of dismantling the imperial government in order to forestall further developments in that direction. The Derg deposed and imprisoned the emperor on 12 September 1974 . In addition, the Derg in 1975 nationalized most industries and private and somewhat secure urban real-estate holdings. But mismanagement, corruption, and general hostility to

5016-657: The Italians, but was forced to surrender and spent most of the Italian occupation under house arrest in Addis Ababa. Following the return of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1941, Ras Seyoum was restored to his governorate of Tigray, recognized as the hereditary Prince of that province. Ras Seyoum Mengesha was killed during the abortive coup by the Imperial Bodyguard in 1960 and was succeeded by his son Ras Mengesha Seyoum who served as Governor and hereditary Prince of Tigray until

5130-514: The Italians, so he could turn his attention to the more pressing problem of the Mahdists, although Ras Alula took it upon himself to attack Italian units that were on both sides of the ill-defined frontier between the two powers. Domestic problems increased when the Neguses of both Gojjam and Shewa rebelled against Yohannes, and the Emperor had to turn his attention from the encroaching Italians to deal with his rebellious vassals. Yohannes brutally crushed

5244-552: The Mahdists. Yohannes succeeded to a large extent in pacifying the country and expanding the empire by the device of power-sharing and accommodation. Guiding principles of his administration were patience, tolerance, and forgiveness, as well as a tendency to preserve the status quo. Above all, his concerns were focused on promoting peace rather than his own personal or dynastic gain. The way he shared his authority with Menelik and Tekle Haymanot eventually resulted in undermining his own authority, but it contributed greatly to accelerating

5358-570: The Middle Ages, the position of Tigray Mekonnen ("Governor of Tigray") was established to rule over the area. Other districts included Akele Guzay (now part of Eritrea ), and the kingdom of the Bahr negus , who ruled much of what is now Eritrea and Shire district and town in Western Tigray. At the time when Tigray Mekonnen existed simultaneously with that of Bahr negus, their frontier seems to have been

5472-573: The Princes"), both designations had declined to little more than empty titles, and the lord who succeeded them used (and received from the Emperor) the title of either Ras or Dejazmach , beginning with Ras Mikael Sehul . Rulers of Tigray such as Ras Wolde Selassie alternated with others, chiefly those of Begemder or Yejju , as warlords to maintain the Ethiopian monarchy during the Zemene Mesafint. In

5586-467: The Roman Catholic missionaries from Shewa. However this time, instead of a single Archbishop, he requested that Patriarch Cyril send four to serve the large number of Christians in Ethiopia, who arrived in 1881. They were led by Abuna Petros as Archbishop, Abuna Matewos for Shewa , Abuna Luqas for Gojjam and Abuna Markos for Gondar . Abuna Markos died shortly after arriving, so his diocese

5700-530: The Tertiary silicified lacustrine deposits : Pila (gastropod) ; Lanistes sp.; Pirenella conica ; and land snails ( Achatinidae indet.). All snail shells, both fossil and recent, are called t’uyo in Tigrinya language , which means ‘ helicoidal ’. As Tigray holds a wide variety of rock types , there is expectedly a varied use of rock. Overall, the region is semi-arid . The wet season lasts only for

5814-719: The Tigrayan imperial elite. Following the outbreak of the Ethiopian Revolution in February 1974, the first signal of any mass uprising was the actions of the soldiers of the 4th Brigade of the 4th Army Division in Nagelle in southern Ethiopia. The Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army, or the Derg ( Ge'ez "Committee"), was officially announced 28 June 1974 by

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5928-630: The Tribe of Judah, za'imnaggada yīhūda, nigūsa TSion, nigūsa nagast za'ītyōṗṗyā, siyūma 'igzī'a'bihēr"). Tigray Region The Tigray Region (or simply Tigray ; officially the Tigray National Regional State ) is the northernmost regional state in Ethiopia . The Tigray Region is the homeland of the Tigrayan , Irob and Kunama people . Its capital and largest city is Mekelle . Tigray

6042-529: The Turks, in the end, he and the rest of Ethiopia would become a slave to the Arab/Muslim world. Ras Mohammed then chose to become a Christian to later inherit a Christian name (later Negus ) Mikael of Wollo , the Emperor stood as his godfather at his baptism. The new convert was given Menelik of Shewa's other daughter, Shewarega Menelik, as his wife. Yohannes went one step further and pressured Menelik to expel all of

6156-495: The authority of the Emperor. At this juncture, the temptation was great to cross the Abbay River ( Blue Nile ) to Showan territory and eliminate the internal threat. Yohannes's priority, however, was to avert the external threat and he decided to face the Mahdists who had penetrated twice as far as Gonder and burnt the churches, pillaged the country, and enslaved people. Throughout his reign, Yohannes demonstrated selfless devotion to

6270-473: The capital of the 3,000-year-old kingdom of Dʿmt may have been near present-day Yeha . Dʿmt developed irrigation schemes, used the plough , grew millet , and made iron tools and weapons . Some modern historians, including Stuart Munro-Hay, Rodolfo Fattovich, Ayele Bekerie, Cain Felder , and Ephraim Isaac consider this civilization to be indigenous, although Sabaean -influenced due to the latter's dominance of

6384-435: The central highlands] used to be Christian land until Gragn ruined and misled it. Now let all, whether Muslim or Galla [Oromo], believe in the name of Jesus Christ! If you wish to live in peace and preserve your belongings, become Christians. It is estimated that by 1880 some 50,000 Jebertis (Tigrinya speaking Muslims) and 500,000 Oromos had been forced to convert to Christianity from Islam. Throughout his reign, Yohannes

6498-494: The collaboration of Menelik in order to consolidate a purely numerical advantage. However, the Negus of Shewa refuses to join in the fight, preferring to see the two great Warlords confront each other and tire each other. Finally, on 11 July 1871, Tekle Giyorgis confronted Kaśa in the Battle of Adwa , but was defeated and confined to Enda Abba Selma, Tembien, where he would die two years later. The principle of Yohannes's internal policy

6612-480: The council's decisions. Non-Christians were forbidden from participating in the government unless they converted and were baptized; the Muslims were given three months, while the pagans had to become Christians immediately. "Having concluded that Wollo was worth a mass," as Harold Marcus wryly puts it, his retainer Ras Mohammed of Wollo became disobedient of the tax rules, which he and the entire Wollo refused to pay tax to

6726-455: The defense of the territorial integrity of Ethiopian Empire against successive waves of external aggression, by Egyptians, Italians, and Mahdists Sudan. He also strove within the parameters of what was possible in his day to promote the welfare of his people. His devotion to his country and people culminated in the supreme sacrifice of his life at the border of his empire, in the Battle of Metemma. "His Imperial Majesty John IV, Conquering Lion of

6840-481: The eastern lowlands and found refuge among the Afar , from which ethnic group he married a Muslim after she had been baptized with the name Tebaba Sellasie. Returning to the highlands, he raised more men and began his military campaign: in the years 1864–1867, he consecutively defeated šum seraye Gebre Mikael, däjazmač Barya'u Gebre Sadeq of Adwa and däjazmač Tekle Giyorgis Qalos of Shire. Barya'u transferred his allegiance to Kaśa whom he served faithfully until he

6954-528: The empire was Axum , now in northern Ethiopia. Today a smaller community, the city of Axum was once a bustling metropolis and a cultural and economic hub. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city; perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area. Along the hills and plain outside the city, the Aksumites had cemeteries with elaborate grave stones, which are called stelae , or obelisks . Other important cities included Yeha , Hawulti-Melazo , Matara , Adulis , and Qohaito ,

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7068-423: The expeditionary force arrived at the foot of Magdala and, three days later, after refusing to surrender to the British, the Nəgusä nägäst Tewodros II committed suicide. Napier's victory and the ease with which the expedition reached Magdala was made possible by Yohannes. The British officers themselves admit that they were "lucky" to have obtained the cooperation of the leader of Tigray. A report written by one of

7182-424: The fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller, unknown successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century BC, the Aksumite Kingdom , which succeeded in reunifying the area and is, in effect, the ancestor of medieval and modern states in Eritrea and Ethiopia using the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century. The Kingdom of Aksum

7296-446: The first half of his life is poorly documented. Even the date of his birth is uncertain; various sources place it between 1831 and 1837. The available sources merely indicate that he was the youngest of his siblings, that he had a seriously ailing childhood, that he received some church education, and that he was initiated to manhood after killing some wild animals (lions and/or elephants) for trophies. The first mention of his appearance in

7410-421: The first high-ranking Ethiopian nobleman to defect to the Italians when the Fascist forces invaded Ethiopia. The people of Mekelle ransacked his house when this news was revealed. He was elevated to the title of Ras by the King of Italy. However, following the liberation of Ethiopia in 1941, Haile Selassie Gugsa was placed under house arrest and regarded as a traitor. Emperor Haile Selassie refused to acknowledge

7524-452: The government in which Emperor Yohannes had discovered, Ras Mohammed was conspiring with the Turks the Ottoman empire because of his Muslim affiliation. Ras Mohammed was brought to Emperor Yohannes and was confronted of his conspiracy in helping the Muslim colonizer and to bring down the Judeo Christian empire. Ras Mohammed was siding with Muslim Affiliates of Turkey. After meeting with King Yohannes and in learning that if he were to assist

7638-450: The influence of Tigrayans in the Ethiopian government and opened the way for Italians to occupy more districts previously held by Tigrayan nobles. The seizures made by the Italians at this time ultimately resulted in the creation of the colony of Eritrea and the defeat of Italy at the Battle of Adwa at the hands of Emperor Menelik II. The Tigrean nobility retained influence at the Imperial court of Menelik and his successors, although not at

7752-404: The last three of which are now in Eritrea. By the reign of Endubis in the late 3rd century, Aksum had begun minting its own currency and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time, along with China and the Sassanid and Roman empires. It converted to Christianity in 325 or 328 under King Ezana and was the first state to use the image of the cross on its coins. In

7866-456: The level they enjoyed under Yohannes IV. The descendants of Yohannes ruled Tigray as hereditary Princes until the Ethiopian Revolution and the fall of the monarchy in 1974 ended their rule. There are two lines of descent from Yohannes IV, one "legitimate" and one "natural." The legitimate line is through his elder son, Ras Araya Selassie Yohannes . Araya Selassie Yohannes was born to his wife Wolete Selassie . The son of Araya Selassie Yohannes

7980-459: The lowering of large parts of the Horn of Africa . As a consequence a marine transgression occurred, leading to the deposition of marine sediments ( Antalo Limestone and Agula Shale). The region has an estimated 3.89 billion tons of mostly "excellent" quality oil shale . At the end of the Mesozoic tectonic phase, a new ( Cretaceous ) planation took place. After that, the deposition of continental sediments ( Amba Aradam Formation ) indicates

8094-407: The mid-19th century, the lords of Tembien and Enderta managed to establish an overlordship of Tigray. One of its members, Dejazmach Kahsay Mercha, ascended the imperial throne in 1872 under the name Yohannes IV . Following his 1889 death in the Battle of Metemma , the Ethiopian throne came under the control of the king of Shewa , and the center of power shifted south and away from Tigray. In 1943,

8208-505: The new metropolitan abunä Atnatyos sent from Alexandria in June 1869, and kept him in his dominion. However, Tekle Giyorgis is not fooled and he quickly understands Yohannes' intentions. Although having a much larger army in numbers, Tekle Giyorgis does not have the modern weapons which Yohannes have. In addition to that, his troops include many soldiers from Tigray and he fears their change of camp in favor of Yohannes. Thus, Tekle Giyorgis seeks

8322-419: The newly appointed governor by Yohannes and submitted to Yohannes and asked for forgiveness, not only was he forgiven but he was given the command over Gojjam and eventually elevated as King of Gojjam and Keffa, under the name of Tekle Haymanot. King Menelik's ambition to seize the imperial crown was clearly evident since his escape from Mäqdalä and return to Shoa, in 1865. The submission of Menelik to Yohannes

8436-437: The percentage of Muslims in Tigray is less than 5%, it has supposedly been historically Islam's doorway to the region and to Africa at large. 96% of Tigrayans are Orthodox Christian . After Armenians , ethnic Tigrayans have the highest percentage of Orthodox Christians in the world. The government of Tigray consists of the executive branch , led by the president, Getachew Reda ; the legislative branch , which comprises

8550-465: The political arena comes up in connection with his visit to the imperial court of Tewodros II in 1864–1865 in the company of his brothers, Gugsa and Maru. Gugsa was given the title of däjazmač , and Maru that of fit’awrari . The lowest title, of balambaras , was bestowed upon Kaśa, who was subsequently assigned to administer a sub-district within the governorship of his elder brother, Gugsa. Shortly after their return to Tigray , Kaśa rebelled against

8664-743: The presence of less shallow seas, probably caused by a regional uplift. At the beginning of the Caenozoic , there was a relative tectonic quiescence, during which the Amba Aradam Sandstones were partially eroded, which led to the formation of a new planation surface. In the Eocene , the Afar plume , a broad regional uplift, deformed the lithosphere , leading to the eruption of flood basalts . Three major formations may be distinguished: lower basalts , interbedded lacustrine deposits and upper basalts . Almost at

8778-462: The president of Tigray was Gebru Asrat . In 1998, war erupted between Eritrea and Ethiopia over a portion of territory that had been administered as part of Tigray, which included the town of Badme . A 2002 United Nations decision awarded much of this land to Eritrea, but Ethiopia did not accept the ruling until 2018, when a bilateral agreement ended the border conflict . The text of this agreement has not been publicly availed. From 2001 to 2010

8892-506: The president was Tsegay Berhe . Between 2018 and 2020, as part of a reform aimed to deepen and strengthen decentralisation, woredas were reorganised, and new boundaries established. As smaller towns had been growing, they had started providing a larger range of services, such as markets and even banks, that encouraged locals to travel there rather than to their formal woreda centre. However, these locals still had to travel to their local woreda centre for most local government services - often in

9006-462: The process of reunification of the Ethiopian Empire . By preserving the status quo in the regional administration, the uncertainty and fear which were prevalent under previous reigns due to constant changes were reduced. The self-confidence and charitable attitude he displayed toward his vanquished enemies and rivals earned him the high esteem of his subjects. Early in his career after he defeated and seized Dejazmatch Gabre Mikael of Seraye , who

9120-403: The province", but notes "an equally significant obstacle was posed by an entrenched, and largely Amhara-dominated, central bureaucracy which used its power to block government-authorised funds from reaching Tigray". At the same time, a growing urban middle class of traders, businessmen and government officials emerged that was suspicious of and distant from the victorious EPRDF. From 1991 to 2001,

9234-593: The rebellion. Talha was also part of the Mahdist Sudanese invasion of Ethiopia which had sacked several major towns including Gonder . During the reign of Lij Iyasu , he was appointed governor of Wadessa in the Harar region of Chercher . Hassan Enjamo , rebel leader of Hadiya Yohannes IV Yohannes IV ( Tigrinya : ዮሓንስ ፬ይ Rabaiy Yōḥānnes ; horse name Abba Bezbiz also known as Kahśsai ; born Lij Kahssai Mercha ; 11 July 1837 – 10 March 1889)

9348-913: The region, with scientific (italics), English and Tigrinya language names, are: The most common pest rodents with widespread distribution in agricultural fields and storage areas are three Ethiopian endemic species: the Dembea grass rat ( Arvicanthis dembeensis , sometimes considered a subspecies of Arvicanthis niloticus ), Ethiopian white-footed rat ( Stenocephalemys albipes ), and Awash multimammate mouse ( Mastomys awashensis ). Bats occur in natural caves , church buildings and abandoned homesteads. The large colony of bats that roosts in Zeyi cave comprises Hipposideros megalotis ( Ethiopian large-eared roundleaf bat ), Hipposideros tephrus , and Rhinolophus blasii ( Blasius's horseshoe bat ). With its numerous exclosures , forest fragments and church forests , Tigray

9462-455: The rest at Suakin and at various posts in the south. Yohannes agreed to British requests to allow these Egyptian soldiers to evacuate through his lands, with the understanding that the British Empire would then support his claims on important ports like Massawa on the Red Sea to import weapons and ammunition in the event that Egypt was forced to withdraw from them. This was formalized in

9576-526: The rule of Tewodros. What prompted his rebellion is not well established. Often two explanations, which are not essentially contradictory, are forwarded by the sources: the first is related to his dissatisfaction with the rank and function given to him by the sovereign, while the second interprets his rebellion as a response to the appeal of abunä Salama who in 1867 wrote from prison to many notables condemning his perceived injustices of Tewodros. In any case, for some time he (together with his followers) retired to

9690-551: The ruling families of Tembien, Agame, and Enderta. Yohannes Solomonic lineage is through his paternal grandmother Woizero Workewoha KaleKristoss of Adwa, the granddaughter of Ras Mikael Sehul and his wife Aster Iyasu , daughter of Empress Mentewab and Melmal Iyasu , who was a Solomonic prince and nephew of Emperor Bakaffa . Therefore Yohannes is descendent from the Gondar-Branch of the Solomonic Dynasty. The story of

9804-760: The same time, the Mekelle Dolerite intruded into the Mesozoic sediments, following joints and faults . A new magma intrusion occurred in the Early Miocene , which gave rise to phonolite plugs, mainly in the Adwa area and also in Dogu’a Tembien. The present geomorphology is marked by deep valleys, eroded as a result of the regional uplift. Throughout the Quaternary , deposition of alluvium and freshwater tufa occurred in

9918-489: The scales of justice with a firm and even hand"; "it was in 1884 the boast of King Yohannes that a child could pass through his dominions unharmed". In the first six years of his reign, he succeeded in achieving the unity of the predominantly Christian provinces, including Wag and Lasta, Semien and Begemder, Sayint , Gojjam, Wollo and Shewa. He crowned Menelik King of Shewa in 1878 and Tekle Haymanot King of Gojjam and Kaffa in 1881 and encouraged them to expand their empire to

10032-464: The shengo, which elected leaders and established a military command system. Although the first Woyane rebellion of 1943 had shortcomings as a prototype revolution, historians agree that it involved a fairly high level of spontaneity and peasant initiative. It demonstrated considerable popular participation and reflected widely shared grievances. The uprising was specifically directed against the central Shoan Amhara regime of Haile Selassie I , rather than

10146-413: The son of Yohannes, having long known him as his nephew. Tigray was torn assunder by the rebellions of various members of the Emperor's family against Mengesha and each other. Menelik of Shewa took advantage of Tigrean disorder, and after the Italians occupied Hamasien , (a district Yohannes IV had bestowed upon Ras Alula) he was proclaimed Emperor of Ethiopia as Menelik II . The death of Yohannes reduced

10260-407: The south, east, and west. However, this advice created rivalry between the two regional kings, which came to a climax in the Battle of Embabo in June 1882. Yohannes reprimanded both of them for fighting without his permission, punished them by taking away a province from the jurisdiction of each of them and defined the direction of territories to be conquered by each of the two kings. When Yohannes

10374-412: The sovereign's body. Augustus B. Wylde, who claimed to have heard the story from a priest who managed to escape the slaughter, wrote how Yohannes' uncle Ras Araya stood beside the body of his dead master with "a few of his soldiers and the bravest of the king's servants, who had lost their all, and had no more prospects to live for". According to Wylde, as he saw death come Ras Areya announced "that he

10488-544: The state council; and the judicial branch , which is led by the state supreme court. In early November 2020, a conflict between the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) and the Ethiopian federal government (with support from Eritrea) rapidly escalating into the Tigray War , destabilizing the region, and exposing a well-organized campaign to wipe out the region of ethnic Tigrayans. As many as 600,000 people were killed as

10602-408: The supply routes from the coast to Magdala and to repress those who disturb the telegraph . In return, Yohannes asked Napier during a meeting on February 28, 1868, for the participation of British forces in his fight against Wagshum Gobeze . Napier refused but maintained the possibility, after the campaign, of military assistance which Yohannes and his 10,000 men greatly needed. On April 10, 1868,

10716-467: The surrounding mountains. Virtually the entire Egyptian force, along with its many officers of European and North American background, were killed. News of this huge defeat was suppressed in Egypt for fear that it would undermine the government of the Khedive. A new Egyptian force was assembled and sent to avenge the defeat at Gundet. The Egyptians were defeated again at the Battle of Gura (7–9 March 1876), where

10830-662: The time of Menelik's submission and in 1881, after his two vassal kings, Menelik and Teklé Haymanot fought against each other at Embabo, to remove Menelik and replace him if need be, by one of his cousins, such as Meshesha Seifu , Yohannes refused to yield on grounds that he was not going to destroy an effective power, which Menelik diligently built up for the sake of eliminating a possible threat to himself. Finally, Yohannes heard that both his vassal kings have defected and during his campaign in Gojjam, Tekle Haymant confessed that they had concluded an agreement to help one another and rebel against

10944-474: The title of Ras granted to his former son-in-law by the King of Italy, and so he reverted to the title of Dejazmatch . He was freed by the Derg regime in 1974 following the fall of the monarchy. He died shortly thereafter. There are other descendants of Emperor Yohannes IV in this "legitimate" line, but because of the wartime actions of Dejazmatch Haile Selassie Gugsa, this branch of the family fell into disfavor at

11058-635: The troops of Yohannes. He is responsible for training the troops of Yohannes and preparing them for the use of modern weapons received from the British. According to the Historian Bahru Zewde , the combination of new weapons and the training provided by John Kirkham determined the fight against Tekle Giyorgis . Following the death of Tewodros, Gobeze Gebre Medhin, had himself crowned as nəgusä nägäst Tekle Giyorgis II. He successfully suppressed rebellions of ras Wolde Maryam of Begemender and Fares Ali of Yejju. Yohannes however, refused to acknowledge

11172-616: The unity and stability of the state. By 1878, Yohannes was ready to tackle the problems by summoning a council at Boru Meda, Wollo. Most of the high dignitaries and notables of Ethiopia were present at the council. The leading theologians of the three major disputing groups of the EOC — Karra (predominant in the north), Sägga or Śost Lədät (prevalent in Begemeder and Shewa) and Qəbat (based in Gojjam and Lasta) — tried to defend their respective doctrines. Yohannes readily accepted corrections made by

11286-667: The valley bottoms. In Tigray, there are two main fossil-bearing geological units. The Antalo Limestone ( upper Jurassic ) is the largest. Its marine deposits comprise mainly benthic marine invertebrates . Also, the Tertiary lacustrine deposits , interbedded in the basalt formations, contain a range of silicified mollusc fossils. In the Antalo Limestone : large Paracenoceratidae cephalopods ( nautilus ); Nerineidae indet.; sea urchins ; Rhynchonellid brachiopod ; crustaceans ; coral colonies ; crinoid stems. In

11400-405: Was Emperor of Ethiopia from 1871 to his death in 1889 at the Battle of Gallabat , and king of Tigray from 1869 to 1871. During his reign he successfully defended Ethiopia against a large-scale Egyptian invasion . In his earlier years, he rebelled against Tewodros II ; having risen to power in the 1860s, he maintained the policy of Tewodros, that of continued unification and also implemented

11514-406: Was Ras Gugsa Araya Selassie . His son was the infamous Dejazmach Haile Selassie Gugsa who governed eastern Tigray in the 1930s and was married to Emperor Haile Selassie's daughter Princess Zenebework Haile Selassie . However, following the death of his wife, Dejazmatch Haile Selassie Gugsa's relationship with Emperor Haile Selassie deteriorated, and in 1936, Dejazmatch Haile Selassie became

11628-583: Was a trading empire rooted in northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period c. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. According to the Book of Axum , Axum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. The capital was later moved to Aksum in northern Ethiopia. The Empire of Aksum, at its height, at times extended across most of present-day Eritrea , Ethiopia, Djibouti , Sudan, Yemen and Saudi Arabia. The capital city of

11742-460: Was confined and replaced with däjazmač (later ras ) Woldemichael Solomon who had actively participated in Kaśa's military campaign against the imperial officials in Tigray. The imperial ambitions of Behaile Selassie are consolidated towards the end of the reign of Tewodros II ; as early as 1867, he presented himself, during a correspondence with the British, as ruler of Ethiopia. During the same year,

11856-618: Was crowned emperor he established his capital in Debre Tabor which was his seat for a decade before he shifted the capital in 1881 to Mekelle , but he still retained Debre Tabor as his primary residence. Yohannes inherited the empire encumbered with three religious questions which provoked him to seek a solution: the internal dissensions of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOC), Islam, and Christian foreign missionary activities. He regarded all of them as menaces to

11970-432: Was embroiled in military struggles on his northern frontiers. First was from Khedive Isma'il Pasha of Egypt , who sought to bring the entire Nile River basin under his rule. The Egyptians flirted with encouraging Menelik of Shewa against the King, but earned Menelik's enmity by marching from the port of Zeila and occupying the city-state of Harar on 11 October 1875. Both Menelik and Yohannes had regarded Harar as

12084-629: Was included with that of Abuna Atnatewos. It was the first time that the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria had appointed four Bishops for Ethiopia. When Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi (a prophesied Islamic leader who would precede the Day of Judgement ), and incited Turkish Sudan into a long and violent revolt , his followers successfully drove part of the Egyptian garrisons out of Sudan and isolated

12198-478: Was killed in a battle some ten years later. Tekle Giyorgis (who had killed Kaśa's mother, Silass) fell in battle, and Kaśa subsequently assumed his title of däjazmač . Kaśa then formed an alliance with wag šum Gobez Gebre Medhin of Lasta against Tewodros and began to harass the imperial representatives on both sides of the Mareb River . He defeated the governors of Selewa and Kilte Awulaelo . In Hamasien , däjazmač Haylu Tewolde Medhen, who contemplated resistance,

12312-573: Was known to harbor deep resentment towards Islam , a Sudanese official was reported stating "Yohannes is the most hateful of the Abyssinians towards Islam. Someone who knew him told me that if he saw a Muslim in the morning it would depress him so that he would immediately take the cross which he worships and put it over his face." During the council at Boru Meda, he summoned the major Oromo chiefs of Wollo. According to an Ethiopian chronicler, Yohannes told them: We are your apostles. All this [Wollo and

12426-413: Was not effected until 1878 after Yohannes gained substantial advantage over his rivals in terms of quality and quantity of firearms as a result of the booty gathered in his successive victories over the Egyptian army at Gundet and Gurae , in 1875 and 1876, respectively. This advantage remained on Yohannes's side throughout his reign. Despite repeated pressure from his advisers on two occasions, in 1878, at

12540-425: Was now old and done for, that his time had come, and it was useless at his age to serve another master that he knew little about, and it was better to die like a man fighting unbelievers, than like a mule in a stable." The Mahdists brought the Emperor's body back to their capital at Omdurman , where the head was put on a pike and paraded through the streets. On 2 May of the same year 1889, Emperor Menelik signed then

12654-427: Was responsible for the death of his own mother Woizero Silas Dimtsu, not only did he forgive him, but within a year, Gabre Mikael was reinstated as councilor and appeared as one of the important dignitaries during the mission of Major Grant to Adwa, in February 1868. Subsequently, Gabre Mikael's son, Dejazmach Birru, also held important posts. Ras Adal of Gojjam, after he killed his own cousin, Ras Desta Tedla Gualu,

12768-410: Was the aggressor. However, Yohannes soon realized that the Europeans would not stop the Khedive of Egypt and so he gathered up his armies and marched to meet the Egyptian force. The two armies met at Gundet (also called Guda-gude) on the morning of 16 November 1875. The Egyptians were tricked into marching into a narrow and steep valley and were wiped out by Ethiopian gunners surrounding the valley from

12882-583: Was the deposition of sedimentary and volcanic formations, from older (at the foot of the massif) to younger, near the summits. From Palaeozoic to Triassic , Tigray was located near the South Pole. The (reactivate) Precambrian extensional faults guided the deposition of glacial sediments ( Edaga Arbi Glacials and Enticho Sandstone ). Later alluvial plain sediments were deposited ( Adigrat Sandstone ). The break-up of Gondwana ( Late Palaeozoic to Early Triassic ) led to an extensional tectonic phase , what caused

12996-399: Was to continue the legacy of Tewodros II by trying to unite Ethiopia. To ensure the realization of this policy, he toured each region and meeting appointed governors, usually from the local nobility, regardless of their former attitudes toward him, as long as they submitted and expressed to him their unflinching loyalty. He thus managed, as the contemporary English vice-consul put it, "to hold

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