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98-734: In addition to the Ottoman Turkish, it had versions in French, Armenian, and Greek. The Greek version had a title derived from the French Moniteur Ottoman , Othōmanikos Minytōr (Οθωμανικός Μηνύτωρ). Johann Strauss, author of "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the Kanun-ı Esasi and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages," stated that "some writers" stated that versions in Arabic and Persian existed. The Takvim-i Vekayi

196-505: A centralized government with more control for the ayans rather than the ulama . He reorganized the military and abolished the janissaries during The Auspicious Event . To strengthen a centralized hold on the provinces he created a postal system, more infrastructure like roads, and the Takvim-i Vekayi . The Ottoman Empire had a French newspaper since 1796 and one from Smyrna ( İzmir ) since 1824 but they were only read by foreigners in

294-495: A completely different way than former leaders had done. Many historians think the economic reforms of this period were a failure but the communication reforms were a success. To centralize they needed to consolidate the government's forms and records. They limited redundant forms and by publishing the Takvim-i Vekayi were able to publicize government activity and notices in one place. Other forms of new media such as year books and volumes of legal texts were published to help centralize

392-737: A conference. Indeed, Abdul Hamid II "was distrusted by both the Porte and by intellectuals. The ministers knew that he was deceitful and cunning, and they suspected that his rule would mean a return to imperial control over the affairs of the state." The first Ottoman parliament, the General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire , convened from March 19, 1877, to June 28, 1877, and only convened once more before being prorogued by Abdul Hamid II, ironically using his constitutional right to do so on February 13, 1878. He also dismissed Midhat Pasha and banished him from

490-534: A constitution in the Ottoman Empire, ushering in the First Constitutional Era . Although this period was short-lived, with Abdul Hamid II ultimately suspending the constitution and parliament in 1878 in favor of a return to absolute monarchy with himself in power, the influence of the Young Ottomans continued until the collapse of the empire. Several decades later, another group of reform-minded Ottomans,

588-485: A constitutional government based on Islamic traditions. They thought that Mahmud II's rule was based too heavily on European influences. They wanted to use westernized advancements in academics but implement them in an Islamic context. They saw the Takvim-i Vekayi as an official document of the government, used just for record keeping. It inspired them however, to publish their ideals in their own privately owned newspapers. The first privately owned Ottoman Turkish newspaper

686-517: A definition of patriotic Ottoman identity became a unifying factor amongst many lead Young Ottomans. The desired goal of Ottomanism was to overcome the tensions between the Muslim and non-Muslim subjects of the empire and unite them through allegiance to the state. While the Young Ottomans looked to the Europeans for a model of constitutional government, they maintained that it should be developed within

784-566: A legend about Aimée du Buc de Rivéry as a young captured French girl who, after spending years in an Ottoman harem, outlives two Sultans and protects Mahmud as his surrogate mother. Mahmud is a minor role in the film but is portrayed as both an adult and a child. The film concludes with a variation of his dramatic succession. [REDACTED] Media related to Mahmud II at Wikimedia Commons Young Ottoman The Young Ottomans ( Ottoman Turkish : یکی عثمانلیلر , romanized :  Yeŋî ʿOs̱mânlıler ; Turkish : Yeni Osmanlılar ) were

882-422: A result of nationalist uprisings and European intervention. Mahmud ascended the throne following an 1808 coup which deposed his half-brother Mustafa IV . Early in his reign, the Ottoman Empire ceded Bessarabia to Russia at the end of the 1806–1812 Russo-Turkish War . Greece waged a successful war of independence that started in 1821 with British, French and Russian support, and Mahmud was forced to recognize

980-718: A secret society established in 1865 by a group of Ottoman intellectuals who were dissatisfied with the Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire , which they believed did not go far enough. The Young Ottomans sought to transform the Ottoman society by preserving the Empire and modernizing it along the European tradition of adopting a constitutional government. Though the Young Ottomans were frequently in disagreement ideologically, they all agreed that

1078-710: A series of revolts that broke out amongst the Christian peasants in the Balkans . Bosnia and Herzegovina were the first to experience rebellions, followed by Bulgaria in 1876. Accusations of atrocities being committed by the Turks, particularly in Bulgaria, did not go unnoticed by Russia , who went to war with the Ottomans on April 24, 1877. According to Caroline Finkel, "the profound cultural dislocation and humiliation being experienced by

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1176-654: A severe nervous breakdown." As a result, after only three months on the throne, Murad was declared unfit to rule and was replaced by his younger brother, Hamit Efendi, who ascended to the throne on September 1, 1876, as Sultan Abdul Hamid II . The First Constitutional Era began on December 23, 1876, when Sultan Abdul Hamid II appointed Midhat Pasha as Grand Vizier and promulgated the Ottoman constitution of 1876 , although his motives for doing so are suspect as they seemed to be aimed at appeasing Europeans who were in Istanbul for

1274-552: A similar, but plain, fez to distinguish them from the military. He planned for the population to adopt this as well, as he desired a homogeneous look for Ottoman society with an 1829 regulatory law. Unlike past Sultanic clothing decrees and those of other societies, Mahmud II wanted all levels of government and civilians to look the same. He faced significant resistance to these measures specifically from religious groups, laborers, and military members because of traditional, religious, and practical reasons. Mahmud II's portraits also give

1372-496: A valuable insight into his clothing mentality, as he switched to a more European style and fez after 1826. On top of these reforms, Mahmud II was also critical in the establishment and flourishing of an Ottoman foreign affairs office. While he built upon Selim III 's foundational elements of international diplomacy, Mahmud II was the first to create the title of Foreign Minister and Undersecretary in 1836. He placed enormous importance on this position and equated salary and rank with

1470-475: A window and climb onto the roof of the harem. He apparently ran to the roof of the Third Court where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time one of the leaders of the rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha arrived with his armed men, and upon seeing the dead body of Selim III proclaimed Mahmud as padishah . The slave girl Cevri Kalfa

1568-553: Is now known of Turkish archery. Mahmud II died of tuberculosis , in 1839. His funeral was attended by crowds of people who came to bid the Sultan farewell. His son Abdulmejid I succeeded him and announce an intention of general reorganization (Tanzimat) with the Edict of Gülhane . Among his reforms are the edicts (or firmans ), by which he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of

1666-531: The Kafes after the death of his father. In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor, and half-brother, Mustafa IV ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan Selim III , in order to defuse the rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha , later became Mahmud II's vizier . There are many stories surrounding

1764-617: The Paşas , the Ağas , and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the Kadı , and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system whereby a criminal could lodge an appeal to one of the Kazasker (chief military judge) of Asia or Europe, and finally to

1862-464: The Sublime Porte (the metonymy for the Ottoman government) and therefore had knowledge of both European political systems and the inner workings of Ottoman foreign policy . The six men in attendance were Mehmed Bey, Namık Kemal , Menâpirzâde Nuri , Reşat Bey, Ayetullah Bey, and Refik Bey, and all shared a desire to change the way the Ottomans interacted vis-à-vis the European powers in addition to

1960-539: The Young Turks drew both methods and ideology from the Young Ottomans, though they tended to focus on patriotic Ottomanism rather than their emphasis on a return to the fundamentals of Islam . Additionally, their efforts that contributed to the promulgation of the first Ottoman constitution set an important precedent for the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1918), which began with

2058-501: The Young Turks , repeated the Young Ottomans' efforts, leading to the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 and the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era . According to Niyazi Berkes , historically the term jeunes were two groups: Those who wanted a return to the roots of country by reforms ( Ottoman Turkish : اصلاحات , romanized :  ʾİṣlâḥât ) and those who wanted to stage radical reforms (such as adaptation of

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2156-600: The Abkhazian coast. In return, the Sultan accepted the Russian annexation of the Kingdom of Imereti , in 1810. The treaty was approved by Emperor Alexander I of Russia on 11 June, some 13 days before Napoleon's invasion began. The Russian commanders were able to get many of their soldiers in the Balkans back to the western areas of the empire before the expected attack of Napoleon. During

2254-471: The Empire was experiencing a period of great financial hardship brought on by catastrophic drought and floods in Anatolia in 1873 and 1874. In an attempt to raise revenue, the government raised taxes on the surviving population, leading to discontent amongst the people. The financial difficulties were exacerbated by a global stock market crash in 1873 . Discontentment amongst the population grew, culminating in

2352-427: The European governments that they were looking to for inspiration, but also because they wished to preserve one of the core features of Ottoman culture. "[T]he most pronounced impact of the Young Ottomans stemmed from their elaboration of the notion of Ottoman patriotism .... Namik [sic] Kemal developed this concept to its secular conclusion in his poems and his famous play Vatan (Fatherland), all of which extolled

2450-751: The European model, separation of the religious and state affairs etc.). M. Şükrü Hanioğlu records that the names "Young Turks" ( French : Jeunes Turcs ) and "Young Turkey" ( French : Jeune-Turquie ) were in use for the groups of reformist bureaucrats and for the educated caste since Mahmud II and Abdülmecid I . According to Berkes, differentiation on the usage of the words "New" ( Ottoman Turkish : یکی , romanized :  Yeŋî ) in Turkish and "Young" ( French : Jeune , Ottoman Turkish : ژون , romanized :  Jön or Ottoman Turkish : جون , romanized :  Cön and Ottoman Turkish : گنج , romanized :  Genc ) in French reflects

2548-552: The Islamic teachings about millet (community). The Young Turks also saw the importance of the media and of the Takvim-i Vekayi . When they rose to power they restarted the publication of the Takvim-i Vekayi and through the office of the Directorate of Legal Compilation published official legal mandates. This was done in conjunction with the printing of copies of legal certificates for government officials to have and spread throughout

2646-449: The Ottoman Empire and had immediate effects on social and legal aspects of life in the Empire, such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization, and land reform. He was also concerned for aspects of tradition. He made great efforts to revive the sport of archery. He ordered archery master Mustafa Kani to write a book about the history, construction, and use of Turkish bows , from which comes most of what

2744-457: The Ottoman fatherland and insisted that all Ottomans ought to share feelings of devotion to this territorial entity above any loyalties they might feel to their religious communities. This was the beginning of territorial patriotism, the belief that there was an Ottoman patrie to which its inhabitants owed primary allegiance." In the face of the emerging national identities in Europe, the desire for

2842-449: The Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to pursue the appeal even further. About the same time that Mahmud II ordained these changes, he personally set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, or state council, instead of abstaining from attendance. The practice of the Sultan avoiding the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of Suleiman I , and was considered one of

2940-673: The Sultan was allowed to be retained by Dere Beys . One of his most notable achievement was the abolition (through use of military force, execution and exile, and banning of the Bektashi order) of the Janissary corps, event known as The Auspicious Incident , in 1826 and the establishment of a modern Ottoman army, named the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye (meaning 'Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad' in Ottoman Turkish). Following

3038-642: The Young Ottomans';), and was primarily called with the latter by its members. A predating group of plotters' attributed-and-claimed names were also mistakenly identified with the Young Ottomans. The names " Üss-i Medeniyet " ( Ottoman Turkish : اس مدنیت , romanized :  ʾUss-i Medeniyyet , lit.   'Base of the Civilization';; used by its founder, Mehmed Bey), " Meslek " ( Ottoman Turkish : مسلك , romanized :  Meslek , lit.   'The Path'; used in

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3136-459: The age of marriage: The 2006 historical detective novel The Janissary Tree , by Jason Goodwin , is set in 1836 Constantinople, with Mahmud II's modernising reforms (and conservative opposition to them) forming the background of the plot. The Sultan himself and his mother appear in several scenes. The 1989 film Intimate Power , also known as The Favorite , is adapted from a historical fiction novel by Prince Michael of Greece . It portrays

3234-555: The army personally. Preparing to do so, he appeared, ill-advisedly, not on horseback but in a carriage. In the Divan , British and French ambassadors urged him to sue for peace. In 1839, just prior to his death, he began preparations for the Tanzimat reform era which included introducing a Council of Ministers or the Meclis-i Vukela . The Tanzimat marked the beginning of modernization in

3332-442: The bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase the administrative efficiency of his government. This was accomplished by abolishing old offices, introducing new lines of responsibility, and raised salaries in an attempt to end bribery. In 1838 he founded two institutions aimed towards training government officials. In 1831, Mahmud II also established an official gazette, Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Events). This

3430-404: The causes of the decline of the Empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time. Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the vakıfs , by placing their revenues under state administration (see Ministry of Evkaf ). However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government. His modernizations included

3528-508: The censorship Abdul Hamid II's other reforms regarding education caused the circulation of the newspaper to grow between 12,000 and 15,000 people, much larger than during the Tanzimat period. The Young Ottoman movement was based on young men taught in the Office of Translation. They received a western education where they were taught European liberalism but believed in Ottoman patriotism and creating

3626-504: The circumstances of his attempted murder. A version by the 19th-century Ottoman historian Ahmed Cevdet Pasha gives the following account: one of his slaves, a Georgian girl named Cevri, gathered ashes when she heard the commotion in the palace surrounding the murder of Selim III. When the assassins approached the harem chambers where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep them away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces, temporarily blinding them. This allowed Mahmud to escape through

3724-467: The constitution of the Second French Empire . Among the prominent members of this society were writers and publicists such as İbrahim Şinasi , Namık Kemal , Ali Suavi , Ziya Pasha , and Agah Efendi . In 1876, the Young Ottomans had their defining moment when Sultan Abdul Hamid II reluctantly promulgated the Ottoman constitution of 1876 ( Turkish : Kanûn-u Esâsî ), the first attempt at

3822-456: The difficulties that came along with these actions, the expansion of diplomacy increased the transmission of ideas that would have a revolutionary effect on the development of bureaucracy and Ottoman society as a whole. Mahmud II had at least nineteen consorts: Mahmud had at least eighteen sons, of which only two lived to adulthood: Mahmud II had at least nineteen daughters, but only six survived infancy and only four reached

3920-569: The early years of Mahmud II's reign, his governor of Egypt Muhammad Ali Pasha successfully waged the Ottoman-Saudi War and reconquered the holy cities of Medina (1812) and Mecca (1813) from the First Saudi State . Abdullah bin Saud and the First Saudi State had barred Muslims from the Ottoman Empire from entering the holy shrines of Mecca and Medina ; his followers also desecrated

4018-421: The eastern half of Moldavia to Russia (which renamed the territory as Bessarabia ), although it had committed to protecting that region. Russia became a new power in the lower Danube area, and had an economically, diplomatically, and militarily profitable frontier. In Transcaucasia , the Ottoman Empire regained nearly all it had lost in the east: Poti , Anapa and Akhalkalaki . Russia retained Sukhum-Kale on

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4116-432: The empire, effectively ending the first constitutional era and marking a return to centralization of power under the Sultan. The Young Ottomans were not united by a single ideology and their views varied greatly within their own group. Yet they were brought together by a few central shared ideas and a common cause. The Young Ottomans were brought together by their shared dislike of the bureaucratic and appeasing form that

4214-519: The empire. On November 1, 1922, the Grand National Assembly decided to end the Sultanate and the Ottoman Empire ended. After 4,891 issues between 1831 and 1922, the Takvim-i Vekayi published its last issue on November 4, 1922. Mahmud II Mahmud II ( Ottoman Turkish : محمود ثانى , romanized :  Maḥmûd-u s̠ânî , Turkish : II. Mahmud ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839)

4312-412: The empire. The Takvim-i Vekayi was the first official Ottoman Empire news. At the start of its publication a French version was printed too. Esad Erbili was the first editor. The newspaper was mainly circulated near the capital and read by the elite but it was still very beneficial for government use. The statesmen at the beginning of the Tanzimat reform era needed a way to centralize the empire and in

4410-703: The establishment of a European-style conscript army, recruited mainly from Turkish speakers of Rumelia and Asia Minor. Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the Iraqi Mamluks by Ali Ridha Pasha in 1831. He ordered the execution of the renowned Ali Pasha of Tepelena . He sent his Grand Vizier to execute the Bosniak military commander Husein Gradaščević and dissolve the Bosnia Eyalet . Another Russo-Turkish War (1828-29) broke out during Mahmud II's reign and

4508-402: The framework of Islam to emphasize "the continuing and essential validity of Islam as the basis of Ottoman political culture." The Young Ottomans syncretized islamic idealism with modern liberalism and parliamentary democracy, to them the European parliamentary liberalism was a model to follow, in accordance with the tenets of Islam and "attempted to reconcile Islamic concepts of government with

4606-400: The government had taken on with the advent of the Tanzimat reforms. "Young Ottomans strongly criticized the Tanzimat as a capitulation to European dictates", which they believed was one of the primary reasons for the poor state of the empire. The Young Ottomans called for the development of a constitutional government that was grounded in Islamic concepts, not only to differentiate it from

4704-463: The government. Circulation of the Takvim-i Vekayi fluctuated in circulation depending on the time period. In the beginning stages only civil servants, elites, and business men read the paper. It was also mostly read near the capital, not in faraway provinces. Circulation only grew during the Hamidian Era due to increase in literacy. The title of the French precursor Moniteur Ottoman was made into

4802-452: The greatest obstacles to the initiatives of the Young Ottomans were now out of the picture, prompting a number of the exiles to return to Istanbul . The acceptance of Mustafa Fazıl Pasha to a post under Sultan Abdülaziz was also seen as evidence of imminent success. However, it was this return from exile that began to fracture the Young Ottomans, many of whom never shared any sort of established ideological consensus. Ali Suavi resigned from

4900-415: The group while Namık Kemal returned to Istanbul. Ziya Pasha, who had disagreed with Kemal, moved to Geneva to work on another newspaper. With his new Grand Vizier Mahmud Nedim Pasha , Sultan Abdülaziz reasserted his role as the absolute ruler, leaving many of the Young Ottomans disappointed after having been so hopeful that their reforms would be widely accepted. During the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz ,

4998-518: The highest military and civilian positions. Mahmud II also expanded the Language Office and Translation Office , and by 1833 it began to grow in both size and importance. After the reorganization of these offices, he also resumed Selim's efforts to create a system of permanent diplomatic representation in Europe. In 1834, permanent European embassies were established with the first being in Paris. Despite

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5096-406: The home". One of their greatest legacies of the Young Ottomans in the Ottoman Empire was in their actions, as they were "regarded as the first modern ideological movement among the Ottoman elite of the empire, and they were the first who, through their writings, consciously tried to create and influence public opinion." The use of the press as a tool of political criticism is also attributed to

5194-554: The ideas of Montesquieu, Danton, Rousseau, and contemporary European Scholars and statesmen." Namık Kemal , who was influential in the formation of the society, admired the constitution of the French Third Republic , he summed up the Young Ottomans' political ideals as "the sovereignty of the nation, the separation of powers, the responsibility of officials, personal freedom, equality, freedom of thought, freedom of press, freedom of association, enjoyment of property, sanctity of

5292-415: The ideology section). Both to avoid its negative connotation and because of the hardship of translating its new meaning, initial translation of the term was different (see the next section) than the now famous one. Berkes says that though they dropped the more confusing and indirect names like " Erbâb-i Şebâb ", they didn't claimed the name " Jeunes " either, and instead, used the word "New" to replace

5390-615: The independent Greek state in 1832. The Ottomans lost more territory to Russia after the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 , and Ottoman Algeria was conquered by France beginning in 1830. The Empire's continued decline convinced Mahmud to resume the reforms that were halted before he came to power. In 1826, he orchestrated the Auspicious Incident , in which the Kapıkulu were forcibly abolished and many of its members executed, paving

5488-431: The innovation of the Young Ottomans. Additionally, by assigning new meanings to liberal terminology, with terms such as vatan ("motherland") and hürriyet ("liberty"), leading Young Ottomans such as Namık Kemal lent the powerful expression of ideologies to later nationalist and liberal groups within the Ottoman Empire . As the first group to address the issue of Western modernity, future revolutionary movements such as

5586-496: The insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the Kadı , the Muslim governors, and the Ayans , or municipal chiefs of Rayas in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government

5684-475: The last one is usually in the use for the next (and somewhat separated) generation's movement, known as Young Turks . One of the leading figures of the movement, Namık Kemal, used a rough translation for the term Jeune-Turquie : " Türkistan'ın Erbâb-i Şebâbı " ( Ottoman Turkish : ‎تركستانك ارباب شبابي , romanized :  Turkistânıŋ ʾErbâb-i Şebâbı , lit.   'Young ones of Turkestan' [i.e., Ottoman Empire]). Another leading figure of

5782-702: The line Mahmudiye , which had 128 cannons on 3 decks and carried 1,280 sailors on board, was built for the Ottoman Navy at the Imperial Naval Arsenal ( Tersâne-i Âmire ) on the Golden Horn in Constantinople ( kadem , which translates as "foot", is often misinterpreted as equivalent in length to one imperial foot , hence the wrongly converted dimensions of "201 x 56 ft, or 62 x 17 m" in some sources.) During his reign, Mahmud II also made sweeping reforms of

5880-528: The loss of Greece after the Battle of Navarino against the combined British-French-Russian flotilla in 1827, Mahmud II gave top priority to rebuilding a strong Ottoman naval force. The first steamships of the Ottoman Navy were acquired in 1828. In 1829 the world's largest warship for many years , the 201 x 56 kadem (1 kadem = 37.887 cm) or 76.15 m × 21.22 m (249.8 ft × 69.6 ft) ship of

5978-404: The majority of Ottoman Muslims found expression at this juncture in strident criticism of the government for its appeasement of foreign powers." Due to the tumultuous environment, the Young Ottomans now had an audience, and action quickly followed. On May 30, 1876, a group of leading Ottoman politicians including Midhat Pasha staged a coup d’état and deposed Sultan Abdülaziz . Prince Murad, who

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6076-684: The most important periodicals was Hürriyet ("Freedom"), which was publicized by Namık Kemal and Ziya Pasha beginning in 1868, though many others were published and often took a more radical stance. Other Young Ottoman newspapers included Ulum ("Science"), Inkilab ("Revolution"), Ibret ("Lesson"), and Basiret . These publications voiced dissent and opposition to Ottoman policies that ordinarily would have been stifled. These periodicals circulated widely throughout Europe , having sites of publication in " London , Geneva , Paris , Lyon , and Marseille ." When Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha died in 1869 and 1871, respectively, two of

6174-681: The movement, Ali Suavi , used the name Civan Türk ( Ottoman Turkish : جوان ترك , romanized :  Civân Turk , lit.   'Young Turk'). In its documents and publications organization used the names "Young Turkey" ( French : Organisation de la Chancellerie de la Jeune Turquie , lit.   'Organisation of the Secretariat of the Young Turkey';) and Yeni Osmanlılar Cemiyeti ( Ottoman Turkish : یکی عثمانلیلر جمعیتی , romanized :  Yeŋî ʿOs̱mânlıler Cemʿiyyeti , lit.   'Organisation of

6272-412: The nature of rule in the empire. The group attracted a moderate number of followers. "In the course of two years, a few hundred people seem to have joined the society, among them two nephews of the Sultan , Prince Murad (the crown prince) and Prince Hamid ." During the same year, İbrahim Şinasi left control of his newspaper Tasvir-i Efkâr to Namık Kemal, and it was under Kemal’s editorship that

6370-449: The new constitutional government should continue to be at least somewhat rooted in Islam . To emphasize "the continuing and essential validity of Islam as the basis of Ottoman political culture" they attempted to syncretize an Islamic jurisprudence with liberalism and parliamentary democracy . The Young Ottomans sought for new ways to form a government like the European governments, especially

6468-426: The official court documents) and "Patriotic Alliance" ( Ottoman Turkish : اطفاق حمیت‎ , romanized :  ʾİṭṭifāḳ-i Ḥamiyyet , lit.   'Alliance of Patriotism'; Turkish : İttifak-ı Hamiyyet ; according to Burak Onaran firstly used by Mithat Cemal Kuntay, biographer of Namık Kemal, during the republican era) are of this group. However these were two different groups, and their only relation

6566-468: The old effective military force, but had long ceased to serve this purpose. By attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud II materially strengthened the resources of the state, and put an end to a host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his ruling was the suppression of the Dere Beys , the hereditary local chiefs (with power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs), which, in one of

6664-469: The oppression of heavy taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the Köprülüs . A firma dated 22 February 1834, abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to take from the inhabitants. By the same edict, all collection of money, except for

6762-483: The paper became more radical. In 1867, Namık Kemal and other Young Ottomans published the open letter of a disgruntled Egyptian prince Mustafa Fazıl Pasha to the Ottoman Sultan Abdülaziz . This letter advocated constitutional and parliamentary governance. After the publication, the Ottoman government cracked down on the Young Ottomans, causing them to flee to Paris , where they continued operating under

6860-427: The patronage of Mustafa Fazıl Pasha . By the time these exiled publicists had come together under the patronage of Mustafa Fazıl Pasha in Paris, they began calling themselves Yeni Osmanlılar (English: New Ottomans ). Through the new medium of the press and with the financial support of their ally Mustafa Fazıl Pasha , the Young Ottomans were able to widely circulate their ideas in a number of publications. One of

6958-509: The perception of the word in the Ottoman public mind. Berkes explains that " Jeunes of Europe" (i.e. revolutionaries and liberals) were usually nationalists, republicans and godless; and/or they were perceived as such by the learned-to-illiterate Ottoman public. Thus they were perceived as the enemies of the country and religion. However, such ideas (especially the nationalism) weren't the aims of Young Ottomans, instead these were mostly unwanted for most of them, if not they were against them (see

7056-447: The power of the Pashas . Previous to the first of the firmans, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of vile delators . The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will;

7154-417: The press was carried out by a considerably large group of people. The Domestic Press Directorate by 1908 contained twelve mufettis (inspectors), five mumeyyiz (assistants), and five examining clerks. They censored the newspaper, other printing establishments, and the theatre. During Abdul Hamid II's reign one shut down of Takvim-i Vekayi ' s publication occurred due to what many historians think

7252-505: The reforms. Mahmud II's later reformation efforts would be much more successful. After Mahmud II became sultan, Turkish border wars with the Russians continued. In 1810, the Russians surrounded the Silistre fortress for the second time. When Emperor Napoleon I of France declared war on Russia in 1811, Russian pressure on the Ottoman border diminished, a relief to Mahmud. By this time, Napoleon

7350-403: The relaxation of much of the restrictions on alcoholic beverages in the Empire, and the sultan himself was known to drink socially with his ministers. By the end of his reign, his reforms had mostly normalized drinking among the upper classes and political figures in the Empire. The financial situation of the Empire was troubling during his reign, and certain social classes had long been under

7448-550: The throne. Other candidates included Esma Sultan , the head of the Mevlevi order in Konya , or a prince from the Giray dynasty of the former Crimean Khanate . The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative coup of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power . However, he was killed during a rebellion in 1808 and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned

7546-499: The title for the Greek version, Othōmanikos Mēnytōr ( Greek : Οθωμανικός Μηνύτωρ ). Abdul Hamid II did not want any notions of liberalism, nationalism, and constitutionalism in the press. Current affairs were no longer published during his rule. The Takvim-i Vekayi was then just filled with government legal notices and encyclopedia like articles about science, math, and other academic topics. Under Abdul Hamid II's rule censorship of

7644-469: The tombs of Ali ibn Abi Talib , Hassan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali . Abdullah bin Saud and his two followers were publicly beheaded for their crimes against holy cities and mosques. His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece declaring independence following a rebellion that started in 1821. In the wake of continued unrest he had ecumenical patriarch Gregory V executed on Easter Sunday 1821 for his inability to stem

7742-585: The two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders." The haraç , or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through

7840-525: The uprising. During the Battle of Erzurum (1821) , part of the Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823) , Mahmud II's superior force was routed by Abbas Mirza , resulting in a Qajar Persian victory which got confirmed in the Treaties of Erzurum . Several years later, in 1827, the combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Navarino ; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire

7938-490: The way for the establishment of a modern Ottoman army and further military reforms. Mahmud also made sweeping changes to the bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase administrative efficiency, and oversaw a reorganisation of the Ottoman foreign office. In 1839, Mahmud introduced a Council of Ministers . He died of tuberculosis later that year and was succeeded by his son Abdulmejid I , who would continue to implement his modernization efforts. Mahmud II

8036-651: The word jeunes . However, contrary to this differentiation in Turkish, they were traditionally and most commonly called as "Young"/" Jeunes " instead of "New" in foreign languages, as in the way of the similar named movements. There were several names of the movement, most possibly because of the differentiation of thinking among its members, and the way they presented themselves to public. In foreign languages they were recognized as "New Turkey"/"Young Turkey" ( French : Jeune-Turquie ), "New Ottomans"/"Young Ottomans" ( French : Jeunes-Ottomans ), and also as "New Turks"/"Young Turks" ( French : Jeunes-Turcs ), however

8134-418: The worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire. The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not affected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent rebellions. Mahmud II steadily persevered in this great measure and ultimately the island of Cyprus became the only part of the empire in which power that was not emanating from

8232-462: The years 1793-1796 he established the first embassies in London, Vienna, Berlin, and Paris. In 1807 he was overthrown by the ulama and Janissaries who did not like the French influence he was allowing. Mustafa IV followed after him. Next Mahmud II came to power and immediately laid a foundation of power by giving positions in the ulema , scribal service, and army to supporters of his beliefs. He wanted

8330-522: Was Ceride-i Havadis (Chronicle of Events) published in 1840 that included more news and international developments than the Takvim-i Vekayi . This spurred the creation of more newspapers to help the Young Ottoman's cause. They include some of the following: Namık Kemal created newspapers and pamphlets as a way to explain to his views. For example, he wrote about how he believed that European liberal ideas about fraternity and nationalism were comparable to

8428-471: Was a typesetter's error when publishing a legal act in the büstur part of the newspaper. Other publications were allowed to be run during this time but the Takvim-i Vekayi was shut down until the end of his reign in 1909. His censorship blocked revolutionary news spreading. The events in Macedonia during the Young Turks revolt traveled slowly throughout the empire due to the censorship of the press. Even with

8526-525: Was about to embark on his invasion of Russia . He also invited the Ottomans to join his march on Russia. However, Napoleon, who had invaded all of Europe except the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire, could not be trusted and accepted as an ally; Mahmud rejected the offer. The Bucharest Agreement was reached with the Russians on 28 May 1812. According to the Treaty of Bucharest (1812) , the Ottoman Empire ceded

8624-671: Was awarded for her bravery and loyalty and appointed haznedar usta , the chief treasurer of the Imperial Harem, which was the second most important position in the hierarchy. A plain stone staircase at the Altınyol (Golden Way) of the Harem is called Staircase of Cevri (Jevri) Kalfa, since the events apparently happened around there and are associated with her. Some of the Janissaries which brought Mahmud to power considered other candidates to put to

8722-408: Was born on 20 July 1785, in the month of Ramazan . He was the son of Abdul Hamid I and his Seventh consort Nakşidil Kadin . He was the youngest son of his father, and the second child of his mother, he had an elder brother, Şehzade Seyfullah Murad, two years older than him, and a younger sister, Saliha Sultan, one year younger than him, both dead in infancy. According to tradition, he was confined in

8820-461: Was close with the Young Ottomans, was installed to the throne as Sultan Murad V . Murad had promised to institute the constitution, but he began to listen to his Grand Vizier Rüşdi Pasha , who advocated a cautious approach to reform. After the alleged suicide of Sultan Abdülaziz , Sultan Murad’s mental state began to rapidly decline and he became an alcoholic. "The suicide of his uncle and the murder of several members of his cabinet seem to have led to

8918-590: Was earlier one's members' joining to the latter in exile. In the summer of 1865, six young men convened at the Belgrad Forest ( Turkish : Belgrad Ormanı ) near Istanbul for a picnic to form a group that would become known as the Patriotic Alliance and would be the nucleus of the future Young Ottomans. Almost all of the men in attendance had at one time or another worked in the Translation Bureau of

9016-448: Was first published under Mahmud II . The first publication was in the year 1831. Mahmud II's reign was at the beginning of the Tanzimat period of reform in the Ottoman Empire. Many of the reforms of this time period were heavily influenced by relations with Europe and new European ideas being taught in schools in the Ottoman Empire. Before Mahmud II, Selim III was one of the first Sultans to establish relations with European powers. Between

9114-538: Was forced to recognize Greece with the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. This event, together with the French conquest of Algeria , an Ottoman province (see Ottoman Algeria ) in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups living in the empire's territories, especially in Europe, started their own independence movements. One of Mahmud II's most notable acts during his reign

9212-552: Was fought without janissaries. Marshal von Diebitsch was armed (in the words of Baron Moltke) "with the reputation of invincible success". He was to earn the name Sabalskanski (the crosser of the Balkans). Bypassing the Shumla fortress, he forcibly marched his troops over the Balkans, appearing before Adrianople . Sultan Mahmud II maintained control of his forces, unfurled the banner of the prophet and declared his intention of taking command of

9310-416: Was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense, and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions. Mahmud II dealt effectively with the military fiefs, the " Tımar "s, and the "Ziamet"s. These had been instituted to furnish

9408-472: Was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the " Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms. His disbandment of the conservative Janissary corps removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire. Mahmud's reign was also marked by further Ottoman military defeat and loss of territory as

9506-562: Was the destruction of the Janissary corps in June 1826. He accomplished this with careful calculation using his recently reformed wing of the military intended to replace the Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against Mahmud II's proposed military reforms, he had their barracks fired upon effectively crushing the formerly elite Ottoman troops and burned the Belgrade forest outside Istanbul to incinerate any remnants. This permitted

9604-517: Was the first newspaper to be published in the Ottoman-Turkish language and was required reading for all civil servants. Clothing was also an essential aspect of Mahmud II's reforms. He began by officially adopting the fez for the military after the Janissary eradication in 1826, which signified a break from the old style of military dress. On top of this, he ordered civilian officials to also adopt

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