125-626: The TR-85 is a main battle tank designed for the armed forces of Romania . Based on the TR-77-580 , the TR-85 tank was developed from 1978 to 1985 and produced from 1986 until 1990. A modernization program was initiated in March 1994 to upgrade the TR-85 tanks to NATO standards. The result was the TR-85M1 Bizonul (" Bison ") third-generation main battle tank, currently the most modern tank in service with
250-410: A battle tank or universal tank , is a tank that fills the role of armour-protected direct fire and maneuver in many modern armies. Cold War -era development of more powerful engines, better suspension systems and lighter composite armour allowed for the design of a tank that had the firepower of a super-heavy tank , the armour protection of a heavy tank , and the mobility of a light tank , in
375-505: A "heavy" tank for assaulting fixed positions, was redesigned during the war with armour and gun upgrades to allow it to take on anti-tank roles as well, and was reclassified as a medium tank. The second half of World War II saw an increased reliance on general-purpose medium tanks, which became the bulk of the tank combat forces. Generally, these designs massed about 25–30 t (25–30 long tons; 28–33 short tons), were armed with cannons around 75 mm (3.0 in), and powered by engines in
500-453: A 360º view of the tank's surroundings onto crew helmet-mounted displays or other display systems. MBTs, like previous models of tanks, move on continuous tracks , which allow a decent level of mobility over most terrain including sand and mud. They also allow tanks to climb over most obstacles. MBTs can be made water-tight, so they can even dive into shallow water (5 m (16 ft) with snorkel). However, tracks are not as fast as wheels;
625-408: A burden on tactics, training, support and maintenance. The MBT has a positive morale effect on the infantry it accompanies. It also instills fear in the opposing force who can often hear and even feel their arrival. Ion Mihai Pacepa Ion Mihai Pacepa ( Romanian pronunciation: [iˈon miˈhaj paˈt͡ʃepa] ; 28 October 1928 – 14 February 2021) was a Romanian lieutenant general in
750-614: A conversation he had with Ceaușescu, who told him about "ten international leaders the Kremlin killed or tried to kill": László Rajk and Imre Nagy from Hungary; Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu and Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej from Romania; Rudolf Slánský and Jan Masaryk from Czechoslovakia; Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , the Shah of Iran; Palmiro Togliatti from Italy; US President John F. Kennedy ; and CCP Chairman Mao Zedong . Pacepa provides some additional details, such as an alleged plot to kill Mao Zedong with
875-406: A dual role, able to engage other armoured targets such as tanks and fortifications, and soft targets such as light vehicles and infantry. It is fixed to the turret, along with the loading and fire mechanism. Modern tanks use a sophisticated fire-control system , including rangefinders , computerized fire control, and stabilizers, which are designed to keep the cannon stable and aimed even if the hull
1000-517: A fully redesigned suspension with 6 road wheels on each side, protected by metal side skirts. Combat weight is 50 tons. After the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia , Communist Romania adopted a new national defense doctrine. However, this new doctrine required a self-sustainable local defense industry . In April 1968 a preliminary report regarding the production of tanks in Romania was proposed to
1125-401: A high level of self-protection, and which is not designed and equipped primarily to transport combat troops." Originally, most MBTs relied on steel armour to defend against various threats. As newer threats emerged, however, the defensive systems used by MBTs had to evolve to counter them. One of the first new developments was the use of explosive reactive armour (ERA), developed by Israel in
1250-602: A human to load. This reduces the silhouette which improves the MBT's target profile. However, with a manual loader, the rounds can be isolated within a blowout chamber, rather than a magazine within the turret, which could improve crew survivability. However, the force of a modern depleted uranium APFSDS round at the muzzle can exceed 6000 kN (a rough estimate, considering a uranium 60 cm/2 cm rod, 19g/cm , @ 1,750 m/s). Composite+reactive armour could withstand this kind of force through its deflection and deformation, but with
1375-513: A man who had performed minor miracles in stealing Western technology in Europe at Romanian behest — spent several months on the East Coast, trying to track him down. They didn't succeed." During September 1978, Pacepa received two death sentences from Communist Romania , and Ceaușescu decreed a bounty of US$ 2 million for his death. Yasser Arafat and Muammar Gaddafi set a further $ 1 million each. In
SECTION 10
#17328698781121500-467: A message to Chancellor Helmut Schmidt . He was flown secretly to Andrews Air Force Base near Washington, D.C. , in a United States military aircraft . In a letter to his daughter, Dana, published in the French newspaper Le Monde in 1980 and broadcast over and over by Radio Free Europe , Pacepa explained the reason for defecting: "In 1978 I got the order to organize the killing of Noël Bernard ,
1625-480: A mine protection plate and a bar for the driver, which increases protection against mines and improvised explosive devices. Also, the older TR-85 tanks have a conventional driver's seat bolted on the floor, whereas the M1 version has a parachute-harness like arrangement. In this way, the driver has no contact with the hull except on the pedals and is out of the shockwave area of exploding land mines or IEDs. The main armament of
1750-588: A modernized variant designated TR-85M1R was unveiled at the Black Sea Defense & Aerospace [ ro ] exposition. The upgrade features new optoelectronics, new radio set, new combat system, improved gun stabilizer, additional passive armour, battle management system and rubber padded single tracks. Background: History of the tank , Tank classification , Tanks in the Cold War Main battle tank A main battle tank ( MBT ), also known as
1875-435: A modular appearance with a triangular profile. Although it might look like bricks of explosive reactive armour, the add-on composite armour is designed this way for easy replacement after combat damage. The tank also has side skirts as a protection against shaped charges . The metal side skirts have three holes each that form steps for the crew to reach the roof hatches. On the sides of the turret there are ammunition boxes for
2000-658: A new universal tank was rendered unnecessary. The Centurion, entering service just as World War II finished, was a multi-role tank that subsequently formed the main armoured element of the British Army of the Rhine , the armed forces of the British Empire and Commonwealth forces, and subsequently many other nations through exports, whose cost was met largely by the US. The introduction of the 84 mm (3.3 in) 20-pounder gun in 1948 gave
2125-509: A number of improvements to increase the reliability of the gun. The hydraulic buffer was improved by replacing the rubber sealing and the electroerosion of the chrome layer from the hydraulic buffer and recuperator has been removed by changing the design and manufacturing process. The gun can fire APFSDS-T (BM-421 Sg), shaped charge (BK-412R and BK-5M), high explosive (OF-412), armour piercing with tracer (ballistic-capped BR-412B and BR-412D) and target practice (PBR-412 and PBR-421B) rounds. There
2250-581: A package with the weight of a medium tank . The first designated MBT was the British Chieftain tank , which during its development in the 1950s was re-designed as an MBT. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the MBT replaced almost all other types of tanks, leaving only some specialist roles to be filled by lighter designs or other types of armoured fighting vehicles . Main battle tanks are a key component of modern armies. Modern MBTs seldom operate alone, as they are organized into armoured units that include
2375-501: A result, the hull was extended, having 6 road wheels instead of the usual 5 of the T-55 tank. However, because of the political need to reach the established production figures and the refusal of Krauss-Maffei to deliver technology to a Warsaw Pact member, the medium tank, known as the TR-77-580 or TR-580 ( Tanc Românesc model 1977 cu motor de 580 cp - Romanian Tank with 580 hp engine),
2500-693: A review for Studies in Intelligence , Hayden B. Peake called Pacepa's theory an "imaginative story" and "implausible". In a 2006 article written during the Second Lebanon War , Pacepa wrote that the Soviet Union spread anti-Semitic propaganda across the Middle East to increase hatred for Jews, and by extension Israel and America. Pacepa writes that Soviet propagandists set up large party state organizations to infiltrate thousands of agents of change into
2625-529: A second hit in the same area, an armour breach is inevitable. As such, the speed of follow up shots is crucial within tank to tank combat. As secondary weapons, an MBT usually uses between two and four machine guns to engage infantry and light vehicles. Many MBTs mount one heavy caliber anti-aircraft machine gun (AAMG), usually of .50 caliber (like the M2 Browning or DShK ), which can be used against helicopters and low flying aircraft. However, their effectiveness
SECTION 20
#17328698781122750-452: A supposed radiological weapon named Radu was used against dissenters and critics by the Securitate . According to Pacepa, "Radu" was a Romanian name used as a reference to " radiation ", with the intention to lead the target to cancer which would result in death within months after the exposure . Pacepa's defection destroyed the intelligence network of communist Romania, and through
2875-599: A target and thereby enhance the first-round hit probability. The United States's experience in the Vietnam War contributed to the idea among army leadership that the role of the main battle tank could be fulfilled by attack helicopters . During the Vietnam War, helicopters and missiles competed with MBTs for research money. Though the Persian Gulf War reaffirmed the role of main battle tanks, MBTs were outperformed by
3000-659: A thick smoke that blocks both vision and thermal imaging . The tank is also equipped with a smoke screen generator that is triggered by the driver. When activated, diesel fuel is injected into the hot exhaust, creating the thick smoke. The TR-85M1 is equipped with laser illumination warning sensors that can automatically trigger the GFM-76 smoke grenades and flares, thus disrupting the guidance systems of thermal and infrared guided missiles. The SAILR ( Sistem de Avertizare la Iluminarea Laser și Radar , laser and radar illumination warning system) laser warning receiver can locate and identify
3125-453: A trend towards heavier weight and greater firepower during World War II; speed was not a substitute for armour and firepower. An increasing variety of anti-tank weapons and the perceived threat of a nuclear war prioritized the need for additional armour. The additional armour prompted the design of even more powerful guns. The main battle tank thus took on the role the British had once called
3250-605: A two-star Romanian Securitate general and the highest-ranking intelligence official ever to have defected from the former Eastern Bloc , later asserted in his book Red Horizons: Chronicles of a Communist Spy Chief that the engine technology was obtained using spy rings and confidential assistance from the Federal Republic of Germany . The new tank was officially named the TR-85-800 ( Tanc Românesc model 1985 cu motor de 800cp - Romanian Tank model 1985 with 800 hp engine) and
3375-514: A valuable collector’s item). In 1988, Red Horizons was serialized on Radio Free Europe , arousing "huge interest among Romanians". According to Radio Romania, "the streets of Romania's towns were empty" during the RFE serialization of Red Horizons . On 25 December 1989, during the last part of the Romanian Revolution , Ceaușescu and his wife, Elena , were sentenced to death. Pacepa claimed that at
3500-529: A world of shaped charge weapons, and new designs rapidly emerged from most armed forces. The Quebec conference in 1957 between the US, UK and Canada identified the MBT as the route for development rather than separate medium and heavy tanks. The concept of the medium tank gradually evolved into the MBT in the 1960s, as it was realized that medium tanks could carry guns (such as the American 90 mm (3.5 in), Soviet 100 mm (3.9 in), and especially
3625-497: Is cause for celebration, because he is among a tiny handful of people who know a lot about the intelligence services of the Soviet Empire, and because he writes about it with rare lucidity, always with an eye to helping us understand our world. His first book, 'Red Horizons,' is indubitably the most brilliant portrait of a Communist regime I've ever read. 'Programmed to Kill' is equally fascinating. Pacepa painstakingly takes us through
3750-435: Is considered one of the fastest MBTs in existence. The MBT is often cumbersome in traffic and frequently obstructs the normal flow of traffic. The tracks can damage some roads after repeated use. Many structures like bridges do not have the load capacity to support an MBT. In the fast pace of combat, it is often impossible to test the sturdiness of these structures. Though appreciated for its excellent off-road characteristics,
3875-476: Is equipped with the local-made Ciclop-M ( Cyclops -M, M stands for modernized) ballistic fire-control system (FCS) computer, a third generation FCS and an improvement of the prior, second generation, Ciclop FCS (used on the TR-85 version and equipped with an Intel 8080 microprocessor , 1 ko of random-access memory (RAM) and 12 ko of system memory). According to the manual of the Ciclop-M fire control system,
TR-85 - Misplaced Pages Continue
4000-456: Is limited in comparison to dedicated anti-aircraft artillery. The tank's machine guns are usually equipped with between 500 and 3,000 rounds each. Performing situational awareness and communicating is one of four primary MBT functions. For situational awareness, the crew can use a circular review system combining augmented reality and artificial Intelligence technologies. These systems use several externally mounted video sensors to transfer
4125-474: Is performed in high-intensity conflicts where reconnaissance by light vehicles would be insufficient due to the necessity to "fight" for information. In asymmetric warfare, main battle tanks are deployed in small, highly concentrated units. MBTs fire only at targets at close range and instead rely on external support such as unmanned aircraft for long range combat. Main battle tanks have significantly varied characteristics. Procuring too many varieties can place
4250-524: Is reserved for ammunition. External space enhances independence of logistics and can accommodate extra fuel and some personal equipment of the crew. The Israeli Merkava can accommodate crew members displaced from a destroyed vehicle in its ammunition compartment. Emphasis is placed on selecting and training main battle tank crew members. The crew must perform their tasks faultlessly and harmoniously so commanders select teams taking into consideration personalities and talents. The main battle tank fulfills
4375-495: Is seated on the left side of the turret, with the gunner to his front and the loader on the right. The TR-85 has a cramped crew compartment, a trait of the T-54/55 series. Although it has an extended chassis, the extra space is used by the larger engine. The TR-85M1 also has a turret bustle, but this does not help crew comfort because of the added equipment in the modernized version. Although there are no height limits for tank recruits in
4500-502: Is turning or shaking, making it easier for the operators to fire on the move and/or against moving targets. Gun-missile systems are complicated and have been particularly unsatisfactory to the United States who abandoned gun-missile projects such as the M60A2 and MBT-70 , but have been diligently developed by the Soviet Union, who even retrofitted them to T-55 tanks, in an effort to double
4625-580: The Ciclop fire control system was unreliable because of the poor quality of electronics. The laser rangefinder was not integrated with the daylight aiming system and only a limited number of corrections could be inserted in the ballistic fire-control computer . Problems were made worse when Nicolae Ceaușescu decided to cancel in July 1982 all imports of special equipment for the arms industry. At one point, Ceaușescu threatened to stop tank production altogether because of
4750-482: The Cromwell tank , combined with efficiency savings elsewhere in the design, almost doubled the horsepower for cruiser tanks. This led to speculation of a "Universal Tank", able to take on the roles of both a cruiser and an infantry tank by combining heavy armour and manoeuvrability. Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery is acknowledged as the main advocate of the British universal tank concept as early as 1943, according to
4875-777: The Politehnica University of Bucharest between 1947 and 1951, but just months before graduation, he was drafted by the Securitate and gained his engineering degree only four years later. He was assigned to the Directorate of Counter-sabotage of the Securitate. In 1955, he was transferred to the Directorate of Foreign Intelligence. In 1957, Pacepa was appointed head of the Romanian intelligence station in Frankfurt , West Germany , where he served for two years. In October 1959, Minister of
5000-611: The Romanian Army , the recommended maximum height is 1.68m as in practice anyone taller must sit in an uncomfortable position with limited physical movement. The communication system consists of HF and UHF transceivers with intelligent frequency hopping and encryption. The crew has an intercom with 4+1 stations. The TR-85 tank has been referred to in Western sources as the TM-800, M1978 or Model 1978 and TR-800. The Romanian Army currently uses only
5125-619: The Romanian Land Forces . Although a further development of the T-55, the TR-85M1 uses a T-block powerpack (similar to the one used in the Leopard 1 ) based on a V8 German 830 hp (620 kW) diesel engine , an improved turret, a locally-designed "Ciclop" fire control system (with cross-wind sensor, laser rangefinder and night vision ), new 100 mm BM-412 Sg armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS-T) projectiles and
TR-85 - Misplaced Pages Continue
5250-639: The Second Battle of Fallujah the United States Marines brought in two extra companies of M1s. Britain deployed its Challenger 2 tanks to support its operations in southern Iraq. Advanced armour has reduced crew fatalities but has not improved vehicle survivability. Small unmanned turrets on top of the cupolas called remote controlled weapon stations armed with machine guns or mortars provide improved defence and enhance crew survivability. Experimental tanks with unmanned turrets locate crew members in
5375-562: The Securitate , the secret police of the Socialist Republic of Romania , who defected to the United States in July 1978 following President Jimmy Carter 's approval of his request for political asylum . He was the highest-ranking defector from the former Eastern Bloc , and wrote books and articles on the inner workings of communist intelligence services. His best-known works are the books Disinformation and Red Horizons . At
5500-523: The T-72 . The United States Army used 1,100 M1 Abrams in the course of the Iraq War . They proved to have an unexpectedly high vulnerability to improvised explosive devices . A relatively new type of remotely detonated mine, the explosively formed penetrator , was used with some success against American armoured vehicles. However, with upgrades to their rear armour, M1s proved to be valuable in urban combat; at
5625-543: The attack helicopter . Other strategists considered that the MBT was entirely obsolete in light of the efficacy and speed with which coalition forces neutralized Iraqi armour. In asymmetric warfare , threats such as improvised explosive devices and mines have proven effective against MBTs. In response, nations that face asymmetric warfare, such as Israel, are reducing the size of their tank fleet and procuring more advanced models. Conversely, some insurgent groups like Hezbollah themselves operate main battle tanks, such as
5750-597: The high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds. The coaxial machine gun can be aimed at a maximum distance of 2 km using the FCS of the tank. The gun is electrically stabilized on two axes by the EADS computer aided stabilization system. The new stabilization system improves the accuracy of the main gun and reduces the target engagement time, turret temperature, noise, fire hazard and maintenance. The turret has RKS rolling-element bearings (roller bearings) to ensure better stabilising of
5875-572: The "universal tank", exemplified by the Centurion, filling almost all battlefield roles. Typical main battle tanks were as well armed as any other vehicle on the battlefield, highly mobile, and well armoured. Yet they were cheap enough to be built in large numbers. The first Soviet main battle tank was the T-64A (the T-54/55 and T-62 were considered "medium" tanks) and the first American nomenclature-designated MBT
6000-590: The 1980s, Romania's political police enlisted Carlos the Jackal to assassinate Pacepa in the United States in exchange for $ 1 million. Documents found in the Romanian intelligence archives show that the Securitate had given Carlos a whole arsenal to use in "Operation 363" to assassinate Pacepa in the United States. Included were 37 kg plastic explosive EPP/88, seven submachine guns , one Walther PP pistol serial # 249460 with 1306 bullets, eight Stechkin pistols with 1049 bullets, and five hand grenades UZRG-M. Carlos
6125-588: The 400–500 hp (300–370 kW) range. Notable examples include the Soviet T-34 (the most-produced tank at that time) and the US M4 Sherman . Late war tank development placed increased emphasis on armour, armament, and anti-tank capabilities for medium tanks: Britain had continued on the path of parallel development of cruiser tanks and infantry tanks. Development of the Rolls-Royce Meteor engine for
6250-511: The A308 gun. The gunner's day sight telescopic periscope features an integrated laser rangefinder (200 m to 5.000 m measurement distance) and an electronic reticle . Above the gun barrel there is a SAGEM MATIS thermal viewer designed to operate at wavelengths between 3 and 5 μm in the spectral band. Initially, the TR-85 M1 tanks had an inferior SAGEM ALIS thermal viewer (8-12 μm in the spectral band) for
6375-504: The American invasion of Iraq during 2003. He claimed that an operation for the removal of chemical weapons ("Operation Sarindar") had been prepared by the Soviet Union for Libya and that such a plan was being implemented in Iraq . In May 2023 HBO launched a TV series titled Spy/Master inspired by the story of Pacepa's defection in the late 1970s. The events are heavily dramatized and many character names have been changed, including Pacepa, who
SECTION 50
#17328698781126500-536: The Arab and Muslim world to instill the idea of America as a "Jewish fiefdom" and spread the idea that Israel planned to make the Islamic Middle East into a "Jewish colony." Furthermore, he describes the Soviet Union's alleged role in propagating and funding terrorist groups in the Middle East. He published a book outlining these operations with its name taken from the program itself: Operation SIG. Pacepa alleged that
6625-621: The British L7 105 mm (4.1 in) ) that could penetrate any practical level of armour then existing at long range. Also, the heaviest tanks were unable to use most existing bridges. The World War II concept of heavy tanks , armed with the most powerful guns and heaviest armour, became obsolete because the large tanks were too expensive and just as vulnerable to damage by mines, bombs, rockets, and artillery. Likewise, World War II had shown that lightly armed and armoured tanks were of limited value in most roles. Even reconnaissance vehicles had shown
6750-604: The Communist Scînteia ( The Spark ). In its lead, Adevărul explained that the book's serialization by Radio Free Europe had "played an incontestable role" in overthrowing Ceaușescu, according to the text on the back cover of the book's second edition, published during 1990. Red Horizons was subsequently republished in 29 countries, and it was made into a documentary movie by the Hungarian TV . During 1993, Pacepa published The Kremlin 's Legacy . During 1999, he authored
6875-529: The French Leclerc , or the Russian/Ukrainian T-64 , T-72 , T-80 , T-84 , T-90 , and T-14 and, for this reason, the crew can be reduced to 3 members. MBTs with an autoloader require one less crew member and the autoloader requires less space than its human counterpart, allowing for a reduction in turret size. Further, an autoloader can be designed to handle rounds which would be too difficult for
7000-543: The French Renault FT ; these were light tanks or tankettes . Many late-war and inter-war tank designs diverged from these according to new, and mostly untried, concepts for future tank roles and tactics. Each nation tended to create its own list of tank classes with different intended roles, such as "cavalry tanks", "breakthrough tanks", "fast tanks", and "assault tanks". The British maintained cruiser tanks that in order to achieve high speed and hence manoeuvrability in
7125-581: The Interior Alexandru Drăghici appointed him as head of Romania's new industrial espionage department, the S&;T (short for Știință și Tehnologie , meaning "science and technology" in Romanian) of Directorate I. He was the head of Romanian industrial espionage , which he managed until he defected in 1978. Pacepa claimed he was involved with the establishment of Romania's automobile industry, and with
7250-556: The Leopard 1 diesel engine model using available technology and solutions. Also, the hydromechanic transmission was designed by the ICSITEM research institute from Bucharest based on an available model and produced by Hidromecanica Brașov factory, thus completing the T-block powerpack. The engine and transmission were designed between 1974 and 1982, using foreign technology. Ion Mihai Pacepa ,
7375-422: The MBT can become immobilized in muddy conditions. The high cost of MBTs can be attributed in part to the high-performance engine-transmission system and to the fire control system. Also, propulsion systems are not produced in high enough quantities to take advantage of economies of scale . Crew fatigue limits the operational range of MBTs in combat. Reducing the crew to three and relocating all crewmembers from
7500-526: The National Defense Council of Romania. The report was ratified by the Defense Council on 13 October 1972. The development of a Romanian medium tank effectively began on 13 May 1974. The Romanian Defense Council wrote the specifications for the medium tank. The new vehicle would have a weight of approximately 40 tons, a 100 mm main gun and a 500 horse power engine. The next step taken was
7625-521: The ROMARM military consortium, METRA (Military Equipment and Technologies Research Agency), Electromagnetica, FAUR, Elprof, Aeroteh, IOR , Prooptica, Artego, Arsenal Reșița, Metav, Forsev, Anticorozivul, IEMI, Rolast, Aerostar and IOEL. The result of the modernization program, the TR-85M1 tank, is compliant with NATO standards. The turret is fitted with two six-barreled 81mm smoke grenade launchers and two four-barreled flare launchers. The system can create
SECTION 60
#17328698781127750-662: The Seat 12 plot and the Soviet "science" of framing. It is co-authored by Pius XII expert and professor of law at the University of Mississippi, Ronald J. Rychlak. In an interview, Pacepa claimed that the original idea to blacken the Pontiff's reputation came from Joseph Stalin in 1945, who wanted the Church out of Ukraine. On 3 June 1945, his Radio Moscow proclaimed that Pius XII had been "Hitler's Pope." But
7875-482: The Securitate. She also linked Bernard's death to those of RFE journalists such as Cornel Chiriac (stabbed to death), as well as Emil Georgescu and Vlad Georgescu , both of whom also died of cancer. According to Bernard's wife, Noël's Securitate file had attached an article from a magazine which talks about Noël undergoing surgery, with a note which argues that the article confirms "the measures undertaken by us are starting to have an effect". Pacepa later claimed
8000-500: The Soviet Union tried to discredit the Papacy. In a 2007 article, he stated: "In my other life, when I was at the center of Moscow's foreign-intelligence wars, I myself was caught up in a deliberate Kremlin effort to smear the Vatican , by portraying Pope Pius XII as a coldhearted Nazi sympathizer." In 2012, Pacepa revealed he was writing a book called Disinformation that gives details of
8125-413: The Soviet Union's fighting capability. The Soviet Union made novel advancements to the weapon systems including mechanical autoloaders and anti-tank guided missiles . Autoloaders were introduced to replace the human loader, permitting the turret to be reduced in size, making the tank smaller and less visible as a target, while missile systems were added to extend the range at which a vehicle could engage
8250-431: The T-54/55 series, the TR-85 has an unditching beam and a snorkel (to allow river crossings) mounted at the rear of the hull. To meet the power demands of the new equipment, a Kollmorgen generating set has been installed. The new power generation system provides 20 kW of stable voltage. The TR-85 tanks have a torsion bar suspension. The modernized version also has eight telescopic hydro-gas shock-absorbers to increase
8375-568: The TR-85 and TR-85M1 designations. However, the early prototypes of the TR-85M1 were known as the TR-85M or TR-85M1A. The add-on armour of these tanks had a different shape and was welded. Also, the turret bustle had a different shape and the bore evacuator had a different position. A TR-85M1A variant is currently on display at the National Military Museum in Bucharest. In 2002, a TR-85M1 tank
8500-425: The TR-85M1 is the 100 mm A308 rifled tank gun (an adaptation of the M1977 towed anti-tank gun made by Arsenal Reșița) that was also fitted to the TR-77 tanks. The TR-85M1 has a rate of fire of about 4-7 rounds per minute and can carry up to 41 projectiles inside the tank. The gun barrel is fitted with a bore evacuator and has a thermal sleeve . The TR-85 tanks use a manual loader. The modernized version has
8625-471: The United States". Ion Mihai Pacepa's father (born in 1893) was raised in Alba Iulia, in the Transylvania region in the north west of Romania, where he worked in his father's small kitchenware factory. On 1 December 1918, Transylvania united with Romania , and in 1920, Pacepa's father moved to Bucharest and worked for the local branch of the American car company General Motors . Born in Bucharest in 1928, Ion Mihai Pacepa studied industrial chemistry at
8750-411: The attack carried less armour, and infantry tanks which operating at infantryman pace could carry more armour. After years of isolated and divergent development, the various interwar tank concepts were finally tested with the start of World War II . In the chaos of blitzkrieg , tanks designed for a single role often found themselves forced into battlefield situations they were ill-suited for. During
8875-426: The ballistic solution generated ensures a hit percentage greater than 95% for a target under 2000 meters and greater than 75% for a target between 2000 and 3000 meters. Also, the Ciclop-M can be used to aim at a target located up to 6 km away with the OF-421 high explosive round, up to 5 km away for the BM-421 Sg APFSDS-T round, 4 km for the armour-piercing ammunition (AP-T) rounds and up to 3 km for
9000-605: The death of President Kennedy" and "a 'must read' for everyone interested in the assassination of President Kennedy." Publishers Weekly stated "those inclined to suspect a conspiracy was behind JFK's murder will likely remain unpersuaded by Pacepa's circumstantial, speculative case" and that Programmed to Kill offered "no convincing Soviet motive for the assassination." According to author Joseph Goulden in The Washington Times , Pacepa's belated account "rests rather flimsily on circumstantial evidence and supposition." In
9125-444: The detonation of ERA blocks creates a hazard to any supporting infantry near the tank. Despite this drawback, it is still employed on many Russian MBTs, the latest generation Kontakt-5 being capable of defeating both high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and kinetic energy penetrator threats. The Soviets also developed Active Protection Systems (APS) designed to more actively neutralize hostile projectiles before they could even strike
9250-500: The development of its microelectronic , polymer , and antibiotic industries. From 1972 to 1978, Pacepa was also President Nicolae Ceaușescu 's adviser for industrial and technological development and the deputy chief of the Romanian foreign intelligence service. Pacepa defected in July 1978 by walking into the US Embassy in Bonn , West Germany , where he had been sent by Ceaușescu with
9375-477: The director of Radio Free Europe's Romanian program who had infuriated Ceaușescu with his commentaries. It was late July when I got this order, and when I ultimately had to decide between being a good father and being a political criminal. Knowing you, Dana, I was firmly convinced that you would prefer no father to one who was an assassin." Noël Bernard died in 1981 of cancer ; his wife, Ioana Măgură Bernard [ ro ] , suggested he had been irradiated by
9500-555: The documentary evidence, including invaluable material on Soviet bloc cyphers that throws new light on Oswald's letters to KGB officers in Washington and Mexico City. … No novelist could have written a more exciting story, made all the more compelling because of Pacepa's first-hand involvement in the Russians' efforts to hide their Oswald connection." In H-Net Reviews , Stan Weeber called Programmed to Kill "a superb new paradigmatic work on
9625-520: The early 1980s to defend against the shaped-charge warheads of modern anti-tank guided missiles and other such high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) projectiles. This technology was subsequently adopted and expanded upon by the United States and the Soviet Union. MBT armour is concentrated at the front of the tank, where it is layered up to 33 centimetres (13 in) thick. Missiles are cheap and cost-effective anti-tank weapons. ERA can be quickly added to vehicles to increase their survivability. However,
9750-680: The early 1990s and 2000s; surviving numerous impacts from 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s era rocket-propelled grenades with negligible damage. It is much less efficient against later models of RPGs. For example, the RPG-29 from the 1980s is able to penetrate the frontal hull armour of the Challenger 2. Main battle tanks are equipped with a main gun and at least one machine gun . MBT main guns are generally between 100 mm (3.9 in) and 125 mm (4.9 in) caliber, and can fire both anti-armour and, more recently, anti-personnel rounds. The cannon serves
9875-400: The effect of protecting the vehicle's occupants from nuclear explosion radiation). By the late 1970s, MBTs were manufactured by China, France, West Germany, Britain, India, Italy, Japan, the Soviet Union, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. The Soviet Union's war doctrine depended heavily on the main battle tank. Any weapon advancement making the MBT obsolete could have devastated
10000-988: The effective range of the vehicle's fire. The MBT's role could be compromised because of the increasing distances involved and the increased reliance on indirect fire . The tank gun is still useful in urban combat for precisely delivering powerful fire while minimizing collateral damage. High-explosive anti-tank (HEAT), and some form of high velocity kinetic energy penetrator , such as armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) rounds are carried for anti-armour purposes. Anti-personnel rounds such as high explosive or high explosive fragmentation have dual purpose. Less common rounds are Beehive anti-personnel rounds , and high-explosive squash head (HESH) rounds used for both anti-armour and bunker busting. Usually, an MBT carries 30–50 rounds of ammunition for its main tank gun , usually split between HE, HEAT, and KEP rounds. Some MBTs may also carry smoke or white phosphorus rounds. Some MBTs are equipped with an autoloader , such as
10125-419: The era. Later came British Chobham armour . This composite armour used layers of ceramics and other materials to help attenuate the effects of HEAT munitions. Another threat came by way of the widespread use of helicopters in battle. Before the advent of helicopters, armour was heavily concentrated to the front of the tank. This new threat caused designs to distribute armour on all sides of the tank (also having
10250-413: The gunner, now present in export configurations. The driver has an AONP-I passive night sight, which is also the standard night vision device for the gunner on the older TR-85 tanks. The commander has a Société Française des Instruments de Mesure (SFIM) EC2−55R panoramic sight with a second generation SAGEM image intensification system that can be independently directed to the target. The original TR-85
10375-459: The heavily armoured hull, improving survivability and reducing the vehicle's profile. Technology is reducing the weight and size of the modern MBT. A British military document from 2001 indicated that the British Army would not procure a replacement for the Challenger 2 because of a lack of conventional warfare threats in the foreseeable future. The obsolescence of the tank has been asserted, but
10500-419: The heavy antiaircraft DShK machine gun. The upper glacis plate has two track segments, while the lower glacis plate can be fitted with steel screens or a mine roller . The TR-85M1 tank also has NBC protection and an improved, rapid fire suppression system using non-toxic agents. The system, designed by L'Hotellier , protects both the crew and the engine compartment using halon . The modernized version adds
10625-644: The help of Lin Biao organized by the KGB . In 2007, Ivan R. Dee published Pacepa's book Programmed to Kill: Lee Harvey Oswald, the Soviet KGB, and the Kennedy Assassination that argues Lee Harvey Oswald was recruited as a KGB agent. According to Pacepa, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered the assassination of John F. Kennedy , then changed his mind but was unable to stop Oswald. Pacepa wrote that Jack Ruby
10750-543: The history of religion, and which would become his most recognizable work. Pacepa supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq . In opposition, large anti-war demonstrations were held in cities across the world. Pacepa contends that these protests were contrived and anti-American, which Russia assisted. Pacepa wrote during October 2003 that it was "perfectly obvious to me" that the Russian GRU agency helped Saddam Hussein to destroy, hide, or transfer his chemical weapons prior to
10875-559: The history of the late 20th and early 21st century suggested that MBTs were still necessary. During the Russian invasion of Ukraine , Western and Russian MBTs saw large-scale combat in large numbers. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe defines a main battle tank as "a self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower, primarily of a high muzzle velocity direct fire main gun necessary to engage armoured and other targets, with high cross-country mobility, with
11000-452: The insinuation fell flat as it came the day after Pius XII had condemned the "Satanic spectre of Nazism" on Vatican Radio. Moreover, Pius was being lauded for his wartime efforts to protect religious minorities by, among others, President Roosevelt , Winston Churchill (who described him as "the greatest man of our time"), and Albert Einstein . Stalin's disinformation efforts were rejected by that contemporary generation "that had lived through
11125-562: The limits of mechanical technology. This limited the specific battlefield capabilities any one tank design could be expected to fulfill. A design might have good speed, armour, or firepower, but not all three together. Facing the deadlock of trench warfare , the first tank designs focused on crossing wide trenches, requiring very long and large vehicles, such as the British Mark I tank and successors; these became known as heavy tanks . Tanks that focused on other combat roles were smaller, like
11250-439: The maximum speed of a tank is about 65 km/h (40 mph) . The extreme weight of vehicles of this type 40–70 t (39–69 long tons; 44–77 short tons) also limits their speed. They are usually equipped with a 1,200–1,500 hp (890–1,120 kW) engine (more than 25,000 cc (1,526 cu in)), with an operational range near 500 km (310 mi). The German Army has prioritized mobility in its Leopard 2 which
11375-515: The new government of Romania restored Pacepa's rank of general. According to Michael Ledeen in 2016, the two death sentences remained in effect, and Pacepa "has lived in secret" since his defection. Pacepa died in 2021. Pacepa was a columnist for the Internet conservative blog site PJ Media . He also wrote articles for The Wall Street Journal and American conservative publications, such as National Review Online , The Washington Times ,
11500-524: The new tank, officially designated TR-85M1 Bizonul ( The Bison ), began in 1996 when two prototypes were built. The aim of the program was to upgrade the TR-85 to NATO standards by improving the firepower, protection, mobility, the communication systems and the reliability of the engine, transmission and the braking system. The modernization program involved both foreign companies (most of them from France ), such as Aerospatiale Matra , Sagem , Kollmorgen-Artus , Racal , and local defense companies such as
11625-518: The number of aircraft available. Military planners anticipate that the airlift capability for MBTs will not improve in the future. To date, no helicopter has the capability to lift MBTs. Rail and road are heavily used to move MBTs nearer to the battle, ready to fight in prime condition. Where well maintained roads allow it, wheeled tank transporters can be used. The task of resupply is usually accomplished with large trucks. Main battle tanks have internal and external storage space. Internal space
11750-401: The old wet multi-disc brakes with dry multi-disc brakes and the old hydraulic system with a new servomechanism. The TR-85 has a typical tank layout: driver's compartment at the front, fighting compartment in the center and engine compartment in the rear. The four-man crew consists of the commander, driver, gunner and loader. The driver's hatch is on the front left of the hull roof. The commander
11875-460: The online newspaper FrontPage Magazine , and World Net Daily . In 1987, Pacepa wrote a book published in the United States by Regnery Gateway , Red Horizons: Chronicles of a Communist Spy Chief . A Romanian translation of Red Horizons printed in the U.S. was infiltrated into Communist Romania, and a Mao-style pocketbook of Red Horizons was illegally printed in Communist Hungary (now
12000-411: The operations of Ceaușescu's secret service, that within three years the entire organization had been eliminated. Not a single top official was left, not a single major operation was still running. Ceaușescu had a nervous breakdown, and gave orders for Pacepa's assassination. At least two squads of murderers have come to the United States to try to find him, and just recently one of Pacepa's former agents —
12125-447: The original engine. The new 8VS-A2T2M provides 860 horsepower and has a top road speed of 60 km/h. However, because the weight of the tank increased from 42 tons to 50 tons, the power-to-weight ratio has been reduced from 19.7 to 17.2 hp/tonne. The tank has a maximum road range of about 400 km and can be fitted with two optional 200-liter drum-type fuel tanks at the rear of the vehicle for an increased operational range. Like
12250-448: The overall speed. The running gear consists of six dual rubber-tyred road wheels and four return rollers per side, with the idler wheel at the front and drive sprocket at the rear. The first two road wheels have characteristic, prominent gaps between them and the rest of the road wheels. The tank has two bolt tracks with metal-rubber articulations. The M1 version has aluminum alloy road wheels. The braking system has been improved by replacing
12375-561: The poor manufacturing quality. The initial teething problems were not corrected until after the fall of communism in Romania when the Romanian engineers used foreign parts to improve TR-85's reliability. In March 1994, the Romanian General Staff initiated the modernization program of the TR-85 tanks by order no. 1429. On 14 April 1994, the upgrade program was approved by the Supreme Council of National Defense and development of
12500-522: The production of 400 TR-580/TR-77 tank and even if the local arms industry lacked the experience required to design and produce a medium tank from scratch the Communist government did not buy the license for the T-55 tank. The initial batch (the prototype and the first 10 tanks), officially named the TR-77 tank ( Tanc românesc model 1977 Romanian Tank model 1977), was intended to use the Leopard 1 engine and, as
12625-533: The real history and knew who Pope Pius XII really was," Pacepa explained. He said the KGB tried again, promoting Rolf Hochhuth 's 1963 play The Deputy . As that generation "had not lived through that history and did not know better, [this] time it worked." In 2013, Pacepa published Disinformation: Former Spy Chief Reveals Secret Strategies for Undermining Freedom, Attacking Religion, and Promoting Terrorism co-authored with law professor Ronald J. Rychlak , who studies
12750-472: The rest of its armament, can also intercept aircraft and missiles. MBTs can also be protected from radar detection by incorporating stealth technology . The T-14 Armata has a turret designed to be harder to detect with radars and thermal sights. Advanced camouflage, like the Russian Nakidka , will also reduce the radar and thermal signatures of a MBT. Other defensive developments focused on improving
12875-411: The revelations of Ceaușescu's activity, it affected Ceaușescu's international credibility and respectability. An article published by The American Spectator in 1988 summed up the devastation caused by Pacepa's "spectacular" defection: "His passage from East to West was a historic event, for so carefully had he prepared, and so thorough was his knowledge of the structure, the methods, the objectives, and
13000-471: The role the British had once called the "universal tank", filling almost all battlefield roles. They were originally designed in the Cold War to combat other MBTs. The modern light tank supplements the MBT in expeditionary roles and situations where all major threats have been neutralized and excess weight in armour and armament would only hinder mobility and cost more money to operate. Reconnaissance by MBTs
13125-575: The strength of the armour itself; one of the notable advancements coming from the British with the development of Chobham armour in the 1970s. It was first employed on the American M1 Abrams and later the British Challenger 1 . Chobham armour uses a lattice of composite and ceramic materials along with metal alloys to defeat incoming threats, and proved highly effective in the conflicts in Iraq in
13250-408: The support of infantry , who may accompany the tanks in infantry fighting vehicles . They are also often supported by surveillance or ground-attack aircraft . The average weight of MBTs varies from country to country. The average weight of Western MBTs is usually greater than that of Russian or Chinese MBTs. During World War I , combining tracks, armour, and guns into a functional vehicle pushed
13375-437: The tank a significant advantage over other tanks of the era, paving the way for a new tank classification, the main battle tank, which gradually superseded previous weight and armament classes. A surplus of effective WWII-era designs in other forces, notably the US and the Soviet Union, led to slower introductions of similar designs on their part. By the early 1950s, these designs were clearly no longer competitive, especially in
13500-638: The tank, namely the Shtora and Arena systems. The United States has also adopted similar technologies in the form of the Missile Countermeasure Device and as part of the Tank Urban Survival Kit used on M1 Abrams tanks serving in Iraq. The latest Russian MBT, according to many forum members the T-14 Armata , incorporates an AESA radar as part of its Afghanit APS and in conjunction with
13625-449: The threat, warning the crew and triggering the DLC ( Dispozitivul de Lansare Contramăsuri , Countermeasures Launching Device). The armour of the TR-85M1 tank has a maximum thickness of 200 mm (multilayered) for the hull and 320 + 20 mm add-on armour on the turret. However, the armour is sloped and gives a total of 580mm or RHAe. The 20 mm add-on armour on the front of the turret has
13750-516: The time of his defection, Pacepa simultaneously had the rank of advisor to President Nicolae Ceaușescu , acting chief of his foreign intelligence service , and a parliamentary undersecretary at Romania's Ministry of Interior . Subsequently, he worked with the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in operations against the former Eastern Bloc. The CIA described his cooperation as "an important and unique contribution to
13875-529: The trial most of the accusations came almost word-for-word out of Red Horizons (a second edition, published in March 1990, contained the transcript of Ceauşescu's trial, which was based on facts presented in Red Horizons ). President Ronald Reagan reportedly called “Red Horizons” his “Bible” for dealing with dictators. On 1 January 1990, the book began being serialized in the new official Romanian newspaper Adevărul ( The Truth ), which on that day replaced
14000-471: The trilogy The Black Book of the Securitate , which has become a bestseller in Romania. The book Looming Disaster was written by Pacepa together with Ronald Rychlak. Far-right propaganda website WND introduced it in August 2016, as follows: "This November's election spells 'LOOMING DISASTER,' warns former communist spymaster and disinformation expert, Gen. Ion Mihai Pacepa." In a 2006 article, Pacepa describes
14125-511: The turret and temporarily the engine. However, the interior layout was different. While the TR-77 was developed, from 1974 the Romanian engineers continued work on a reverse engineered version of the 800-horsepower MTU Leopard 1 engine and transmission. The work came to a halt, as the engineers lacked the experience to reverse engineer such complex designs. By 1976 however, Institutul Național de Motoare Termice (National institute for thermal motors) stated that it could design an engine based on
14250-409: The turret to the hull could provide time to sleep for one off-shift crewmember located in the rear of the hull. In this scenario, crewmembers would rotate shifts regularly and all would require cross-training on all vehicle job functions. Cargo aircraft are instrumental to the timely deployment of MBTs. The absence of sufficient numbers of strategic airlift assets can limit the rate of MBT deployments to
14375-400: The war, limited-role tank designs tended to be replaced by more general-purpose designs, enabled by improving tank technology. Tank classes became mostly based on weight (and the corresponding transport and logistical needs). This led to new definitions of heavy and light tank classes, with medium tanks covering the balance of those between. The German Panzer IV tank, designed before the war as
14500-520: The writings of Giffard Le Quesne Martel , but little progress was made beyond development of the basic Cromwell cruiser tank that eventually led to the Centurion . The Centurion, at the time designated "heavy cruiser" and later "medium gun tank" was designed for mobility and firepower at the expense of armour , but more engine power permitted more armour protection, so the Centurion could also operate as an infantry tank , doing so well that development of
14625-618: Was also an APFSDS round that is no longer in production. To increase the firepower of the TR-85 tank, the BM-421 Sg round (known internationally as the M309 cartridge) was developed in cooperation with Israel as part of the modernizing program begun in 1996. Made by Aeroteh SA from Bucharest and marketed by ROMARM SA, the BM-421 Sg projectile can penetrate 444 mm of RHAe at 90° at 500 meters, 425 mm at 1000 meters and 328 mm at 4000 meters. The TR-85M1 tank has two machine guns: The TR-85M1
14750-457: Was built using the V-55 engine of the T-55 tank and the extended chassis. The TR-77-580 tank was developed between 1974 and 1980 and was produced between 1979 and 1985. It is often alleged that TR-77 was a copy of T-55 but only a very small portion of its equipment were carried over from the Soviet tank: night vision gunner's periscope, ammo, coax MG and probably the main guns sight, the general shape of
14875-520: Was designed between 1978 and 1986. The engine had a maximum output of 830 horse power. The suspension was redesigned and the turret, while bearing a strong resemblance to the T-55 series, was actually different. The main tank factory was established by decree nr.514 in December 1978 at FMGS division ( Fabrica De Mașini Grele Speciale - Special Heavy Machinery Factory) of the 23 August plant (now known as FAUR) in Bucharest. The construction of this tank factory
15000-532: Was finalized in 1980. The factory was a militarized zone and was top secret, requiring a special permit to enter. By 1983, the FMGS tank factory could produce 210 tanks per year. The TR-85 tank was produced between 1986 and 1990 at rate of approximately 100 tanks per year. The TR-85 tank was soon found to be mechanically unreliable during early tests. Teething problems included high fuel and oil consumption, engine and transmission problems and chronic oil leakage. Furthermore,
15125-426: Was powered by the 830 horsepower 8VS-A2T2, 4 stroke, 8-cylinder, liquid-cooled, turbo charged direct injection diesel engine, and a six speed (four forward, two reverse) THM-5800 hydromechanic transmission (engaging under load, one power flow in straight run and two power flows in turns with planetary final transmission), giving it a governed top speed of 50 km/h on paved roads. The TR-85M1 has an improved version of
15250-581: Was subsequently instructed to kill Oswald in order to silence him. The work was said to rely heavily on the work of the Warren Commission , the House Select Committee on Assassinations , and Edward Jay Epstein . In a review of Pacepa's book published in Human Events , Michael Ledeen , former adviser for terrorism to President Ronald Reagan , writes: "A new book from General Ion Mihai Pacepa
15375-652: Was tested with a V12 Iveco 1200 hp engine, but did not enter production. The prototype was referred to as the TR-85M2 tank in some sources, however there is no proof that the Romanian Army ever used this designation. In 2007, when the DMT-85M1 was developed, there were also plans for other derivative vehicles based on the TR-85M1 chassis, including an armored recovery vehicle version and an armoured vehicle-launched bridge . These variants are currently in development. In 2024,
15500-574: Was the M60 tank . Anti-tank weapons rapidly outpaced armour developments. By the 1960s, anti-tank rounds could penetrate a meter of steel so as to make the application of traditional rolled homogeneous armour unpragmatic. The first solution to this problem was the composite armor of Soviet T-64 tank, which included steel-glass-reinforced textolite-steel sandwich in heavily sloped glacis plates, and steel turret with aluminum inserts, which helped to resist both high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and APDS shells of
15625-650: Was unable to find Pacepa, but on 21 February 1981, he bombed a part of Radio Free Europe 's headquarters in Munich , which was broadcasting news of Pacepa's defection. Five Romanian diplomats in West Germany, who had helped Carlos the Jackal in this operation, were expelled from the country. On 7 July 1999, Romania's Supreme Court Decision No. 41/1999 cancelled Pacepa's death sentences and ordered for his properties, confiscated by Ceaușescu's orders, to be returned to him. Romania's government refused to comply. In December 2004,
#111888