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163-561: It was provoked when an important number of National Peasants' Party (PNȚ) leaders, including Party Vice-President Ion Mihalache , had been offered a chance to flee Romania, where the Communist Party (PCR), the main force in the Petru Groza government, already had a tight grip on power with backing from the Soviet Union (see Soviet occupation of Romania ). The affair signalled some of

326-578: A Radical Peasants' Party (PȚR) in 1933. Schisms and competition were compensated by recruitment, including in the intellectual sphere. Writer Șerban Cioculescu , who entered in early 1928, described the PNȚ as "the only political factor which may democratize Romania". In the early 1930s, new arrivals included philosophers Petre Andrei and Constantin Rădulescu-Motru , linguist Traian Bratu , and painter Rudolf Schweitzer-Cumpăna ; also joining were leaders of

489-619: A Soviet occupation , Maniu still counted on direct contacts with the West, sending Constantin Vișoianu to negotiate with them in Cairo. These "feelers" were again tolerated by Antonescu. However, a "stumbling-block in all subsequent negotiations" was the demand for Romania's unconditional surrender, which Maniu found unpalatable. The PNȚ advised against toppling Antonescu in February 1944, as had been proposed by

652-652: A death sentence at home, Beza made his way to Cairo , where he formed a Free Romania Movement under British supervision. Viorel Tilea and Ion Rațiu opted not to return from England, serving as liaisons between the PNȚ and the British war ministry . Towards the end of 1940, Antonescu became dissatisfied with the Guard partnership. The Guard organized the Jilava Massacre and various other murders of old-regime politicians, including Madgearu. This caused alarm for other figures of

815-427: A traitor . Historically, in common law countries, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, such as the murder of a husband by his wife or that of a master by his servant. Treason (i.e., disloyalty) against one's monarch was known as high treason and treason against a lesser superior was petty treason . As jurisdictions around the world abolished petty treason, "treason" came to refer to what

978-531: A "military circle", led by Mihalache. As the main adversary of Stalinism and a committed supporter of the Western Allies , the PNȚ was the principal target for PCR hostility. According to the journalist Victor Frunză, the PNȚ and the National Liberal Party were already targeted for having backed attempts during World War II by Conducător Marshal Ion Antonescu to sign a separate peace with

1141-603: A BPD confrontation with the authorities. The Bloc existed largely because Maniu believed he could obtain Soviet lenience toward Romania following an armistice, and "only stood to enhance [the communists'] position". The plot involved statistician Sabin Manuilă , who acted as a PNȚ representative; a disciple of Moldovan, he had been involved with Antonescu's project to persecute Jews and deport Romanies , but also protected some 5,000 Jewish specialists working under his watch. Shortly before

1304-597: A Committee of the Liberated Regions. This was presided upon by Ionel Pop. Commissariat rule often veered into an antimagyarism that was only ever curbed by the Red Army after a "six-week killing spree". Various reports, including oral testimonies by Peasant Guard members and volunteers who answered calls printed in Ardealul , suggest that local Hungarians were victims of numerous lynchings, either tolerated of encouraged by

1467-496: A PCdR militant Mihail Roșianu and a communist-sympathizing priest, Ioan Marina . Carol rejected Maniu's proposals, and used the opportunity for an anti-democratic self-coup . Despite vocal protests by Maniu and the PNL's Dinu Brătianu , he inaugurated a royal dictatorship, leading to the creation of a catch-all National Renaissance Front (FRN). The PNȚ attempted to sabotage the authoritarian Constitution , instructing members to cast

1630-506: A cabinet of "national resistance", which Maniu refused to do. One such proposal came from the PCdR and the Soviet Union, and promised Romania military assistance from the Red Army ; Maniu was outraged by the proposal, arguing that the Soviet Union was " imperialistic by definition ". Carol assigned the task of forming a cabinet to General Ion Antonescu , who obtained backing from both the PNȚ and

1793-421: A citizen and not enjoying any of the benefits of being one - Billy owed no loyalty to Virginia and therefore had committed no treason. This was a ground-breaking case, since in earlier similar cases slaves were found guilty of treason and executed. Under very different circumstances, a similar defense was put forward in the case of William Joyce , nicknamed Lord Haw-Haw , who had broadcast Nazi propaganda to

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1956-535: A coup against the Regency, which ended with Carol's return and enthronement. The PNȚ briefly divided itself into backers of the coup and those who, like Maniu, remained more cautious. From July 1930, Carlist ideologue Nae Ionescu proposed a National Peasantist "mass dictatorship", which implied dissolving all other parties. Such ideas were contained by Maniu, who spoke out in favor of maintaining and cultivating electoral democracy, and by Carol, who would have rather formed

2119-729: A de facto united front during the county elections of 1936 and early 1937 ; also signing up where satellite parties: the Ploughmen's Front, the Hungarian People's Union , the Popovici Socialists , the Conservative Party , and Dobrescu's Committees. In Bessarabia, the PCdR made noted efforts of reconciling the PNȚ and PȚR. Wherever the PNC appeared stronger, pacts also involved local PNL chapters. Similar pacts were signed in mid 1936 with

2282-516: A discrepancy in repression statistics: while the elites were allowed to carry out a "paper war" with the regime, regular PNȚ militants risked imprisonment for expressing anti-fascist beliefs. From 1942, the camp in Târgu Jiu accommodated various PNȚ-ists, including Nicolae Carandino , who had published an article critical of Antonescu, and Anton Alexandrescu , who, as leader of the TNȚ, had been approached by

2445-584: A form of political control. Edward Coke decides in R v Owen that mere speech about the monarch could be treason if it "disabled his title" in departure from his earlier statement "it is commonly said that bare words may make a heretick, but not a traytor without an overt act". In English law , high treason was punishable by being hanged, drawn and quartered (men) or burnt at the stake (women), although beheading could be substituted by royal command (usually for royalty and nobility). Those penalties were abolished in 1814, 1790 and 1973 respectively. The penalty

2608-503: A historic impasse, whereby the PNL failed to clearly win elections organized under its watch. It dropped to 152 parliamentary seats, with the PNȚ holding on to 86 (and 20% of the vote); this was just 20 seats ahead of the Guard, which had emerged as Romania's third party. Carol opted to use his royal prerogative and bypassed all groups opposing his policies, handing power to a PNC minority cabinet, under Goga. Goga's arrival signaled Romania's rapprochement toward Germany, which had emerged as

2771-512: A key regional player following the Munich Agreement . Concerns about German re-armament also pushed Maniu into "demand[ing] an alignment with Berlin". However, he punished attempts by other PNȚ figures to collaborate with Goga, and expelled Călinescu, who had accepted a ministerial position. This move lost the PNȚ its party organization in Argeș County , which obeyed Călinescu. Maniu had

2934-584: A mandatory sentence of life imprisonment . According to Brazilian law , treason is the crime of disloyalty by a citizen to the Federal Republic of Brazil , applying to combatants of the Brazilian military forces. Treason during wartime is the only crime for which a person can be sentenced to death (see capital punishment in Brazil ) . The only military person in the history of Brazil to be convicted of treason

3097-442: A means of locomotion. When the question was being debated between the two of us with no one else aware of it, Dr. Emil Hațieganu came to see me. [...] He said: I have two aviators who have a plane at their disposal and have let me know that they have secured 3–4 seats, as they are to leave on an official military mission to Istanbul . I said that I was satisfied by the offer and I that I would designate 3–4 persons to leave. Early on

3260-762: A minority cabinet. The National Peasantists were defeated by their PNL rivals in the election of June 1931 , taking just 15% of the vote. Again called to power, with Vaida at the helm, they had a comeback with the early election of 1932 , taking 40%. Carol persuaded Maniu to become Prime Minister in October. He resigned again in January 1933, after a row with Carol, who wanted Mihalache stripped of his post at Internal Affairs . Vaida returned as PNȚ Prime Minister, holding on to that position until November 13. Maniu had stepped down as PNȚ leader in June 1931, leaving Mihalache in charge to July of

3423-482: A move followed by other searches for documents in various locations. On July 19, the Assembly of Deputies of Romania voted to outlaw the party press (including Dreptatea ), and to lift the parliamentary immunity of PNȚ deputies. The entire party leadership was arrested on the same day, and the party was banned on July 30 on the basis of a report filed by Teohari Georgescu. In parallel, Soviet authorities handed Georgescu

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3586-802: A multi-party coalition. Ionescu's dictatorial optimism was published just as the Carol was antagonizing the PNȚ mainstream. Soon after his victory, the new King informed Maniu that he did not intend to honor his promises, causing a rift between monarch and government; Maniu resigned, was persuaded to return within days, and then resigned for good in October, handing the premiership to party colleague Gheorghe Mironescu . Historian Barbara Jelavich sees Maniu's resignation as "ill-considered", effectively leaving Romania's electorate without an administration that "best represented [its] option". Carol ultimately asked Mironescu to resign in April 1931, and replaced him with Iorga, who led

3749-555: A nation-wide clampdown against the Iron Guard, including Codreanu's physical liquidation. This resulted in a series of retaliatory attacks, peaking in September 1939, when a Guardist death squad managed to assassinate Călinescu. During November, Carol made one final attempt to establish a "national alliance" around the FRN, inviting Maniu to join in; the offer was dismissed. Mihalache held a seat in

3912-557: A negative vote in the February 24 plebiscite . The attempt was unsuccessful, and the party continued to lose ground over the following months. On March 30, it was outlawed together with all other traditional parties. The new government integrated much of the PNȚ's center, with Călinescu at Interior Affairs; Andrei, Ghelmegeanu, and Ralea, alongside Grigore Gafencu and Traian Ionașcu , became prominent FRN dignitaries, as did Moldovan. Gusti and Rădulescu-Motru were also co-opted into joining

4075-438: A new cabinet. Party unity was enforced by the decision of centrist Transylvanians such as Corneliu Coposu to side with democratic traditions and reject Vaida's penchant for far-right authoritarianism. In 1935, Coposu became leader of the national youth wing, called Tineretul Național Țărănesc (TNȚ), proceeding to purge Vaidists from the various party organizations. Maniu's nephew and potential successor, Ionel Pop , also took

4238-600: A new majority coalition with the Iron Guard and the PNȚ (though demanding that Maniu be kept out of any such formula). Goga was deposed on February 10, 1938, when all political groups prepared for repeat elections. The Peasant Guards had been revived in January, taking the name of "Maniu Guards", and were divided into two main commands: Lazăr took over in Transylvania, and General Rujinschi in the Old Kingdom. The project also involved Victor Jinga , tasked by Maniu with supervising

4401-414: A peace protest signed by 69 academics, which was "overtly pro-Soviet in sentiment". At least in part, this was a grassroots PNȚ initiative. In June 1944, the PNȚ and PNL agreed to form a Bloc of Democratic Parties (BPD) alongside the PCdR and Social Democrats, preparing for the " King Michael Coup " of August 23. By then, Coposu and Cezar Spineanu were stockpiling firearms in PNȚ buildings, preparing for

4564-579: A person helping an enemy in time of war or conflict. During the American Revolution , a slave named Billy was sentenced to death on charges of treason to Virginia for having joined the British in their war against the American colonists - but was eventually pardoned by Thomas Jefferson , then Governor of Virginia . Jefferson accepted the argument, put forward by Billy's well-wishers, that - not being

4727-593: A position in Sănătescu's cabinet. Maniu was additionally assisted by a Permanent Delegation, whose members included Halippa, Hudiță, Lazăr, Teofil Sauciuc-Săveanu , Gheorghe Zane , as well as, with the introduction of women's suffrage, Ella Negruzzi . Overall, the party was seeing a rejuvenation of its leadership, with Coposu and Virgil Veniamin taking over as junior party secretaries. Noted militants included young academics—among them Radu and Șerban Cioculescu, as well as Vladimir Streinu . The party lost its control over

4890-538: A preliminary agreement that June. During this process, the PȚ shed much of its radical platform. However, left-wing Peasantists supported their ideologue Stere, who had a controversial past, for a leadership position in the unified body. This proposal was strongly opposed by figures on the PNR's right-wing such as Vaida and Voicu Nițescu . The unification was only made possible once Mihalache "sacrificed" Stere. The two-party collaboration

5053-587: A pro-Maniu conspiracy inside his ministry, was unceremoniously demoted and was replaced by the Communist activist Ana Pauker . National Peasants%27 Party The National Peasants' Party (also known as the National Peasant Party or National Farmers' Party ; Romanian : Partidul Național Țărănesc , or Partidul Național-Țărănist , PNȚ) was an agrarian political party in the Kingdom of Romania . It

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5216-508: A radically different concept of loyalty and treason, under which sovereignty resides with "The Nation" or "The People" - to whom also the monarch has a duty of loyalty, and for failing which the monarch, too, could be accused of treason. Charles I in England and Louis XVI in France were found guilty of such treason and duly executed. However, when Charles II was restored to his throne, he considered

5379-466: A result of Maniu's refusal to follow Antonescu's ideological command; the Nazis had repeatedly called for a multiparty alliance. The PNȚ continued to exist semi-clandestinely, obtaining repeated assurances from Antonescu that the various territorial chapters would not be harassed by the Iron Guard, and complaining whenever he failed to keep them. According to Siguranța reports, it was always more active than

5542-432: A return as the opposition leader, speaking out against Carol and Goga, and promising a "national revolt" against their regime—while making note of his intention to form an "opposition bloc" alongside the Iron Guard. During the early days of 1938, the PNȚ was negotiating with the PNL to also join this alliance. The project was vetoed by Tătărescu, whose "Young Liberals" supported Carol's policies, and by Mihalache, who resented

5705-551: A stand against antisemitism, expressing horror at any attempt to align Romania with Nazi Germany . Anti-Nazism was likewise voiced by Facla , causing its editorial offices to be stormed by the National-Christian Defense League (LANC). The Vaidist dissidence resulted in scuffles throughout Transylvania. In one such incident, PNȚ-ist Ilie Lazăr was reportedly shot in the arm. Only some 10% or 15% of PNȚ cadres were attracted by Vaida's group. Overall, however,

5868-472: A trial of the entire party were voiced by the Communist press (notably by Silviu Brucan ), and Maniu himself, although not present at Tămădău, was argued to have planned the escape. Arrested while under treatment in a sanatorium , Maniu later admitted to the fact and indicated that he was prepared to assume complete responsibility: [After Hațieganu's offer] I spoke to Mr. Mihalache, I specifically asked him to make use of this opportunity and he accepted. Indeed,

6031-550: A web of tactical alliances, it reconfirmed its pact with the BMȚ, while still shunning the PP. The PNȚ's first general congress was held on May 6, 1928 at Alba Iulia . It marked an early peak of PNȚ revolutionary activity, gathering between 100,000 and 200,000 supporters. Observers expected that the columns would then "march on Bucharest ", by analogy with the March on Rome . This never happened, but

6194-596: Is also illegal for a Canadian citizen or a person who owes allegiance to His Majesty in right of Canada to do any of the above outside Canada. The penalty for high treason is life imprisonment. The penalty for treason is imprisonment up to a maximum of life, or up to 14 years for conduct under subsection (2)(b) or (e) in peacetime. In China , there are different laws regarding treason in Mainland China , Hong Kong or Macau . The law defining treason in Mainland China

6357-585: Is liable on conviction on indictment to imprisonment for 14 years. Finnish law distinguishes between two types of treasonable offences: maanpetos , treachery in war, and valtiopetos , an attack against the constitutional order. The terms maanpetos and valtiopetos are unofficially translated as treason and high treason, respectively. Both are punishable by imprisonment, and if aggravated, by life imprisonment. Maanpetos (translates literally to betrayal of land ) consists in joining enemy armed forces, making war against Finland , or serving or collaborating with

6520-457: Is liable on conviction on indictment to life imprisonment. where "enemy at war with China" is defined as a government of a foreign country or external armed force that is at war with China and "external armed force" means an armed force that does not belong to China. Section 11 of the same ordinance also provides that: A Chinese citizen who intends to commit an offence under section 10(1) and publicly manifests such intention commits an offence and

6683-607: Is provided under article 102 of the Criminal Law as follows: Whoever colludes with a foreign State to endanger the sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of the People's Republic of China shall be sentenced to life imprisonment or fixed-term imprisonment of not less than 10 years. Section 10 of the Safeguarding National Security Ordinance provides that: A Chinese citizen who— commits an offence and

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6846-402: Is the crime of attacking a state authority to which one owes allegiance. This typically includes acts such as participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to overthrow its government , spying on its military, its diplomats, or its secret services for a hostile and foreign power, or attempting to kill its head of state . A person who commits treason is known in law as

7009-495: Is the internal treason, and may include a coup d'état . "Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression" is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside. "Crimes Related to Inducement of Foreign Aggression" is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Depending on the country, conspiracy is added to these. In Australia , there are federal and state laws against treason, specifically in

7172-517: The Allied Powers ; it also organized protests against the deportation of minorities and for the return of Northern Transylvania . Together with the PNL and the communists, it executed the Coup of August 1944 , emerging as the most powerful party of the subsequent democratic interlude (1944–1946). In this final period, National Peasantists were repressed as instigators of anti-communist resistance . The PNȚ

7335-719: The Allies (see Romania during World War II ). In late October 1946, the PNȚ entered into open conflict with the authorities. The first volley was to send a secret report to the Secretary-General of the United Nations that was heavily critical of governmental policies. The Communist press alleged that the National Peasants' Party had been organising a wide network of armed resistance (groups cited in that context may have indeed existed as early as 1947 and were probably merged into

7498-482: The Assembly of Deputies . As the PȚ agreed to a full merger, the PNR lost support from Nicolae Iorga 's semi-independent faction, who went on to reestablish itself as a Democratic Nationalist Party . The fusion was enshrined at a PNR–PȚ congress on October 10, 1926. Also then, Maniu was voted in as chairman; Mihalache, Lupu, Vaida-Voevod and Paul Brătășanu were vice presidents, while Madgearu became general secretary and Mihai Popovici cashier. From October 17, 1927,

7661-694: The Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) creates an offence which is derived from section 3 of the Treason Felony Act 1848 : 12 Compassing etc deposition of the Sovereign–overawing Parliament etc Whosoever, within New South Wales or without, compasses, imagines, invents, devises, or intends to deprive or depose Our Most Gracious Lady the Queen, her heirs or successors, from the style, honour, or Royal name of

7824-612: The Crown Council in early 1940, possibly because doing so toned down pressures on his friend Madgearu, whom Carol had placed under arrest. A political crisis began in Romania during June 1940, when the FRN government gave in to a Soviet ultimatum and withdrew its administration from Bessarabia . Maniu referred to this as a Soviet invasion, and believed that the Army should have resisted. In August 1940, after reassurances from both Nazi Germany and

7987-486: The Expatriation Act of 1868 , which granted Americans the right to freely renounce their U.S. citizenship. Britain followed suit with a similar law, and years later, signed a treaty agreeing to treat British subjects who had become U.S. citizens as no longer holding British nationality - and thus no longer liable to a charge of treason. Many nations' laws mention various types of treason. "Crimes Related to Insurrection"

8150-452: The French armed forces , or all or part of the national territory, to a foreign power, to a foreign organisation or to an organisation under foreign control, or to their agents". It is punishable by life imprisonment and a fine of € 750,000. Generally parole is not available until 18 years of a life sentence have elapsed. Articles 411–3 to 411–10 define various other crimes of collaboration with

8313-465: The German criminal code is defined as an attempt against the existence or the constitutional order of the Federal Republic of Germany that is carried out either with the use of violence or the threat of violence. It carries a penalty of life imprisonment or a fixed term of at least ten years. In less serious cases, the penalty is 1–10 years in prison. German criminal law also criminalises high treason against

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8476-507: The Great Depression , and organized clampdowns against radicalized workers at Lupeni and Grivița . This issue brought Maniu into conflict with the outlawed Romanian Communist Party , though the PNȚ, and in particular its left, favored a Romanian popular front . From 1935, most of the centrist wing embraced anti-fascism , outvoting the PNȚ's far-right, which split of as a Romanian Front , under Alexandru Vaida-Voevod ; in that interval,

8639-489: The International Agrarian Bureau ; internally, it championed administrative decentralization and respect for minority rights, as well as, briefly, republicanism. It remained factionalized on mainly ideological grounds, leading to a series of defections. With its attacks on the PNL establishment, the PNȚ came to endorse an authoritarian monarchy, mounting no resistance to a conspiracy which brought Carol II on

8802-578: The Iron Guard . The latter's "Captain", Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , took up elements from the PNȚ program and planned ahead for its downfall. In 1932, PNȚ enjoys approached the newly formed National Socialist Party with an offer to share electoral lists; the offer was rejected. National Peasantism also met competition from a hard-right version of itself: the National Agrarian Party , formed by Octavian Goga (a poet and activist, once affiliated with

8965-466: The Magyar Party , although the latter withdrew, fearful of association with the communists. Many PNȚ sections also resisted alliances with far-leftist groups, but, even in such cases, the PCdR urged its followers to vote National Peasantist. Mihalache's solution was to impose and vet a single platform for the alliance, which prevented the PCdR from using it as a means to popularize socialism. At around

9128-580: The Roman authorities under threat of persecution during the Diocletianic Persecution between AD 303 and 305. Originally, the crime of treason was conceived of as being committed against the monarch ; a subject failing in his duty of loyalty to the sovereign and acting against the sovereign was deemed to be a traitor. Queens Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard were executed for treason for adultery against Henry VIII , although most historians regard

9291-478: The Romanian Army , including Nicolae Alevra and Ioan Mihail Racoviță . The PNȚ's left earned endorsements from poet Ion Vinea and his Facla newspaper, as well as from lawyer Haralambie Marchetti , known as a protector of the communists. The PNȚ's more leftist youth published the magazine Stânga , which attracted collaborations from Petru Comarnescu and Traian Herseni . A highly visible left-wing cell

9454-685: The Romanian National Committee . The release of political prisoners also allowed the PNȚ to claim existence inside Romania. Corneliu Coposu emerged as the underground leader of this tendency, which was admitted into the Christian Democrat World Union . Its legal successor, called Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party , was one of the first registered political groups after the December 1989 Revolution . Future PNȚ leader Maniu had had its first government experience during

9617-608: The Treason Act 1351 (25 Edw.3 c. 2). This section reproduces section 6 of the Treason Felony Act 1848 . The offence of treason was created by section 9A(1) of the Crimes Act 1958 . It is punishable by a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. In South Australia, treason is defined under Section 7 of the South Australia Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 and punished under Section 10A. Any person convicted of treason against South Australia will receive

9780-587: The Treason Act 1817 have been repealed by Section 11 of the Crimes Act 1900 , except in so far as they relate to the compassing, imagining, inventing, devising, or intending death or destruction, or any bodily harm tending to death or destruction, maim, or wounding, imprisonment, or restraint of the person of the heirs and successors of King George III of the United Kingdom , and the expressing, uttering, or declaring of such compassings, imaginations, inventions, devices, or intentions, or any of them. Section 12 of

9943-481: The resistance movement in the 1950s ). Meanwhile, the Communists press applauded the dissidence of various PNȚ leaders such as Anton Alexandrescu  [ ro ] , Nicolae L. Lupu , and Victor Eftimiu . Several details on the affair are still unclear. The offer to flee Romania was quickly discovered, as the government declared, or, as claimed by the journalist Victor Frunză, had already been investigated and, in

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10106-469: The union of Transylvania with Romania . In alliance with the Transylvanian Socialists , his PNR had organized a Transylvanian Directorate , which functioned as that region's transitional government to April 1920. This body was explicitly against regional autonomy, and its distinct initiatives were in the field of social welfare . As regional Minister of Social Welfare, the PNR doctor Iuliu Moldovan introduced eugenics , which also appeared as nativism in

10269-497: The "Citizen Committees". Overall, however, the party became more sympathetic to left-wing causes. At his arrest in 1936, communist liaison Petre Constantinescu-Iași nominated the PNȚ and PȚR as anti-fascist parties; in 1935, he had tried but failed to forge a PCdR alliance with both groups, as well as with the Social Democrats and the Jewish Party . Communist support and endorsement by the Ploughmen's Front were relevant in ensuring victories for PNȚ candidates Lupu and Ghiță Pop in

10432-428: The "non-aggression pact". The scandal divided Romania's left-wing press: newspapers such as Adevărul remained committed to Maniu, though communist sympathizers such as Zaharia Stancu and Geo Bogza went back on their support for a PNȚ-led popular front, and switched to endorsing the PȚR. By contrast, Dobrescu and his Committees deserted Iunian on December 1, and were folded back into the PNȚ. The election marked

10595-408: The 1867 Fenian Rising , when Irish-Americans who had gone to Ireland to participate in the uprising and were caught were charged with treason, as the British authorities considered them to be British subjects. This outraged many Irish-Americans, to which the British responded by pointing out that, just like British law, American law also recognized perpetual allegiance. As a result, Congress passed

10758-407: The Allies. During March 1944, Voice of America implied that, if PNȚ leaders still refused to take up armed opposition to the regime, they could expect to be bypassed or deposed. In April, Maniu was finally ready to accept Soviet promises that Romania would be allowed to fight the Germans as an equal partner, and that its territory would not be occupied militarily. The same month, Antonescu was sent

10921-421: The Army at various locations in Bucharest. Following the events, Antonescu had renewed hopes that he could co-opt the PNȚ and then PNL on his cabinet. Both parties refused the offer. During February, Maniu openly criticized Antonescu for abandoning Northern Transylvania and for previously condoning Guardist abuse. He also argued that a legalized PNȚ would have been a more efficient and legitimate actor in purging

11084-417: The Assembly by-elections of Mehedinți and Hunedoara (February 1936). While the PNȚ elite took measures to downplay its far-left connection, left-wingers such as Dobrescu openly celebrated it as a winning combination. As summarized by historian Armin Heinen, PNȚ leftists also refrained from calling it a " popular front ", and only viewed socialist groups as subordinate. The PNȚ, PSDR, PCdR and PȚR created

11247-414: The Commissariat. By then, the PCdR had sparked a government crisis over Maniu's rejection of its communization programs; in the aftermath, communists spuriously claimed that Maniu had personally masterminded the killing of Transylvanian Hungarians. Upon taking over at Internal Affairs, PNȚ-ist Nicolae Penescu found himself accused of stalling democratization, and was pushed into resigning. After Maniu

11410-537: The FR, it earned Carol's blessing to establish a "nationalist parliamentary bloc", specifically designed to keep the PNȚ out of power. The danger was sensed by Mihalache, who presided over massive anti-fascist rally in November 1935, amassing a reported 500,000 participants nation-wide. Following an audience with Carol, he claimed that the PNȚ would be called to power. In December 1935, the PNȚ reinforced discipline against left-wing dissent, expelling from its ranks Dem. I. Dobrescu , who went on to create his own movement,

11573-477: The Guard. Călinescu and Ghelmegeanu's group was alienated, openly describing the pact as morally unsound, and preferring full cooperation with Carol; Mihalache also dissented, but on democratic grounds. The events caught the PCdR underground by surprise: in November, its leader Ștefan Foriș had urged his colleagues to vote PNȚ, even in preference to the PSDR. A "workers' delegation", made up of PSDR and PCdR activists, visited Maniu and insisted that he should revise

11736-496: The Guard. In April, he attempted to organize a rally against the invasion of Yugoslavia , but called it off when Antonescu warned him that demonstrators would be fired upon. Later that year, Maniu and Coposu engaged in encrypted correspondence with the Western Allies, preparing for an anti-Nazi takeover in Romania; they aligned themselves closely with Britain, seeking to obtain direct advice from Winston Churchill . The PNȚ and

11899-486: The Guards' creation, and resorted to kidnapping and threatening Madgearu in order to have them called off. At Iași , Bratu narrowly survived a stabbing, for which he blamed the Iron Guard. The mid 1930s also consolidated a PNȚ "centrist" wing, represented by Armand Călinescu , and supported by Ghelmegeanu. This faction favored a full clampdown on the Iron Guard, but hoped to achieve its defeat in close alliance with Carol. At

12062-425: The Guards' expansion into the provinces. Beza had left the project and, in January 1938, was attempting to form his own "Workers and Peasants' Party". At the height of the electoral campaign, the PNȚ and the PNL sought to obtain a new understanding with Carol, fearing that the PNC and the Iron Guard would form a powerful fascist alliance, and then a totalitarian state. Under pressure from the PNȚ base, Maniu revoked

12225-516: The Imperial Crown of the United Kingdom, or of any other of Her Majesty's dominions and countries, or to levy war against Her Majesty, her heirs or successors, within any part of the United Kingdom, or any other of Her Majesty's dominions, in order, by force or constraint, to compel her or them to change her or their measures or counsels, or in order to put any force or constraint upon, or in order to intimidate or overawe, both Houses or either House of

12388-515: The Iron Guard on behalf of Maniu. In 1944, government agents caught Augustin Vișa and Rică Georgescu, who had handled radio communications between Maniu and the Allies. Both were imprisoned, with Vișa being put on trial for high treason. The Conducător dismissed Nazi suggestions that he should have Maniu killed, noting that doing so would only push Romania's peasantry into anti-fascist rebellion. By 1944, he

12551-440: The Iron Guard, whose affiliates joined into the effort to terrorize Hungarians into leaving the area. Any such recruitment drive was curbed by the PCdR, which obtained assurances from leading Guardists that they would prevent their followers from entering the PNȚ. The PNȚ's vice presidents in the coup's aftermath were Mihalache, Lupu, and Mihai Popovici . Ghiță Pop was a fourth member of this team, but has to resign upon taking up

12714-522: The Maniu–Codreanu rapprochement. Though Mihalache rallied with the party line in calling out the PNC ministers as "scoundrels", he secretly collaborated with Călinescu against Maniu. The latter viewed himself and his fellow defectors as a "pro-government" splinter of the PNȚ, and counted on Mihalache's contextual support. An international backlash against Goga's staunch antisemitism had also made Carol reconsider his choices. Initially, he favored creating

12877-479: The National Liberals. The PNL's return to power came with the adoption of a new constitution , and with the enactment of land reform, which massively expanded Romania's smallholding class. The latter had an unintended consequence in that it created an electoral pool for the opposition parties; it also gave Peasantists hopes that Romania's economy could still be built around peasant consumers. At this stage, both

13040-619: The National Peasantist failure to address the economic needs of its own constituents resulted in a steady decrease of its voting share—many peasants switched to supporting the Iron Guard or any of the other far-right parties. The explicitly fascist National Christian Party (PNC), founded as a merger of the LANC and Goga's National Agrarians, was especially adept at canvassing the peasant vote in Bessarabia, veering it toward antisemitism. Alongside

13203-559: The PCdR also revived the Ploughmen's Front . This move was specifically intended to destabilize the PNȚ by recruiting smallholders. In November 1944, it absorbed the Socialist Peasants' Party , a small group established by Ralea and Ghelmegeanu. In order to counteract such moves, Maniu also established a PNȚ Workers' Organization, with Lazăr as its overseer. This body was successful in countering FND propaganda. As part of this conflict,

13366-514: The PCdR. Detainees also included a selection of militants from all party factions: Lazăr, Zaharia Boilă , Radu Cioculescu , Victor Eftimiu , Augustin Popa , and Emanoil Socor . Released before May 1943, these men became vocal supporters of an understanding between Romania and the Soviets. Boilă, Coposu, Ghiță Pop and Virgil Solomon were also rounded up and threatened for having maintained contacts with

13529-543: The PNL welcomed Romania's participation in the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union , since it returned Bessarabian lands to Romania. However, both parties protested when Antonescu gave the order to advance beyond interwar borders and annex Transnistria . This period also signaled Romania's participation in the Holocaust , heralded by the Iași pogrom . These crimes were also vocally condemned by

13692-510: The PNL. Its quarters were informally acknowledged as being Ciulei House, an apartment complex located at Sfinților Street 10, Bucharest. From late 1940, Maniu channeled anti-Nazi discontent by forming an association called Pro Transilvania and a newspaper, Ardealul , both of which reminded Romanians that Antonescu was not interested in a reversal of the Vienna Award. The Guardist takeover also pushed some National Peasantists into exile: facing

13855-576: The PNL. Both groups insisted that Antonescu could take over only after Carol agreed to abdicate. This put an end to Carol's rule, bringing the country under an Iron Guard regime—the National Legionary State , with Antonescu as Conducător ; though still neutral to 1941, Romania was now openly aligned with the Axis Powers . Widely seen as a German arrangement, the Legionary State was in fact

14018-399: The PNR leadership expelled if they did not comply to his agenda. Under his watch, the PNȚ adopted a new statute in 1934, and a new program at the second party congress in April 1935. These pledged the party to a careful selections of cadres from the ranks of peasantry and youth, fully committing them to the project of establishing a "peasant state". The architects were figures on the left of

14181-539: The PNR). From 1931, PNȚ ministers issued regulations banning the Guard, but these proved unsuccessful. This interval witnessed the first clashes between the PNȚ and the Guardists, including one at Vulturu . A first effort at organizing a self-defense force for PNȚ politicians resulted in the 1928 "civic guards". In 1929, the party had begun organizing another set of squads, called Voinici ("Braves"). Originally integrated with

14344-426: The PNȚ and PNL to preserve parts of their infrastructures, including some local offices. In early 1939, the regime proposed allowing the PNȚ a share of parliamentary mandates, to which Mihalache responded: "Mr Carol would do best to leave us alone." During the sham election of June 1939 , the FRN administration took care to prevent interference by "intermediary groups" such as the PNȚ, PNL, PNC and Iron Guard. In May,

14507-516: The PNȚ and the PNL in letters to Antonescu. Maniu still refused to believe that Antonescu had a genocidal agenda and, when interviewed by American diplomats, played down the pogrom's importance. By 1942, having been informed that Britain and the US intended to assess and punish all antisemitic crimes, he told Romanian ministers that the deportation of Bessarabian Jews risked destroying Romania; Mihalache also added his input, describing deportations as "alien to

14670-401: The PNȚ moved office to Clemenceau Street 6, which would remain its headquarters until dissolution. Maniu was initially offered the premiership, but opted out, arguing that the position should go to a military man for the war's duration. Historian Vlad Georgescu singles this out as Maniu's "real mistake": "[It] deprived the country of the only leadership that could have been strong and popular,

14833-584: The PNȚ set up pro-democratic paramilitary units, or Peasant Guards . However, the party signed a temporary cooperation agreement with the fascist Iron Guard ahead of national elections in 1937 , sparking much controversy among its own voters. The PNȚ was banned under the National Renaissance Front (1938–1940), which also absorbed its centrists. Regrouped under Maniu, it remained active throughout World War II as an underground organization , tolerated by successive fascist regimes , but supportive of

14996-732: The PNȚ's representatives. The promotion of such comparatively minor figures was criticized by the party's youth, leaving Maniu to acknowledge the brain drain which had affected National Peasantism ever since Călinescu and Ralea's defections. As described by scholar Lucian Boia , from 1945 the PNȚ emerged from the coup "believing itself the country's great party", which made it adopt a policy of "political and moral intransigence". By 1947, it had 2.12 million card-carrying members; as noted by Georgescu, it ranked ahead of all other parties, albeit "neither numbers nor popularity could bring it to power." Maniu preserved regional influence in reconquered Northern Transylvania, organized from September 1944 under

15159-434: The PNȚ, PNL and PCdR engaged in talks to form an "opposition parliament" and "united front"; authorities subsequently reported that protest votes had been cast for PNȚ leaders, whereas candidacies of PNȚ defectors such as Alexandru Mîță had been publicly booed. Maniu, Mihalache, Lupu and Iunian still qualified as lifetime Senators , but refused to wear the FRN uniform, and were expelled. By then, Călinescu had masterminded

15322-577: The PNȚ, in particular Mihalache and Lupu; Ghiță Pop took Madgearu's position at the party secretariat. In the aftermath, Maniu pleaded with the Conducător that he should reinstate order and individual security. After a brief civil war in January 1941 , the Guard was removed from power and again repressed. German reports identified PNȚ-ist generals as most active in destroying the National Legionary regime; armed PNȚ civilians, including Lupu, assisted

15485-725: The Parliament of the United Kingdom, or the Parliament of New South Wales, or to move or stir any foreigner or stranger with force to invade the United Kingdom, or any other of Her Majesty's dominions, or countries under the obeisance of Her Majesty, her heirs or successors, and expresses, utters, or declares such compassings, imaginations, inventions, devices, or intentions, or any of them, by publishing any printing or writing, or by open and advised speaking, or by any overt act or deed, shall be liable to imprisonment for 25 years. Section 16 provides that nothing in Part 2 repeals or affects anything enacted by

15648-484: The Peasant Guards (now also known as the "Maniu Guards"); they continued to be active throughout most of 1934, until the party leadership asked them to dissolve. From March 1933, Lupu began attacking his former colleagues by bringing up alleged government corruption, in what became known as the " Škoda Affair ". Maniu dismissed this as Carol's attempt to weaken the PNȚ, though the king's maneuvering permanently damaged

15811-450: The Ploughmen's Front, as Prime Minister. The PNȚ remained in the opposition, viewing the takeover as a coup. Although it sent representatives when Groza celebrated the full recovery and pacification of Northern Transylvania, these were purposefully selected from among the party youth. Groza engineered a takeover of all local administration, only failing to do so in six counties. These were progressively made to submit by selective arrests among

15974-524: The Printers' Syndicate, which was under communist control, imposed censorship on the opposition press: in February 1945, the PNȚ could only print nine newspapers, whereas the PCdR had thirty-one. Rădescu was toppled following a massacre of communist-and-allied protesters, later revealed as a false flag operation carried out by PCdR militias. In early March 1945, the FND took over in government, with Petru Groza , of

16137-554: The PȚ and the PNR were opposed to the Constitution, seeing it as imposed on the Romanian public by the PNL, and arguing that it left the country open to future abuse of power. The two opposition groups embarked on a long series of negotiations, eventually producing a set of principles for merger. They began in May 1924, as informal talks between Stere and the PNR's Vasile Goldiș , resulting in

16300-508: The PȚ had been joined by Nicolae L. Lupu , formerly of the Labor Party . In 1919–1920, the PNR was able to outmaneuver the PNL, and, backed by the PȚ, formed Romania's national government, headed by Vaida-Voevod. Mihalache was personally involved in drafting the land reform project , taking a revolutionary stand which greatly increased the proportion of smallholders . Vaida's cabinet was brought down by King Ferdinand I , who openly favored

16463-472: The Romanian throne in 1930. Over the following five years, Carol manoeuvred against the PNȚ, which opposed his attempts to subvert liberal democracy . PNȚ governments were in power for most of the time between 1928 and 1933, with the leader Iuliu Maniu as its longest-serving Prime Minister . Supported by the Romanian Social Democrats , they expanded Romania's welfare state , but failed to tackle

16626-524: The Soviet Union, Regency Hungary asked Romania to negotiate territorial cessions in Transylvania. Maniu issued a public protest, demanding no reduction of territorial integrity. The same month, Carol's regime yielded to Nazi pressures and Romania signed the Second Vienna Award , which divided the region roughly in half, with Northern Transylvania assigned to Hungary. This sparked major unrest, with "huge protest rallies" asking for Maniu to establish

16789-595: The TNȚ, with Alexandrescu favoring a PCdR alliance. Consequently, Maniu ordered Coposu to establish a loyalist youth group, called Organizația M . On February 3, 1945, the youth wing broke away from the PNȚ as the Alexandrescu Peasantists . It rallied with a communist-run National Democratic Front (FND), established in October 1944, being identified in PNȚ propaganda as "lackeys of the Communist Party". While Alexandrescu's group remained exceedingly small,

16952-614: The UK from Germany during the Second World War . Joyce's defence team, appointed by the court, argued that, as an American citizen and naturalised German, Joyce could not be convicted of treason against the British Crown . However, the prosecution successfully argued that, since he had incorrectly stated his nationality to obtain a British passport and voted in Britain, Joyce did owe allegiance to

17115-484: The adoption of laws which set the working day at a maximum 10 hours and limited child labor ; the effort to unify social insurance was completed in 1933. Endorsed by the Social Democratic Party (PSDR), this government team was put to the test during the December 1928 elections , which are often recognized as free from abuse and government interference, and which it still won in a landslide—with almost 78% of

17278-490: The best interest of their constituents. In certain cases, as with the Dolchstoßlegende (stab-in-the-back myth), the accusation of treason towards a large group of people can be a unifying political message. Frederic William Maitland explained that "Treason is a crime which has a vague circumference and more than one centre". The Treason Act of 1351 , called "the pole star of English jurisprudence" by Joseph Story ,

17441-621: The clampdown. During May 1945, while organizing Antonescu's trial by a Romanian People's Tribunal (with which it hoped to discredit Maniu as a Nazi collaborator), the government also ordered massive arrests among its cadres. A large number of PNȚ regional activists, as well as PNȚ youth who had participated in the November rally, were detained at camps in Caracal and Slobozia , but ultimately released in December 1945. While Maniu dissociated himself from

17604-426: The concept of a "peasant state", which defended smallholding against state capitalism or state socialism , proposing voluntary cooperative farming as the basis for economic policy. Peasants were seen as the first defence of Romanian nationalism and of the country's monarchic regime, sometimes within a system of social corporatism . Regionally, the party expressed sympathy for Balkan federalism and rallied with

17767-583: The coup, Maniu clashed with PCdR envoy Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu , who had wanted the BPD to be joined by Ralea and other FRN eminences. Though largely unaware about any conspiracy, the PNȚ's lower echelons organized a pro-Allied rally at Bellu cemetery on August 20. Meeting with its leaders, Maniu expressed the hope that Antonescu himself would take Romania out of the Axis. Dreptatea , which had been banned in 1938, reentered print on August 27, 1944. Openly active from September,

17930-612: The enemy, sabotage, and the like. These are punishable with imprisonment for between seven and 30 years. Article 411-11 make it a crime to incite any of the above crimes. Besides treason and espionage, there are many other crimes dealing with national security, insurrection, terrorism and so on. These are all to be found in Book IV of the code. German law differentiates between two types of treason: "High treason" ( Hochverrat ) and "treason" ( Landesverrat ). High treason, as defined in Section 81 of

18093-459: The enemy. Maanpetos proper can only be committed under conditions of war or the threat of war. Espionage, disclosure of a national secret, and certain other related offences are separately defined under the same rubric in the Finnish criminal code. Valtiopetos (translates literally to betrayal of state ) consists in using violence or the threat of violence, or unconstitutional means, to bring about

18256-517: The evidence against Anne Boleyn and her alleged lovers to be dubious. As asserted in the 18th century trial of Johann Friedrich Struensee in Denmark , a man having sexual relations with a queen can be considered guilty not only of ordinary adultery but also of treason against her husband, the king. The English Revolution in the 17th century and the French Revolution in the 18th century introduced

18419-451: The exodus during late 1938. More junior PNȚ-ists such as Adrian Brudariu abandoned the National Peasantist cause, allegedly joining the FRN for material benefits. Maniu and Popovici could still count on their core Transylvanian constituency, which helped them circulate a December 1938 memorandum calling on Carol to restore civil liberties. Coposu was arrested and detained for distributing copies of that document. Călinescu tacitly allowed

18582-411: The first official measures taken against opposition parties as a step leading to the proclamation of a people's republic at the end of that year (see Socialist Republic of Romania ). The PCR victory in the 1946 general election was achieved mostly through the implementation of widespread electoral fraud and was followed by the first attempts at anti-communist resistance , including the creation of

18745-479: The flight attempt. The scandal was centred on the charge of treason ("of the people's interests"), which was provoked by the allegation that those arrested had attempted to establish a government in exile . Victor Frunză argued that "in democratic states" citizens should have an "unconditional right to a passport" to leave the country whenever they want and therefore the accusations of illegal border crossing, flight, and treason should not have been brought. Calls for

18908-430: The following year; he then returned and held on to his seat to January 1933, when he was replaced by Vaida. Maniu and his supporters were now in the minority, issuing reprimands against Vaida's alliance with Carol. Despite its unprecedented success, the party was pushed into a defensive position by the Great Depression , and failed to enact many its various policy proposals; its support by workers and left-wing militants

19071-614: The following years. Corneliu Coposu , who was to lead the re-established party after the Romanian Revolution of 1989, was also arrested and imprisoned in connection with the Tămădău Affair. Constantin Titel Petrescu , the leader of a splinter group of the Social Democratic Party , which had refused cooperation with the Communists, also came up during the trial and was later tried and convicted. The diplomat Neagu Djuvara , who

19234-603: The formation of a right-wing section in Bucharest. Its leader, Ilariu Dobridor , openly argued for Lupu to be expelled from the party. The PNȚ completely revised its alliances, agreeing to limited cooperation with the Iron Guard and the Georgist Liberals . The three parties agreed to support "free elections" and still competed against each other; however, the pact's very existence shocked the liberal mainstream, especially after revelations that PNȚ cadres could no longer criticize

19397-873: The handwritten testimony of a former Abwehr agent, Alfred Petermann, who alleged that Maniu had worked as an agent for the British Secret Intelligence Service during the war and kept contact with Alfred Gardyne de Chastelain . The regular sentence for illegally attempting to leave the country was three to six months, but all those involved and those judged to have been involved were sentenced to harsh penal labour sentences. In particular, Maniu and Mihalache were sentenced to life imprisonment for high treason. Maniu died in Sighet Prison in 1953 and Mihalache in Râmnicu Sărat Prison ten years later. Most other important party activists were sentenced in

19560-442: The hope of discrediting the opposition party, partly facilitated by agents of Interior Minister Teohari Georgescu . In October 1947, PNȚ President Iuliu Maniu declared: The idea for Mr. Mihalache and a few friends to go abroad was an older one and I had decided at some point to leave myself, in case Mr. Mihalache would not allow himself to leave. This discussion between us lasted for a while, and we were thinking how we could find

19723-522: The humanitarian traditions of our people." Antonescu largely tolerated such insubordination, but also curbed it at regular intervals. In August 1942, he threatened to "castigate in due course" Maniu and others who opposed "cleansing this nation totally of the [Jewish] blight." In November 1941, Maniu also publicized his complete opposition to war in the East , prompting Antonescu to order a clampdown against Anglophile resistance centers . Communist sources noted

19886-548: The king. Thus, Joyce was convicted of treason, and was eventually hanged . After Napoleon fell from power for the first time, Marshal Michel Ney swore allegiance to the restored King Louis XVIII , but when the Emperor escaped from Elba, Ney resumed his Napoleonic allegiance, and commanded the French troops at the Battle of Waterloo . After Napoleon was defeated, dethroned, and exiled for

20049-405: The moral and political responsibility for the departure of Mr. Mihalache and our friends is mine. He denied, however, any subversive goal: The purpose as designed by me was that, through going abroad, they were to inform foreign countries of the situation in Romania. Later the same day (July 14, 1947), authorities stormed into the PNȚ headquarters and confiscated all documents held in the archive,

20212-489: The morning of July 14, 1947, at the Tămădău airfield (located 46 km (29 mi) from Bucharest), Siguranța Statului and armed soldiers arrested a number of prominent PNȚ politicians, including Mihalache, Nicolae Penescu , Ilie Lazăr , Nicolae Carandino , Dumitru , and Eugen Borcea , all of whom were waiting for airplanes to transport them out of the country. A photoreporter was also present to provide maximum exposure to

20375-458: The movement, Groza was supported by the communists' "popular assemblies", which openly called for the PNȚ and PNL to be outlawed and repressed. Churchill's electoral defeat in July was read as an additional bad omen by Maniu, who noted that Labour had no sympathy for Romanian anti-communists. He asked Rațiu not to return from England, but continue to serve as his lobbyist. Treason Treason

20538-552: The only party that could have rallied the people around a truly democratic program. In refusing to take over in 1944, Maniu [...] caused a power vacuum into which the Communist Party moved." A military-civilian cabinet was formed by General Constantin Sănătescu . Since the National Peasantists and PCdR envoys could not agree on a list of ministers, these were recruited from Michael I's courtiers, with party men serving only as ministers without portfolio; Leucuția and Solomon were

20701-582: The opposition activists and by the institution of political censorship , resulting in the closure of other PNȚ newspapers. Emil Hațieganu reported that 40 party newspapers had been shut down since 1944; Dreptatea itself was banned in March, and could only briefly reemerge in January 1946. A standoff between the King and Groza was saluted by the National Peasantists, who participated in a massive monarchist rally in November 1945. Many, including Coposu, were arrested during

20864-558: The overthrow of the Finnish constitution or to overthrow the president, cabinet or parliament or to prevent them from performing their functions. Article 411-1 of the French Penal Code defines treason as follows: The acts defined by articles 411-2 to 411–11 constitute treason where they are committed by a French national or a soldier in the service of France, and constitute espionage where they are committed by any other person. Article 411-2 prohibits "handing over troops belonging to

21027-512: The pact with the Iron Guard, leaving that group entirely isolated on the political scene. He had instead initiated talks with the PȚR. This produced a "common constitutional front" before January 18, with negotiations continuing for the PNL's adherence to it. The PNȚ again sought grassroots communist support: in Vâlcea County , it shared a list with the "Democratic Union", assigning eligible positions to

21190-550: The party central organ became Dreptatea , though the party continued to publish various other periodicals, including Patria . On November 21 of that year, the party was admitted into the International Agrarian Bureau . The National–Peasantist fusion could not lead to an immediate challenge to the PNL supremacy. The party dropped to 22% and 54 deputies after the June 1927 election . With Ferdinand terminally ill, it reluctantly backed Barbu Știrbey 's nominally independent cabinet, which

21353-495: The party—Ralea, Andrei, Mihail Ghelmegeanu , and Ernest Ene —, who worked from drafts first presented in Ralea's Viața Românească . During their ascendancy, in March 1934, Lupu and his followers were welcomed back into the PNȚ. This merger saw the party being joined by historian Ioan Hudiță , who later became one of Maniu's dedicated supporters. From May 1935, the PNȚ held massive rallies, showcasing Mihalache's ambition of forming

21516-477: The person: A person is not guilty of treason under paragraphs (e), (f) or (h) if their assistance or intended assistance is purely humanitarian in nature. The maximum penalty for treason is life imprisonment . Section 80.1AC of the Act creates the related offence of treachery . The Treason Act 1351 , the Treason Act 1795 and the Treason Act 1817 form part of the law of New South Wales . The Treason Act 1795 and

21679-752: The political thought a PNR leader, Alexandru Vaida-Voevod . Based in the Romanian Old Kingdom , the Peasants' Party was founded in December 1918 by schoolteacher Ion Mihalache , with assistance from academics such as Virgil Madgearu and Dimitrie Gusti . The group soon established itself in Bessarabia , also recently united with Romania . This was due to it absorbing much of the Bessarabian Peasants' Party , under Pan Halippa and Constantin Stere . In 1921,

21842-417: The pro-Allied King Michael I —Maniu feared that doing so would leave Romania exposed to Nazi retribution. " Operation Autonomous ", a British attempt to mediate between Maniu and the Soviets, ended abruptly when Alfred Gardyne de Chastelain and Ivor Porter were captured in Romania. In the aftermath, Antonescu again protected Maniu, reassuring the Axis that the Romanian opposition had no real contact with

22005-497: The reputation of PNȚ-ists such as Romulus Boilă . Won over by Carol's political vision, Vaida lost the party chairmanship in March 1935, and inaugurated a new schism, creating his very own far-right party, the Romanian Front (FR), during the following month. Maniu also lost his grip on the PNȚ, and Mihalache was voted in for his second term. His relationship with Maniu reached a low point, with Mihalache hinting that he could order

22168-426: The revolutionaries who sentenced his father to death as having been traitors in the more traditional sense. In medieval times, most treason cases were in the context of a kingdom's internal politics. Though helping a foreign monarch against one's own sovereign would also count as treason, such were only a minority among treason cases. Conversely, in modern times, "traitor" and "treason" are mainly used with reference to

22331-415: The same time, Gheorghe Beza , a political conspirator with known links to the Iron Guard, began exposing Codreanu's various secrets, including his erstwhile cultivation by Vaida. From 1936, Beza was a card-carrying PNȚ man, assigned leadership over the Peasant Guards, following their reactivation by Mihalache. The Guards were supervised by a Military Section, comprising Army officials: Admiral Dan Zaharia

22494-689: The second time in the summer of 1815, Ney was arrested and tried for treason by the Chamber of Peers . In order to save Ney's life, his lawyer André Dupin argued that as Ney's hometown of Sarrelouis had been annexed by Prussia according to the Treaty of Paris of 1815 , Ney was now a Prussian , no longer owing allegiance to the King of France and therefore not liable for treason in a French court. Ney ruined his lawyer's effort by interrupting him and stating: "Je suis Français et je resterai Français!" (I am French and I will remain French!). Having refused that defence, Ney

22657-459: The showing impressed the Regents into deposing the PNL cabinet and handing power to Maniu. Carol reportedly watched on as the events unfolded: at the time, Maniu "remain[ed] silent" as to whether he would back him for the throne. In fact, Maniu and Aurel Leucuția promised him the PNȚ's backing if he accepted a set of conditions, including un-divorcing Helen of Greece ; Carol reluctantly agreed. Maniu

22820-694: The states of New South Wales , South Australia and Victoria. Similarly to Treason laws in the United States , citizens of Australia owe allegiance to their sovereign at the federal and state level. The federal law defining treason in Australia is provided under section 80.1 of the Criminal Code, contained in the schedule of the Commonwealth Criminal Code Act 1995. It defines treason as follows: A person commits an offence, called treason, if

22983-404: The third general congress of April 4–5, 1937, which was to be the PNȚ's last, inner-party stability appeared to be threatened by "intrigue and ambition", although shows of unity were made in various rallies. During that interval, prosecutors brought R. Boilă to trial for his participation in the "Škoda Affair". He and all other defendants were acquitted. Coposu, who attempted to show that the case

23146-644: The vote. This result was partly owed to its alliance with the PSDR, the Jewish National People's Party , the German Party , and the Ukrainian Nationalists . At this early stage, the PNȚ was fully controlled by Maniu, who ordered PNȚ members of Parliament to sign resignations that he would file and enact upon in case of insubordination. In June 1930, a trans-party group of Carlist supporters engineered

23309-537: The youth organization, they later became a nucleus for the paramilitary Peasant Guards . By that time, Maniu's guidelines had eroded left-wing support for the party. In February 1927, Lupu and Ion Buzdugan founded a rival group, the Peasants' Party–Lupu . Stere was finally expelled from the PNȚ after a heated controversy in 1930. In 1931, he established an agrarian socialist group called Democratic Peasants' Party–Stere . Another left-wing dissidence broke away with Grigore Iunian in late 1932, establishing itself as

23472-702: Was Carlos Lamarca , an army captain who deserted to become the leader of a communist-terrorist guerrilla against the military government . Section 46 of the Criminal Code has two degrees of treason, called "high treason" and "treason". However, both of these belong to the historical category of high treason , as opposed to petty treason which does not exist in Canadian law. Section 46 reads as follows: High treason (1) Every one commits high treason who, in Canada, Treason (2) Every one commits treason who, in Canada, It

23635-450: Was a National Liberal sweep, leaving the PNȚ with less than 15% of the votes cast. Duca took on the task of dissolving the Iron Guard, and was murdered by a death squad on December 29; the premiership passed to another PNL man, Gheorghe Tătărescu . The PNȚ viewed Tătărescu's appointment as arbitrary, and protested on the issue. The spread of credible rumors according to which Maniu was slated for assassination by Carol's partisans rekindled

23798-474: Was a member, alongside generals Ștefan Burileanu , Gheorghe Rujinschi , Gabriel Negrei , and Ioan Sichitiu . Zaharia was directly involved with the Peasant Guards of Muscel County , whom he used to quell violence by the LANC militia, or Lăncieri . Clashes also occurred at Faraoani , where PNC men ambushed a PNȚ column, and at Focșani , where the Peasant Guards were called in to break up an Iron Guard rally. Codreanu's followers were especially incensed by

23961-519: Was adamant that Carol's mistress Elena Lupescu stay exiled, and for this reason earned the Prince's eternal enmity. Maniu was sworn in as Prime Minister on October 10, 1928, leading the first of eight PNȚ government teams. This saw an extension of the welfare state and the regulation of labor through collective bargaining . Maniu's first cabinet had Moldovan as Labor Minister , using this position to advance his program in " biopolitics ". His tenure saw

24124-405: Was affected during the strike actions of Lupeni and Grivița , which its ministers repressed with noted expediency. The former incident in particular was received as a shock by working-class voters, and led journalist Romulus Cioflec to hand in his resignation from the party, in what became a public scandal. All PNȚ cabinets were also confronted by the rise of revolutionary fascism, heralded by

24287-649: Was again offered the premiership, and again declined, power went to General Nicolae Rădescu . Maniu and his followers agreed with the PCdR on the need for "de-fascization" in Romania, overseeing a purge of Romania's police agencies and appointing Ghiță Pop as PNȚ representative on the Special Committee for the investigation of war crimes. However, as noted by Boia, "curious solidarities" continued to be formed locally by anti-Carol PNȚ-ists and their Guardist counterparts. Noted Guardists who were accepted as PNȚ members include Horațiu Comaniciu and Silviu Crăciunaș . National Peasantists in Transylvania no longer screened against

24450-423: Was called by Ferdinand to take power. Maniu was a first choice, but eventually discarded for his association with Mihalache, whom Ferdinand regarded as a dangerous radical. Weakened when Goldiș and others defected to the PP, the PNR became "second-fiddle" to the Peasantist caucus. In the subsequent national election of June , the PNR and PȚ formed a National–Peasant Bloc, which took 27% of the vote and 69 seats in

24613-414: Was duly found guilty of treason and executed. Until the late 19th century, Britain - like various other countries - held to a doctrine of "perpetual allegiance to the sovereign", dating back to feudal times, under which British subjects, owing loyalty to the British monarch, remained such even if they emigrated to another country and took its citizenship. This became a hotly debated issue in the aftermath of

24776-404: Was formed at the University of Iași by Bratu and Andrei, gathering new members and sympathizers: Constantin Balmuș , Octav Botez , Iorgu Iordan , Andrei Oțetea , and Mihai Ralea . Unable to obtain a reduction of the foreign debt, and harangued by an increasingly confident PNL, the Vaida cabinet fell in November 1933. A PNL team under Ion G. Duca took over. The election of December 1933

24939-442: Was formed in 1926 through the fusion of the Romanian National Party (PNR), a conservative-regionalist group centred on Transylvania , and the Peasants' Party (PȚ), which had coalesced the left-leaning agrarian movement in the Old Kingdom and Bessarabia . The definitive PNR–PȚ merger came after a decade-long rapprochement, producing a credible contender to the dominant National Liberal Party (PNL). National Peasantists agreed on

25102-446: Was historically known as high treason. At times, the term traitor has been used as a political epithet , regardless of any verifiable treasonable action. In a civil war or insurrection , the winners may deem the losers to be traitors. Likewise the term traitor is used in heated political discussion – typically as a slur against political dissidents, or against officials in power who are perceived as failing to act in

25265-415: Was in practice a National Liberal front. Its leadership also rejected a pact with Averescu's group, pushing it into further into political insignificance. These events also overlapped with a dynastic crisis: after Ferdinand's death in July 1927, the throne went to his minor grandson Michael I —Michael's disgraced father Carol II having been forced to renounce his claim and pushed into exile. The arrangement

25428-620: Was instrumented by Carol as revenge against his PNȚ opponents, was found guilty of lèse-majesté and spent three months in prison. Ahead of legislative elections in December 1937 , Carol invited Mihalache to form a cabinet, but also tried to impose some of his own selections as ministers; Mihalache refused to comply. As a result of this failure, Maniu returned as chairman of the PNȚ—he would serve as such uninterruptedly, to July 1947. Immediately after taking over, he proceeded to reinforce party discipline, obtaining promises of compliance from left-wingers Lupu and Madgearu. His return also allowed

25591-468: Was present at the Romanian Legation in Sweden , was mentioned in one of the testimonies at the trial and opted not to return to his country. The episode was soon after used against Romanian Foreign Minister Gheorghe Tătărescu , the leader of the National Liberal Party-Tătărescu (which was aligned with the Communists but had criticised several of their policies). He was attacked by the PCR newspaper Scînteia for having allegedly failed to act against

25754-442: Was registered as having lost the fraudulent elections in 1946 , and was banned following the " Tămădău Affair " of 1947. The communist regime imprisoned its members in large numbers, though some on the pro-communist left were allowed to go free. Both Maniu and his more leftist deputy, Ion Mihalache , died in prison. PNȚ cells were revived in the Romanian diaspora by youth leaders such as Ion Rațiu , and had representation within

25917-475: Was resented by both the PNL and the PNR. For different reasons, both groups sketched out plans to depose Michael and turn Romania into a republic. The unexpected death of PNL chairman Ion I. C. Brătianu pushed the PNȚ back into full-blown opposition: "All hopes [...] focused on the democratic movement of renewal, outstandingly represented by Iuliu Maniu." The party withdrew its elected representatives and pushed citizens to engage in tax resistance . In creating

26080-451: Was successfully tested during the August 1925 elections for the Agricultural Chambers, a professional consultative body. In the local election of early 1926 , both parties ran a United Opposition Bloc, in conjunction with Alexandru Averescu 's People's Party (PP); also joining them was a Peasant Workers' Bloc (BMȚ), which acted as a legal front for clandestine Romanian Communist Party (PCdR). The PP withdrew from this pact once Averescu

26243-399: Was the first time treason was defined by statute. During the 12th century the rights of the king were gradually set apart from the other nobles. Beginning with the reign of Edward I the Crown asserted its authority to recognize rebellions ("levying war") as treasonous. By the Elizabethan age courts had shed the restrictions of statutory treason in favor of constructive treason applied as

26406-585: Was tolerating the transit through Romania of Northern Transylvanian Jews fleeing extermination in Hungary , some of whom were assisted on their journey by a PNȚ-ist network. By early 1942, Maniu and Brătianu had come to favor an anti-Nazi coup, and had asked for direct British support. The Soviets were informed of this, but fully rejected Maniu's demands for a restoration of Greater Romania. In January 1943, with over 100,000 Romanian soldiers trapped at Stalingrad , PCdR members approached Maniu with concrete offers for collaboration. Hoping to obtain full peace without

26569-422: Was used by later monarchs against people who could reasonably be called traitors. Many of them would now just be considered dissidents . The words "treason" and "traitor" are derived from the Latin tradere , "to deliver or hand over". Specifically, it is derived from the term " traditors ", which refers to bishops and other Christians who turned over sacred scriptures or betrayed their fellow Christians to

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