In Norse mythology , Surtr ( Old Norse "black" "the swarthy one", Surtur in modern Icelandic ), also sometimes written Surt in English, is a jötunn ; he is the greatest of the fire giants, who serves as the guardian of Muspelheim which is along with Niflheim , the only two realms to exist before the beginning of time. Surtr is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In both sources, Surtr is foretold as being a major figure during the events of Ragnarök ; carrying his bright sword, he will go to battle against the Æsir , he will battle the major god Freyr , and afterward the flames that he brings forth will engulf the Earth.
70-507: Surtsey (" Surtr 's island" in Icelandic , Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈsʏr̥(t)sˌeiː] ) is an uninhabited volcanic island located in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the southern coast of Iceland . At 63°18′11″N 20°36′18″W / 63.303°N 20.605°W / 63.303; -20.605 Surtsey is the southernmost point of Iceland . It was formed in
140-415: A golden plover ( Pluvialis apricaria ) was nesting on the island, with four eggs. Soon after the island's formation, seals were seen around the island. They soon began basking there, particularly on the northern spit, which grew as the waves eroded the island. Seals were found to be breeding on the island in 1983, and a group of up to 70 made the island their breeding spot. Grey seals are more common on
210-474: A specific gravity greater than 1 and sinks in water. Scoria may form as part of a lava flow, typically near its surface, or as fragmental ejecta ( lapilli , blocks, and bombs), for instance in Strombolian eruptions that form steep-sided scoria cones , also called cinder cones . Scoria's holes or vesicles form when gases dissolved in the original magma come out of solution as it erupts, creating bubbles in
280-417: A volcanic eruption which began 130 metres (430 feet) below sea level, and reached the surface on 14 November 1963. The eruption lasted until 5 June 1967, when the island reached its maximum size of 2.7 km (1.0 sq mi). Since then, wave erosion has caused the island to steadily diminish in size: as of 2012, its surface area was 1.3 km (0.50 sq mi). The most recent survey (2007) shows
350-561: A crater at the summit. An example is Maungarei in Auckland , New Zealand , which like Te Tatua-a-Riukiuta in the south of the same city has been extensively quarried. Quincan, a unique variety of scoria, is quarried at Mount Quincan in Far North Queensland , Australia . Scoria is used for a variety of purposes. It is commonly mined for use as loose construction aggregate in Europe ,
420-413: A few days the new island, formed mainly of scoria , measured over 500 metres (1,640 feet) in length and had reached a height of 45 metres (148 feet). As the eruptions continued, they became concentrated at one vent along the fissure and began to build the island into a more circular shape. By 24 November, the island measured about 900 by 650 metres (2,950 by 2,130 ft). The violent explosions caused by
490-443: A flaming sword, and that "at the end of the world he will go and wage war and defeat all the gods and burn the whole world with fire". The stanza from Völuspá that foretells Surtr moving from the south is then quoted. In chapter 18, Gangleri asks what will protect the fair hall Gimlé "when Surtr's fire burns heaven and earth". In chapter 51 of Gylfaginning , High describes the events of Ragnarök. High says that "amid this turmoil
560-443: A harsh conflict before Freyr falls". High adds that the cause of Freyr's death will be that Freyr is lacking "the good sword" that he once gave his servant Skírnir . As foretold by High further into chapter 51 Gylfaginning , once Heimdallr and Loki fight (and mutually kill one another), Surtr "will fling fire over the earth and burn the whole world". High quotes ten stanzas from Völuspá in support, and then proceeds to describe
630-589: A mighty giant who ruled the powers of (volcanic) fire of the Underworld", and Simek theorizes that the notion of Surtr as an enemy of the gods likely did not originate in Iceland. Simek compares Surtr to the jötnar Eldr, Eimnir, Logi , and Brandingi, noting that they all appear to be personifications of fire. A link has been proposed with Śuri , the Etruscan god of Sun, volcanic fire and underworld, noting that they also share
700-469: A mound of material that approached sea level, the explosions could no longer be contained, and activity broke the surface. The first noticeable indications of volcanic activity were recorded at the seismic station in Kirkjubæjarklaustur , Iceland from 6 to 8 November 1963, which detected weak tremors emanating from an epicentre approximately west-south-west at a distance of 140 km (87 mi),
770-457: A quarter of the original above-sea-level volume of the island. Its maximum elevation has diminished to 155 m (509 ft). Following the end of the eruption, scientists established a grid of benchmarks against which they measured the change in the shape of the island. In the 20 years following the end of the eruption, measurements revealed that the island was steadily subsiding and had lost about one metre in height. The rate of subsidence
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#1732869850911840-458: A tomato plant taking root, which was also destroyed. In 2009, a weather observation station and a webcam were installed on Surtsey. Surtr In a book from the Prose Edda additional information is given about Surtr, including that he is stationed guarding the frontier of the fiery realm Múspell, that he will lead "Múspell's sons" to Ragnarök, and that he will defeat Freyr. Surtr has been
910-421: A volcanic eruption had begun to breach the surface of the sea. By 11:00 the same day, the eruption column had reached several kilometres in height. At first the eruptions took place at three separate vents along a northeast by southwest trending fissure , but by the afternoon the separate eruption columns had merged into one along the erupting fissure. Over the next week, explosions were continuous, and after just
980-427: Is "unknown elsewhere." In chapter 4 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of Third tells Gangleri (described as King Gylfi in disguise) about the location of Múspell . Third says that the bright and flaming region of Múspell existed prior to Niflheim , and it is impassable to those not native to the region. To defend Múspell, Surtr is stationed at its frontier. Third adds that Surtr has
1050-573: Is a small prefabricated hut which is used by researchers while staying on the island. The hut includes a few bunk beds and a solar power source to drive an emergency radio and other key electronics. There is also an abandoned lighthouse foundation. All visitors check themselves and belongings to ensure no seeds are accidentally introduced by humans to the island's developing ecosystem. It is believed that some boys who sneaked over from Heimaey by rowboat planted potatoes, which were promptly dug up once discovered. An improperly managed human defecation resulted in
1120-711: Is also spread as a traction aid on ice- and snow-covered roads, and around oil wells to firm up mud produced by heavy truck traffic. Scoria is used in horticulture. Because it can hold water in its vesicles and in the pore space between grains in aggregates, it can improve the water-holding capacity of planting soils. When sorted to specific sizes and tightly packed, it is also an effective barrier against tunneling pests such as termites. Its striking colours and water-holding properties can make it attractive for landscaping and drainage works. Scoria can be used for high-temperature insulation, as in gas barbecue grills. The ancient Romans used cinders as construction aggregates, one of
1190-558: Is denser. The difference is probably the result of lower magma viscosity, allowing rapid volatile diffusion, bubble growth, coalescence, and bursting. As rising magma encounters lower pressures, dissolved gases are able to exsolve and form vesicles. Some of the vesicles are trapped when the magma chills and solidifies. Vesicles are usually small, spheroidal and do not impinge upon one another; instead, they open into one another with minimal distortion. Volcanic cones of scoria can be left behind after eruptions, usually forming mountains with
1260-624: Is depicted in John Charles Dollman 's painting The Giant with the Flaming Sword . Surtur , a natural satellite of the planet Saturn , and Surt , a volcano on the planet Jupiter 's moon Io , are both named after him. In 2019 the IAU named the star HAT-P-29 and its Jupiter-sized planet HAT-P-29b, respectively, Muspelheim and Surt, as a result of the NameExoWorlds 2019 campaign. Surtr
1330-440: Is estimated that Surtsey will remain above sea level until at least the year 2100. The eruption was unexpected, and almost certainly began some days before it became apparent at the surface. The sea floor at the eruption site is 130 metres (430 feet) below sea level, and at this depth volcanic emissions and explosions would be suppressed, quenched and dissipated by the water pressure and density. Gradually, as repeated flows built up
1400-423: Is quoted that mentions "Surt's deep vales", using the name Surtr as a common noun for a jötunn, with "deep vales" referring to the depths of the mountains (specifically Hnitbjorg ). Scholar Rudolf Simek theorizes that "the concept of Surtr is undoubtedly old", citing examples of Surtr being mentioned in works by the 10th century skalds Eyvindr skáldaspillir and Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld , in poems collected in
1470-481: Is slaked" the god Thor 's sons Móði and Magni shall possess Thor's hammer Mjöllnir . In the poem Fáfnismál , the hero Sigurd asks the mortally wounded dragon Fáfnir the name of the island where Surtr and the Æsir "will mingle sword-liquid together". Fáfnir says that the island is called Óskópnir , that all of the gods shall go there bearing spears, and that on their way there the bridge Bifröst will break beneath them, causing their horses to "flounder in
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#17328698509111540-559: The Garden of Eden ." Scholar John Lindow states that the name Surtr may imply Surtr's charred appearance. Richard Cole draws a comparison between Snorri's depiction of the sons of Muspell and the Red Jews motif. Cole writes that "Snorra Edda is closer to the Red Jews motif than it is to Vǫluspá", pointing out many similarities between Snorri's narrative in his Edda and the Red Jews motif in which
1610-467: The Midgard Serpent will also arrive there. By then, Loki will have arrived with "all of Hel's people", Hrym , and all of the frost jötnar; "but Muspell's sons will have their own battle array; it will be very bright". Further into the chapter, High describes that a fierce battle will erupt between these forces and the Æsir, and that during this, Surtr and Freyr will engage in battle "and there will be
1680-643: The Poetic Edda , and that the name of the volcanic caves Surtshellir in western Iceland was already recorded in the Landnámabók manuscript. Simek notes that jötnar are usually described as living to the east in Old Norse sources, yet Surtr is described as being from the south, and that this "surely has to do with his association with fire and heat". Simek says that "in Iceland Surtr was obviously thought of as being
1750-472: The Southwestern United States , and Japan . Another major use of cinders is in manufacture of concrete and cinder blocks . Scoria is also used in the construction of flexible, long-lasting roadbeds , due to its high strength and high angles of internal friction. Because of its good insulating properties, such roadbeds protect the ground beneath them from frost heave and heat deformation. It
1820-463: The Vestmannaeyjar submarine volcanic system, part of the fissure of the sea floor called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . Vestmannaeyjar also produced the famous eruption of Eldfell on the island of Heimaey in 1973. The eruption that created Surtsey also created a few other small islands along this volcanic chain, such as Jólnir and other, unnamed peaks. Most of these eroded away fairly quickly. It
1890-512: The jötnar , or of efforts to strengthen the gods in order to restrain Surtr or other jötnar under his control. In modern Iceland, the notion of Surtr as a giant of fire lives on; Surtsey ("Surtr's island"), a volcanic island that appeared in 1963 in Vestmannaeyjar , Iceland, is named after Surtr much like Surtshellir. The description found in Gylfaginning of Surtr guarding the frontier of Múspell
1960-488: The Prose Edda differs from Völuspá. The 12th-13th century Icelandic "Book of Settlements" ( Landnámabók ) describes the 150 km journey of a chieftain's son, Þorvaldur holbarki ("hollow throat") Þorðarson, through Iceland's interior to sing a poem of praise (a "drápa") – a ritual act – to the giant that lived inside "hellisins Surts", Surt's cave, which is called Surtshellir in modern Icelandic. Archaeological research inside
2030-430: The activity on the main island diminished, but at the end of May that year an eruption began at a vent 0.6 km (0.37 mi) off the northern shore. By 28 May, an island had appeared, and was named Syrtlingur ( [ˈsɪr̥tliŋkʏr̥] Little Surtsey). The new island was washed away during early June, but reappeared on 14 June. Eruptions at Syrtlingur were much smaller in scale than those that had built Surtsey, with
2100-459: The approximately 490 species found on mainland Iceland. More species continue to arrive, at a typical rate of roughly 2–5 new species per year. The expansion of bird life on the island has both relied on and helped to advance the spread of plant life. Birds use the plants for nesting material, but also continue to assist in the spreading of seeds, and fertilize the soil with their guano . Birds first began nesting on Surtsey three years after
2170-502: The average rate of emission of volcanic materials being about a tenth of the rate at the main vent. Activity was short-lived, continuing until the beginning of October 1965, by which time the islet had an area of 0.15 km (0.058 sq mi). Once the eruptions had ceased, wave erosion rapidly wore the island away, and it disappeared beneath the waves on 24 October. During December 1965, more submarine activity occurred 0.9 km (0.56 mi) southwest of Surtsey, and another island
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2240-435: The cave in 2001, 2012, and 2013 has shown that what was once theorized to be evidence of outlaws' activity in the cave – bones of sheep and oxen – instead documents evidence of Viking Age ritual activities undertaken inside the cave for 65–100 years prior to Iceland's conversion to Christianity around 1000 AD. This suggests a possible cult to appease the fire giant, perhaps the first concrete evidence of worship of
2310-408: The erupting vents threw rocks up to a kilometre (0.6 mi) away from the island, and sent ash clouds as high as 10 km (6.2 mi) up into the atmosphere . The loose pile of unconsolidated tephra would quickly have been washed away had the supply of fresh magma dwindled, and large clouds of dust were often seen blowing away from the island during this stage of the eruption. The new island
2380-432: The eruption center were 2.4 °C (4.3 °F) higher than surrounding waters. At 07:15 UTC on 14 November 1963, the cook of Ísleifur II , a trawler sailing these same waters, spotted a rising column of dark smoke southwest of the boat. The captain thought it might have been a boat on fire, and ordered his crew to investigate. Instead, they encountered explosive eruptions giving off black columns of ash, indicating that
2450-402: The eruption was still in progress. Today only a few scientists are permitted to land on Surtsey; the only way anyone else can see it closely is from a small plane. This allows the natural ecological succession for the island to proceed without outside interference. In 2008, UNESCO declared the island a World Heritage Site , in recognition of its great scientific value. In the spring of 1965,
2520-409: The eruptions ended, with northern fulmar ( Procellaria glacialis ) and black guillemot ( Cepphus grylle ) being the first species to set up home. Twelve species are now regularly found on the island. A gull colony has been present since 1984, although gulls were seen briefly on the shores of the new island weeks after it first appeared. The gull colony has been particularly important in developing
2590-475: The fertilisation of the soil and resulting promotion of plant life provides a viable habitat for herbivorous insects. The first earthworm was found in a soil sample in 1993, probably carried over from Heimaey by a bird. However, the next year no earthworms were found. Slugs were found in 1998, and appeared to be similar to varieties found in the southern Icelandic mainland. Spiders and beetles have also become established. The only significant human impact
2660-463: The first vascular plant was found growing on the northern shore of Surtsey, mosses became visible in 1967, and lichens were first found on the Surtsey lava in 1970. Plant colonisation on Surtsey has been closely studied, the vascular plants in particular as they have been of far greater significance than mosses, lichens and fungi in the development of vegetation. Mosses and lichens now cover much of
2730-490: The game. Scoria Scoria is a pyroclastic , highly vesicular , dark-colored volcanic rock formed by ejection from a volcano as a molten blob and cooled in the air to form discrete grains called clasts . It is typically dark in color (brown, black or purplish-red), and basaltic or andesitic in composition. Scoria has relatively low density , as it is riddled with macroscopic ellipsoidal vesicles (gas bubbles), but in contrast to pumice , scoria always has
2800-455: The great river". The late Eddic poem Fjölsvinnsmál , stanza 24, contains the line "Surtur sinn mautu" or "surtur sinn mantu" according to the best manuscripts. The last two words, which are otherwise without meaning, are sometimes emended to "Sinmöru" and the entire phrase is taken to mean that Surtr has a female companion named Sinmara . Based on the same passage, Lee Hollander tentatively identifies Sinmara as Surt's wife, stating that she
2870-404: The island include whooper swans ( Cygnus cygnus ), various species of geese , and common ravens ( Corvus corax ). Although Surtsey lies to the west of the main migration routes to Iceland, it has become a more common stopping point as its vegetation has improved. In 2008, the 14th breeding bird species was detected with the discovery of a common raven's nest. According to a 30 May 2009 report,
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2940-473: The island is unlikely to be enlarged in the future by further eruptions. The heavy seas around the island have been eroding it ever since the island appeared, and since the end of the eruption almost half of its original area has been lost. The island currently loses about 1.0 hectare (2.5 acres) of its surface area each year. As a suspected part of the Iceland plume , this island is unlikely to disappear entirely in
3010-483: The island than harbour seals , but both are now well established. The presence of seals attracts orcas , which are frequently seen in the waters around the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago and now frequent the waters around Surtsey. On the submarine portion of the island, many marine species are found. Starfish are abundant, as are sea urchins and limpets . The rocks are covered in algae , and seaweed covers much of
3080-422: The island will survive for many centuries. An idea of what it will look like in the future is given by the other small islands in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago, which formed in the same way as Surtsey several thousand years ago, and have eroded away substantially since they were formed. A classic site for the study of biocolonisation from founder populations , Surtsey was declared a nature reserve in 1965, while
3150-406: The island's maximum elevation at 155 m (509 ft) above sea level. The new island was named after Surtr , a fire jötunn or giant from Norse mythology . It was intensively studied by volcanologists during its eruption, and afterwards by botanists and other biologists as life forms gradually colonised the originally barren island. The undersea vents that produced Surtsey are part of
3220-436: The island, but Iceland quickly asserted that the new island belonged to it. By early 1964, the continuing eruptions had built the island to such a size that sea water could no longer easily reach the vents, and the volcanic activity became much less explosive . Instead, lava fountains and flows became the main form of activity. These resulted in a hard cap of extremely erosion-resistant rock being laid down on top of much of
3290-613: The island. During the island's first 20 years, 20 species of plants were observed at one time or another, but only 10 became established in the nutrient-poor sandy soil. As birds began nesting on the island, soil conditions improved, and more vascular plant species were able to survive. In 1998, the first bush was found on the island, being a species of willow ( Salix ssp.)—a tea-leaved willow ( Salix phylicifolia ), which can grow to heights of up to 4 metres (13 feet). By 2008, 69 species of plant had been found on Surtsey, of which about 30 had become established. This compares to
3360-466: The island. When a large, grass-covered tussock washed ashore in 1974, scientists took half of it for analysis and discovered 663 land invertebrate specimens, mostly mites and springtails , the great majority of which had survived the crossing. The establishment of insect life provided some food for birds, and birds in turn helped many species to become established on the island. The bodies of dead birds provide sustenance for carnivorous insects, while
3430-509: The location of Surtsey. Another station in Reykjavík recorded even weaker tremors for ten hours on 12 November at an undetermined location, when seismic activity ceased until 21 November. That same day, people in the coastal town of Vík 80 km (50 mi) away noticed a smell of hydrogen sulphide . On 13 November, a fishing vessel in search of herring, equipped with sensitive thermometers, noted sea temperatures 3.2 km (2.0 mi) SW of
3500-621: The loose volcanic pile, which prevented the island from being washed away rapidly. Effusive eruptions continued until 1965, by which time the island had a surface area of 2.5 km (0.97 sq mi). On 28 December 1963, submarine activity to the northeast of Surtsey began, causing the formation of a ridge 100 m (330 ft) high on the sea floor. This seamount was named Surtla [ˈsʏr̥tla] , but never reached sea level. Eruptions at Surtla ended on 6 January 1964, and it has since been eroded from its minimum depth of 23 to 47 m (75 to 154 ft) below sea level. In 1965,
3570-414: The meeting of lava and sea water meant that the island consisted of a loose pile of volcanic rock ( scoria ), which was eroded rapidly by North Atlantic storms during the winter. However, eruptions more than kept pace with wave erosion, and by February 1964, the island had a maximum diameter of over 1,300 metres (4,265 feet). The explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions caused by the easy access of water to
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#17328698509113640-494: The molten rock, some of which are frozen in place as the rock cools and solidifies. Most scoria is composed of glassy fragments and may contain phenocrysts . A sample from Yemen was mainly composed of volcanic glass with a few zeolites (e.g., clinoptilolite ). The geological term cinder is synonymous and interchangeable with scoria , though scoria is preferred in scientific literature. The word comes from Greek σκωρία, skōria , rust. In earlier terminology, scoria
3710-467: The near future. The eroded area consisted mostly of loose tephra , easily washed away. Most of the remaining area is capped by hard lava flows, which are much more resistant to erosion. In addition, complex chemical reactions within the loose tephra within the island have gradually formed highly erosion-resistant tuff material, in a process known as palagonitization . On Surtsey, this process has happened quite rapidly, due to high temperatures not far below
3780-401: The plain is called where in battle Surt and the sweet gods will meet". Odin responds that the "ordained field" is Vígríðr , and that it stretches "a hundred leagues" in every direction. Later in the poem, Odin, still disguised and now questioning Vafþrúðnir, asks which of the Æsir will "rule over the possessions of the gods when Surt's fire is slaked". Vafþrúðnir responds that, "when Surt's fire
3850-526: The plant life on Surtsey, and the gulls have had much more of an impact on plant colonisation than other breeding species due to their abundance. An expedition in 2004 found the first evidence of nesting Atlantic puffins ( Fratercula arctica ), which are abundant in the rest of the archipelago . As well as providing a home for some species of birds, Surtsey has also been used as a stopping-off point for migrating birds, particularly those en route between Europe and Iceland. Species that have been seen briefly on
3920-403: The poem. In the stanzas that follow, a number of gods and their opponents are described as doing battle at Ragnarök, and that the world will be consumed in flames, yet afterward a new world rises from the sea, fertile and teeming with life, and the surviving gods will meet again. In the poem Vafþrúðnismál , the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir poses the question to Odin (disguised as "Gagnráðr") "what
3990-483: The rebirth and new fertility of the reborn world, and the survivors of Ragnarök, including various gods and the two humans named Líf and Lífthrasir that will have hid from "Surtr's fire" in the wood Hoddmímis holt . In the Epilogue section of the book Skáldskaparmál , a euhemerized monologue states that "what they called Surt's fire was when Troy burned ". In chapter 2, a work by the skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir
4060-410: The same etymology. The scholar Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions, and that he was a volcano demon. Scholar Andy Orchard theorizes that the description of Surtr found in Gylfaginning "appears to owe something to biblical and patristic notions of the angel with a flaming sword who expelled Adam and Eve from paradise and who stands guard over
4130-399: The sky will open and from it will ride the sons of Muspell. Surtr will ride in front, and both before and behind him there will be burning fire. His sword will be very fine. Light will shine from it more brightly than from the sun." High continues that when the sons of Múspell ride over the bridge Bifröst it will break, and that they will continue to the field of Vígríðr. The wolf Fenrir and
4200-429: The subject of place names and artistic depictions, and scholars have proposed theories regarding elements of Surtr's descriptions and his potential origins. Surtr is mentioned twice in the poem Völuspá , where a völva divulges information to the god Odin . The völva says that, during Ragnarök, Surtr will come from the south with flames , carrying a very bright sword: Old Norse: English: Following this,
4270-488: The submarine slopes of the volcano, with its densest cover between 10 and 20 metres (33 and 66 ft) below sea level. Insects arrived on Surtsey soon after its formation, and were first detected in 1964. The original arrivals were flying insects, carried to the island by winds and their own power. Some were believed to have been blown across from as far away as mainland Europe . Later insect life arrived on floating driftwood , and both live animals and carcasses washed up on
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#17328698509114340-402: The surface. Estimates of how long Surtsey will survive are based on the rate of erosion seen up to the present day. Assuming that the current rate does not change, the island will be mostly at or below sea level by 2100. However, the rate of erosion is likely to slow as the tougher core of the island is exposed: an assessment assuming that the rate of erosion will slow exponentially suggests that
4410-403: The völva says that "stone peaks clash", "troll wives take to the road", "warriors tread the path from Hel ", and the heavens "break apart". The next stanza relates that Odin is to be killed by the wolf Fenrir , and that Surtr will go to battle against " Beli 's bane", a kenning for the god Freyr , who slew the jötunn Beli. No further detail is given about the fight between Surtr and Freyr in
4480-512: Was about one cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi), and the island's highest point was 174 metres (571 feet) above sea level at that time. Since the end of the eruption, erosion has seen the island diminish in size. A large area on the southeast side has been eroded away completely, while a sand spit called Norðurtangi (north point) has grown on the north side of the island. It is estimated that about 0.024 km (0.0058 cu mi) of material has been lost due to erosion—this represents about
4550-462: Was adapted as a character by Marvel Comics , first appearing in Journey into Mystery #97 (October 1963). Surtur was important to the backstory in the animated film Thor: Tales of Asgard , before making a full appearance in the 2017 MCU film Thor: Ragnarok . A female operator in the mobile video game Arknights is named after the giant, and is regarded as one of the most powerful units in
4620-539: Was formed. It was named Jólnir , and over the following eight months it appeared and disappeared several times, as wave erosion and volcanic activity alternated in dominance. Activity at Jólnir was much weaker than the activity at the main vent, and even weaker than that seen at Syrtlingur, but the island eventually grew to a maximum size of 70 m (230 ft) in height, covering an area of 0.3 km (0.12 sq mi), during July and early August 1966. Like Syrtlingur, though, after activity ceased on 8 August 1966, it
4690-422: Was initially about 20 cm (8 in) per year but slowed to 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79 in) a year by the 1990s. It had several causes: settling of the loose tephra forming the bulk of the volcano, compaction of sea floor sediments underlying the island, and downward warping of the lithosphere due to the weight of the volcano. Volcanoes in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago are typically monogenetic , and so
4760-492: Was named after the fire jötunn Surtur from Norse mythology ( Surts is the genitive case of Surtur , plus -ey , island ) by the Icelandic Naming Committee . Three French journalists representing the magazine Paris Match notably landed there on 6 December 1963, staying for about 15 minutes before violent explosions encouraged them to leave. The journalists jokingly claimed French sovereignty over
4830-402: Was rapidly eroded, and dropped below sea level during October 1966. Effusive eruptions on the main island returned on 19 August 1966, with fresh lava flows giving it further resistance to erosion. The eruption rate diminished steadily, though, and on 5 June 1967, the eruption ended. The volcano has been dormant ever since. The total volume of lava emitted during the three-and-a-half-year eruption
4900-466: Was usually defined with a size range, e.g. 2 to 24 mm (0.079 to 0.945 in) in diameter, but neither color nor composition was typically a part of the definition. During the 1980s, the size range disappeared from the definition, and a requirement was added that scoria be black or reddish in color and/or mafic in composition. Scoria differs from pumice , another vesicular volcanic rock, in having larger vesicles and thicker vesicle walls, and hence
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