The Iveco SuperAV is an eight-wheel drive tactical vehicle developed by the Italian commercial vehicle company Iveco . A version made in collaboration with BAE Systems was selected by the United States Marine Corps for the Amphibious Combat Vehicle program.
97-406: The SuperAV is an 8x8 wheeled amphibious vehicle. It is powered by an Iveco Cursor 13 6L turbocharged multifuel diesel engine coupled with a ZF 7HP902 gearbox (seven forward and one reverse). It has a top speed of 105 km/h (65 mph) on land and 10 km/h (6.2 mph) on water. The vehicle's range is 500 mi (800 km) on land and 40 mi (64 km) on water. The wheels have
194-406: A V-shaped hull to withstand strong bomb blasts and could travel up to 10 nmi (12 mi; 19 km) from a dock landing ship to shore and back. The unit cost was $ 3.5 million. The vehicle swam through the water using two counter-rotating propellers, each with 284 kN (65,000 lb (29,000 kg)) of thrust. On 8 May 2013, BAE and Iveco successfully completed 12 days of evaluations on
291-414: A carcinogen or "probable carcinogen" and is known to increase the risk of heart and respiratory diseases. In principle, a diesel engine does not require any sort of electrical system. However, most modern diesel engines are equipped with an electrical fuel pump, and an electronic engine control unit. However, there is no high-voltage electrical ignition system present in a diesel engine. This eliminates
388-694: A central tire inflation system and run-flat tires. The SuperAV is fully amphibious, able to operate in and over sea state 3. It can be air transported by a C-130 Hercules or an Airbus A400M . Iveco claims the SuperAV has the highest protection level in its class. It incorporates a high hardness monocoque steel hull , able to protect the crew from small arms fire, artillery shell splinters, landmines, and IEDs . Add-on armor kits are available. The vehicle has NBC protection and automatic fire suppression systems. The SuperAV can be fitted with weapons systems up to 40 mm in remote weapons stations or turrets. If
485-448: A diesel engine drops at lower loads, however, it does not drop quite as fast as the Otto (spark ignition) engine's. Diesel engines are combustion engines and, therefore, emit combustion products in their exhaust gas . Due to incomplete combustion, diesel engine exhaust gases include carbon monoxide , hydrocarbons , particulate matter , and nitrogen oxides pollutants. About 90 per cent of
582-501: A diesel engine, particularly at idling speeds, is sometimes called "diesel clatter". This noise is largely caused by the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into the combustion chamber, which causes a pressure wave that sounds like knocking. Reserve buoyancy The load line , also known as Plimsoll line , indicates the legal limit to which a ship may be loaded for specific water types and temperatures in order to safely maintain buoyancy , particularly with regard to
679-516: A few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a mechanical governor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springs and a lever. The injectors are held open by the fuel pressure. On high-speed engines the plunger pumps are together in one unit. The length of fuel lines from the pump to each injector is normally the same for each cylinder in order to obtain the same pressure delay. Direct injected diesel engines usually use orifice-type fuel injectors. Electronic control of
776-407: A finite area, and the net output of work during a cycle is positive. The fuel efficiency of diesel engines is better than most other types of combustion engines, due to their high compression ratio, high air–fuel equivalence ratio (λ) , and the lack of intake air restrictions (i.e. throttle valves). Theoretically, the highest possible efficiency for a diesel engine is 75%. However, in practice
873-452: A fuel consumption of 519 g·kW ·h . However, despite proving the concept, the engine caused problems, and Diesel could not achieve any substantial progress. Therefore, Krupp considered rescinding the contract they had made with Diesel. Diesel was forced to improve the design of his engine and rushed to construct a third prototype engine. Between 8 November and 20 December 1895, the second prototype had successfully covered over 111 hours on
970-409: A full set of valves, two-stroke diesel engines have simple intake ports, and exhaust ports (or exhaust valves). When the piston approaches bottom dead centre, both the intake and the exhaust ports are "open", which means that there is atmospheric pressure inside the cylinder. Therefore, some sort of pump is required to blow the air into the cylinder and the combustion gasses into the exhaust. This process
1067-400: A function of the depth of the hold (three inches per foot of depth, 250 mm/m). These recommendations, used extensively until 1880, became known as "Lloyd's Rule". In the 1860s, after increased loss of ships due to overloading, a British MP, Samuel Plimsoll , took up the load line cause against strong opposition. A Royal Commission on unseaworthy ships was established in 1872, and in 1876
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#17328731211831164-472: A heavy cannon. Iveco's H-Drive System provides power to individual wheels, simulating a tracked vehicle, so it can continue operating if any wheels are damaged or blown off and has better mobility in soft soil or sand. Since the H-Drive System eliminates axles through use of a string of three shafts on each side, a V-shaped hull is able to be used for blast protection, and the floor is also not connected to
1261-459: A load line is to ensure that a ship has sufficient freeboard (the height from the waterline to the main deck) and thus sufficient reserve buoyancy . The freeboard of commercial vessels is measured between the lowest point of the uppermost continuous deck at side and the waterline and this must not be less than the freeboard marked on the load line certificate issued to that ship. All commercial ships, other than in exceptional circumstances, have
1358-441: A load line symbol painted amidships on each side of the ship. This symbol is also permanently marked, so that if the paint wears off it remains visible. The load line makes it easy for anyone to determine if a ship has been overloaded. The exact location of the load line is calculated and verified by a classification society and that society issues the relevant certificates. This marking was invented in 1876 by Samuel Plimsoll . In
1455-403: A low-pressure loop at the bottom of the diagram. At 1 it is assumed that the exhaust and induction strokes have been completed, and the cylinder is again filled with air. The piston-cylinder system absorbs energy between 1 and 2 – this is the work needed to compress the air in the cylinder, and is provided by mechanical kinetic energy stored in the flywheel of the engine. Work output is done by
1552-678: A notable exception being the EMD 567 , 645 , and 710 engines, which are all two-stroke. The power output of medium-speed diesel engines can be as high as 21,870 kW, with the effective efficiency being around 47-48% (1982). Most larger medium-speed engines are started with compressed air direct on pistons, using an air distributor, as opposed to a pneumatic starting motor acting on the flywheel, which tends to be used for smaller engines. Medium-speed engines intended for marine applications are usually used to power ( ro-ro ) ferries, passenger ships or small freight ships. Using medium-speed engines reduces
1649-526: A petroleum engine with glow-tube ignition in the early 1890s; he claimed against his own better judgement that his glow-tube ignition engine worked the same way Diesel's engine did. His claims were unfounded and he lost a patent lawsuit against Diesel. Other engines, such as the Akroyd engine and the Brayton engine , also use an operating cycle that is different from the diesel engine cycle. Friedrich Sass says that
1746-415: A poorer power-to-mass ratio than an equivalent petrol engine. The lower engine speeds (RPM) of typical diesel engines results in a lower power output. Also, the mass of a diesel engine is typically higher, since the higher operating pressure inside the combustion chamber increases the internal forces, which requires stronger (and therefore heavier) parts to withstand these forces. The distinctive noise of
1843-487: A quietly running engine. The SuperAV uses a 690 hp engine to propel the vehicle at 6 knots (6.9 mph; 11 km/h) in water and up to 65 mph (105 km/h) on land; reserve buoyancy is 21 percent. It weighs 29 tonnes (63,000 lb) with a 6,000 lb (2,700 kg) payload capacity, and has a range of 10 nmi (12 mi; 19 km) at sea followed by 200 mi (320 km) on land, or 350 mi (560 km) entirely on land. On 24 November 2015,
1940-408: A regular trunk-piston. Two-stroke engines have a limited rotational frequency and their charge exchange is more difficult, which means that they are usually bigger than four-stroke engines and used to directly power a ship's propeller. Four-stroke engines on ships are usually used to power an electric generator. An electric motor powers the propeller. Both types are usually very undersquare , meaning
2037-666: A requirement for the development of a new family of APC and IFV, by 2009 a contract was signed with Iveco Latin America for the production of 2,044 units of the VBTP-MR Guarani 6x6 APC, the 8x8 variant was later adapted to the SuperAV. In 2010, the SuperAV was offered to the Italian Army for their requirement for an amphibious vehicle to replace the AAVTP-7A1 and was selected. In 2011, Iveco entered an agreement with BAE Systems to offer
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#17328731211832134-435: A simple mechanical injection system since exact injection timing is not as critical. Most modern automotive engines are DI which have the benefits of greater efficiency and easier starting; however, IDI engines can still be found in the many ATV and small diesel applications. Indirect injected diesel engines use pintle-type fuel injectors. Early diesel engines injected fuel with the assistance of compressed air, which atomised
2231-533: A single orifice injector. The pre-chamber has the disadvantage of lowering efficiency due to increased heat loss to the engine's cooling system, restricting the combustion burn, thus reducing the efficiency by 5–10%. IDI engines are also more difficult to start and usually require the use of glow plugs. IDI engines may be cheaper to build but generally require a higher compression ratio than the DI counterpart. IDI also makes it easier to produce smooth, quieter running engines with
2328-527: A single speed for long periods. Two-stroke engines use a combustion cycle which is completed in two strokes instead of four strokes. Filling the cylinder with air and compressing it takes place in one stroke, and the power and exhaust strokes are combined. The compression in a two-stroke diesel engine is similar to the compression that takes place in a four-stroke diesel engine: As the piston passes through bottom centre and starts upward, compression commences, culminating in fuel injection and ignition. Instead of
2425-426: A small chamber called a swirl chamber, precombustion chamber, pre chamber or ante-chamber, which is connected to the cylinder by a narrow air passage. Generally the goal of the pre chamber is to create increased turbulence for better air / fuel mixing. This system also allows for a smoother, quieter running engine, and because fuel mixing is assisted by turbulence, injector pressures can be lower. Most IDI systems use
2522-516: A source of radio frequency emissions (which can interfere with navigation and communication equipment), which is why only diesel-powered vehicles are allowed in some parts of the American National Radio Quiet Zone . To control the torque output at any given time (i.e. when the driver of a car adjusts the accelerator pedal ), a governor adjusts the amount of fuel injected into the engine. Mechanical governors have been used in
2619-400: A spark plug ( compression ignition rather than spark ignition ). In the diesel engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15:1 and 23:1. This high compression causes the temperature of the air to rise. At about the top of the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in
2716-417: A swirl chamber or pre-chamber are called indirect injection (IDI) engines. Most direct injection diesel engines have a combustion cup in the top of the piston where the fuel is sprayed. Many different methods of injection can be used. Usually, an engine with helix-controlled mechanic direct injection has either an inline or a distributor injection pump. For each engine cylinder, the corresponding plunger in
2813-458: A two-man manned turret is installed, troops capacity is reduced from 12 to 8. If a remote turret is installed, troops capacity is only reduced to 10. The SuperAV is available as an armoured personnel carrier, anti-tank vehicle, mortar carrier, engineer vehicle, recovery vehicle, ambulance, and command post vehicle. A land variant is being developed by Iveco. In 1999, the Brazilian Army made
2910-422: A two-stroke ship diesel engine has a single-stage turbocharger with a turbine that has an axial inflow and a radial outflow. In general, there are three types of scavenging possible: Crossflow scavenging is incomplete and limits the stroke, yet some manufacturers used it. Reverse flow scavenging is a very simple way of scavenging, and it was popular amongst manufacturers until the early 1980s. Uniflow scavenging
3007-423: Is 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) for a vessel 75 m (246 ft) or less in length and 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in) for a vessel 125 m (410 ft) or more in length with intermediate heights for intermediate lengths. A poop or raised quarterdeck is also required if the length is less than 100 m (330 ft). The letter L prefixes the load line marks to indicate a timber load line. Except for
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3104-423: Is a simplified and idealised representation of the events involved in a diesel engine cycle, arranged to illustrate the similarity with a Carnot cycle . Starting at 1, the piston is at bottom dead centre and both valves are closed at the start of the compression stroke; the cylinder contains air at atmospheric pressure. Between 1 and 2 the air is compressed adiabatically – that is without heat transfer to or from
3201-403: Is approximately 5 MW. Medium-speed engines are used in large electrical generators, railway diesel locomotives , ship propulsion and mechanical drive applications such as large compressors or pumps. Medium speed diesel engines operate on either diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil by direct injection in the same manner as low-speed engines. Usually, they are four-stroke engines with trunk pistons;
3298-429: Is called scavenging . The pressure required is approximately 10-30 kPa. Due to the lack of discrete exhaust and intake strokes, all two-stroke diesel engines use a scavenge blower or some form of compressor to charge the cylinders with air and assist in scavenging. Roots-type superchargers were used for ship engines until the mid-1950s, however since 1955 they have been widely replaced by turbochargers. Usually,
3395-404: Is done on the system to which the engine is connected. During this expansion phase the volume of the gas rises, and its temperature and pressure both fall. At 4 the exhaust valve opens, and the pressure falls abruptly to atmospheric (approximately). This is unresisted expansion and no useful work is done by it. Ideally the adiabatic expansion should continue, extending the line 3–4 to the right until
3492-464: Is more complicated to make but allows the highest fuel efficiency; since the early 1980s, manufacturers such as MAN and Sulzer have switched to this system. It is standard for modern marine two-stroke diesel engines. So-called dual-fuel diesel engines or gas diesel engines burn two different types of fuel simultaneously , for instance, a gaseous fuel and diesel engine fuel. The diesel engine fuel auto-ignites due to compression ignition, and then ignites
3589-448: Is not present during valve overlap, and therefore no fuel goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can reach effective efficiencies of up to 55%. The combined cycle gas turbine (Brayton and Rankine cycle) is a combustion engine that is more efficient than a diesel engine, but due to its mass and dimensions,
3686-406: Is one thirty-sixth of the summer timber load draft below the summer timber load line. The tropical timber load line is one forty-eighth of the summer timber load draft above the summer timber load line. The timber fresh and the tropical timber fresh load lines are calculated in a similar way to the freshwater and tropical freshwater load lines, except that the displacement used in the formula
3783-628: Is planned to be chosen in 2018 to build 204 vehicles, with the first entering service in 2020 and all delivered by 2023. On 19 June 2018, the Marine Corps announced that BAE Systems had been selected to deliver vehicles for the ACV 1.1 program to begin replacing the Amphibious Assault Vehicle ; 30 low-rate production vehicles will be built with deliveries beginning in late 2019. The Marine Corps plans to buy 204 ACV 1.1 vehicles in this first phase of
3880-541: Is referred to during and following load line calculations. The letters on the load line marks have the following meanings: For the purposes of load line marks, freshwater is considered to have a density of 1,000 kg/m (62 lb/cu ft) and typical seawater 1,025 kg/m (64 lb/cu ft). Freshwater marks make allowance for the fact that the ship will float deeper in freshwater than saltwater. A ship loaded to her fresh water mark in fresh water will float at her summer mark once she has passed into seawater at
3977-418: Is that of the vessel at her summer timber load draft. If this cannot be ascertained, then these marks will be one forty-eighth of the timber summer draft above the timber summer and timber tropical marks, respectively. The timber winter North Atlantic load line is at the same level as the winter North Atlantic load line. Passenger ships having spaces which are adapted for the accommodation of passengers and
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4074-424: Is unsuitable for many vehicles, including watercraft and some aircraft . The world's largest diesel engines put in service are 14-cylinder, two-stroke marine diesel engines; they produce a peak power of almost 100 MW each. Diesel engines may be designed with either two-stroke or four-stroke combustion cycles . They were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines . Since
4171-504: The EU average for diesel cars at the time accounted for half of newly registered cars. However, air pollution and overall emissions are more difficult to control in diesel engines compared to gasoline engines, and the use of diesel auto engines in the U.S. is now largely relegated to larger on-road and off-road vehicles . Though aviation has traditionally avoided using diesel engines, aircraft diesel engines have become increasingly available in
4268-510: The International Convention on Load Lines from 1966. For inland water transport regional, national or local rules apply. Load lines are indicated by special markings on the hull . The marking for the main load line, the summer load line, is called load line mark or Plimsoll mark (positioned amidships ), the marks for other conditions are named after the condition suffixed with "load line" (e.g. winter load line). The purpose of
4365-551: The International Convention on Load Lines was concluded in London which re-examined and amended the 1930 rules. The 1966 convention has since seen amendments in 1971, 1975, 1979, 1983, 1995 and 2003, none of which has entered into force. The original "Plimsoll mark" was a circle with a horizontal line through it to show the maximum draft of a ship. Additional marks have been added over the years, allowing for different water densities and expected sea conditions. Letters may also appear to
4462-694: The United Kingdom , and the United States for "Method of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work". In 1894 and 1895, he filed patents and addenda in various countries for his engine; the first patents were issued in Spain (No. 16,654), France (No. 243,531) and Belgium (No. 113,139) in December 1894, and in Germany (No. 86,633) in 1895 and the United States (No. 608,845) in 1898. Diesel
4559-405: The cylinder so that atomised diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber ignites. With the fuel being injected into the air just before combustion, the dispersion of fuel is uneven; this is called a heterogeneous air-fuel mixture. The torque a diesel engine produces is controlled by manipulating the air-fuel ratio (λ) ; instead of throttling the intake air, the diesel engine relies on altering
4656-465: The 1910s, they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives , buses, trucks, heavy equipment , agricultural equipment and electricity generation plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in some automobiles . Since the 1970s energy crisis , demand for higher fuel efficiency has resulted in most major automakers, at some point, offering diesel-powered models, even in very small cars. According to Konrad Reif (2012),
4753-416: The 21st century. Since the late 1990s, for various reasons—including the diesel's inherent advantages over gasoline engines, but also for recent issues peculiar to aviation—development and production of diesel engines for aircraft has surged, with over 5,000 such engines delivered worldwide between 2002 and 2018, particularly for light airplanes and unmanned aerial vehicles . In 1878, Rudolf Diesel , who
4850-450: The Carnot cycle. Diesel was also introduced to a fire piston , a traditional fire starter using rapid adiabatic compression principles which Linde had acquired from Southeast Asia . After several years of working on his ideas, Diesel published them in 1893 in the essay Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor . Diesel was heavily criticised for his essay, but only a few found
4947-582: The Marines selected the BAE Systems/Iveco SuperAV, along with the SAIC Terrex , to move on to the engineering and manufacturing development phase of the ACV 1.1 program. BAE was awarded a $ 103.8 million contract to build 16 vehicles by late 2016 for testing, which will begin in early 2017 and last one year. The company plans to build its ACV prototypes at its York, Pennsylvania facility. A final winner
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#17328731211835044-658: The Middle Ages, the Venetian Republic , the Republic of Genoa and the Hanseatic League required ships to show a load line. In the case of Venice this was a cross marked on the side of the ship, and of Genoa three horizontal lines. The first 19th-century loading recommendations were introduced by Lloyd's Register in 1835, following discussions among shipowners, shippers and underwriters. Lloyd's recommended freeboards as
5141-506: The SuperAV for the MPC program at Camp Pendleton . The evaluations included a water performance demonstrations in various sea conditions, as well as human factors and stowage capacity. The SuperAV, weighing 26 tons, exceeded all vehicle requirements, performing personnel exit drills in less than 17 seconds and showcasing advanced interior layout and compartmentalization that allowed for the stowage of more than three days of supplies without jeopardizing
5238-590: The SuperAV to the United States Marine Corps in their Marine Personnel Carrier program. In August 2012, the SuperAV was selected along with three other vehicles for further demonstration and study. BAE had to redesign the original SuperAV to make it compatible with the Marine Corps mandate that any designs be based on existing platforms. The MPC submission was modified to carry three crew and nine 1.90 m (6 ft 3 in) tall marines standing, each weighing 220 lb (100 kg) with gear. It had
5335-488: The United Kingdom Merchant Shipping Act made the load line mark compulsory, although the positioning of the mark was not fixed by law until 1894 . In 1906, laws were passed requiring foreign ships visiting British ports to be marked with a load line. It was not until 1930 (the 1930 Load Line Convention) that there was international agreement for universal application of load line regulations. In 1966
5432-458: The air-fuel mixture, such as a petrol engine ( gasoline engine) or a gas engine (using a gaseous fuel like natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas ). Diesel engines work by compressing only air, or air combined with residual combustion gases from the exhaust (known as exhaust gas recirculation , "EGR"). Air is inducted into the chamber during the intake stroke, and compressed during the compression stroke. This increases air temperature inside
5529-400: The amount of fuel injected into the engine. Due to the amount of air being constant (for a given RPM) while the amount of fuel varies, very high ("lean") air-fuel ratios are used in situations where minimal torque output is required. This differs from a petrol engine, where a throttle is used to also reduce the amount of intake air as part of regulating the engine's torque output. Controlling
5626-448: The amount of fuel that is injected, and thus the air-fuel ratio is usually high. The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (see engine efficiency ) of any practical internal or external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn, which enables heat dissipation by excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared with non-direct-injection gasoline engines, as unburned fuel
5723-470: The bore is smaller than the stroke. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) often have an effective efficiency of up to 55%. Like medium-speed engines, low-speed engines are started with compressed air, and they use heavy oil as their primary fuel. Four-stroke engines use the combustion cycle described earlier. Most smaller diesels, for vehicular use, for instance, typically use
5820-448: The combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. Combustion occurs at a substantially constant pressure during the initial part of the power stroke. The start of vaporisation causes a delay before ignition and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above
5917-418: The combustion chamber. This may be into a (typically toroidal ) void in the top of the piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed evenly. The heat of the compressed air vaporises fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in
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#17328731211836014-425: The compressed gas. Combustion and heating occur between 2 and 3. In this interval the pressure remains constant since the piston descends, and the volume increases; the temperature rises as a consequence of the energy of combustion. At 3 fuel injection and combustion are complete, and the cylinder contains gas at a higher temperature than at 2. Between 3 and 4 this hot gas expands, again approximately adiabatically. Work
6111-452: The compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent pre-ignition , which would cause engine damage. Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead centre ( TDC ), premature detonation is not a problem and compression ratios are much higher. The pressure–volume diagram (pV) diagram
6208-473: The compression required for his cycle: By June 1893, Diesel had realised his original cycle would not work, and he adopted the constant pressure cycle. Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion. Now it is simply stated that the compression must be sufficient to trigger ignition. In 1892, Diesel received patents in Germany , Switzerland ,
6305-416: The concept of air-blast injection from George B. Brayton , albeit that Diesel substantially improved the system. On 17 February 1894, the redesigned engine ran for 88 revolutions – one minute; with this news, Maschinenfabrik Augsburg's stock rose by 30%, indicative of the tremendous anticipated demands for a more efficient engine. On 26 June 1895, the engine achieved an effective efficiency of 16.6% and had
6402-424: The cost of smaller ships and increases their transport capacity. In addition to that, a single ship can use two smaller engines instead of one big engine, which increases the ship's safety. Low-speed diesel engines are usually very large in size and mostly used to power ships . There are two different types of low-speed engines that are commonly used: Two-stroke engines with a crosshead, and four-stroke engines with
6499-598: The diesel engine is Diesel's "very own work" and that any "Diesel myth" is " falsification of history ". Diesel sought out firms and factories that would build his engine. With the help of Moritz Schröter and Max Gutermuth [ de ] , he succeeded in convincing both Krupp in Essen and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg . Contracts were signed in April 1893, and in early summer 1893, Diesel's first prototype engine
6596-417: The efficiency is much lower, with efficiencies of up to 43% for passenger car engines, up to 45% for large truck and bus engines, and up to 55% for large two-stroke marine engines. The average efficiency over a motor vehicle driving cycle is lower than the diesel engine's peak efficiency (for example, a 37% average efficiency for an engine with a peak efficiency of 44%). That is because the fuel efficiency of
6693-474: The effort with initial operating capability planned for early 2020, fielding in late 2020, and full operational capability scheduled for 2023. The design will be upgraded before moving on to the ACV 1.2 phase. On 15 October 2020, Iveco announced that the first fleet of 18 ACVs had been delivered to a platoon of Marines after five years of testing development. They were officially introduced into Marine Corps service on 4 November. Initial Operational Capability (IOC)
6790-408: The environment – by the rising piston. (This is only approximately true since there will be some heat exchange with the cylinder walls .) During this compression, the volume is reduced, the pressure and temperature both rise. At or slightly before 2 (TDC) fuel is injected and burns in the compressed hot air. Chemical energy is released and this constitutes an injection of thermal energy (heat) into
6887-463: The four-stroke cycle. This is due to several factors, such as the two-stroke design's narrow powerband which is not particularly suitable for automotive use and the necessity for complicated and expensive built-in lubrication systems and scavenging measures. The cost effectiveness (and proportion of added weight) of these technologies has less of an impact on larger, more expensive engines, while engines intended for shipping or stationary use can be run at
6984-612: The fuel and forced it into the engine through a nozzle (a similar principle to an aerosol spray). The nozzle opening was closed by a pin valve actuated by the camshaft . Although the engine was also required to drive an air compressor used for air-blast injection, the efficiency was nonetheless better than other combustion engines of the time. However the system was heavy and it was slow to react to changing torque demands, making it unsuitable for road vehicles. A unit injector system, also known as "Pumpe-Düse" ( pump-nozzle in German) combines
7081-697: The fuel injection transformed the direct injection engine by allowing much greater control over the combustion. Common rail (CR) direct injection systems do not have the fuel metering, pressure-raising and delivery functions in a single unit, as in the case of a Bosch distributor-type pump, for example. A high-pressure pump supplies the CR. The requirements of each cylinder injector are supplied from this common high pressure reservoir of fuel. An Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) controls both rail pressure and injections depending on engine operating conditions. The injectors of older CR systems have solenoid -driven plungers for lifting
7178-405: The fuel pump measures out the correct amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection. These engines use injectors that are very precise spring-loaded valves that open and close at a specific fuel pressure. Separate high-pressure fuel lines connect the fuel pump with each cylinder. Fuel volume for each single combustion is controlled by a slanted groove in the plunger which rotates only
7275-461: The gaseous fuel. Such engines do not require any type of spark ignition and operate similar to regular diesel engines. The fuel is injected at high pressure into either the combustion chamber , "swirl chamber" or "pre-chamber," unlike petrol engines where the fuel is often added in the inlet manifold or carburetor . Engines where the fuel is injected into the main combustion chamber are called direct injection (DI) engines, while those which use
7372-469: The hazard of waves that may arise. The load line is a waterline that corresponds to the maximum draft of the ship, thus yet another name, load waterline . Varying water temperatures will affect a ship's draft , because warm water is less dense than cold water, providing less buoyancy. In the same way, fresh water is less dense than salinated or seawater , with a similar lessening effect upon buoyancy. The rules for international load lines are defined by
7469-493: The hull, instead bolting onto the bottom of the seats, creating less headroom for occupants but absorbing more energy from an underbody blast. Space in the interior is taken up by pipes, wires, and things needed to make systems run, but that is because the space behind the seats is reserved for Marines' gear. Fuel tanks are external for passenger protection, and unlike the AAV, the SuperAV doesn't expel black smoke upon engine start and has
7566-419: The injection needle, whilst newer CR injectors use plungers driven by piezoelectric actuators that have less moving mass and therefore allow even more injections in a very short period of time. Early common rail system were controlled by mechanical means. The injection pressure of modern CR systems ranges from 140 MPa to 270 MPa. An indirect diesel injection system (IDI) engine delivers fuel into
7663-553: The injector and fuel pump into a single component, which is positioned above each cylinder. This eliminates the high-pressure fuel lines and achieves a more consistent injection. Under full load, the injection pressure can reach up to 220 MPa. Unit injectors are operated by a cam and the quantity of fuel injected is controlled either mechanically (by a rack or lever) or electronically. Due to increased performance requirements, unit injectors have been largely replaced by common rail injection systems. The average diesel engine has
7760-476: The mistake that he made; his rational heat motor was supposed to utilise a constant temperature cycle (with isothermal compression) that would require a much higher level of compression than that needed for compression ignition. Diesel's idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion. However, such an engine could never perform any usable work. In his 1892 US patent (granted in 1895) #542846, Diesel describes
7857-534: The past, however electronic governors are more common on modern engines. Mechanical governors are usually driven by the engine's accessory belt or a gear-drive system and use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load and speed. Electronically governed engines use an electronic control unit (ECU) or electronic control module (ECM) to control the fuel delivery. The ECM/ECU uses various sensors (such as engine speed signal, intake manifold pressure and fuel temperature) to determine
7954-477: The piston (not shown on the P-V indicator diagram). When combustion is complete the combustion gases expand as the piston descends further; the high pressure in the cylinder drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft. As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine's efficiency. Increasing
8051-403: The piston-cylinder combination between 2 and 4. The difference between these two increments of work is the indicated work output per cycle, and is represented by the area enclosed by the pV loop. The adiabatic expansion is in a higher pressure range than that of the compression because the gas in the cylinder is hotter during expansion than during compression. It is for this reason that the loop has
8148-417: The pollutants can be removed from the exhaust gas using exhaust gas treatment technology. Road vehicle diesel engines have no sulfur dioxide emissions, because motor vehicle diesel fuel has been sulfur-free since 2003. Helmut Tschöke argues that particulate matter emitted from motor vehicles has negative impacts on human health. The particulate matter in diesel exhaust emissions is sometimes classified as
8245-408: The pressure falls to that of the surrounding air, but the loss of efficiency caused by this unresisted expansion is justified by the practical difficulties involved in recovering it (the engine would have to be much larger). After the opening of the exhaust valve, the exhaust stroke follows, but this (and the following induction stroke) are not shown on the diagram. If shown, they would be represented by
8342-430: The previous MPC competitor entries. BAE submitted the SuperAV as their ACV 1.1 entry on 20 May 2015. The BAE/Iveco version of the SuperAV submitted to the Marines carries a crew of three with 11 embarked Marines; key to the design is its ability to already meet ACV 1.2 requirements, being configured for 13 seats, having the ability to launch and recover from a well deck , and being able to integrate an unmanned turret with
8439-437: The same displacement . Similarly, if loaded to her tropical freshwater mark she will float at her tropical seawater mark once she passes into seawater. Certain vessels are assigned timber freeboards, but before these can be assigned, certain additional conditions have to be met. One of these conditions is that the vessel must have a forecastle of at least 0.07 the length of the vessel and of not less than standard height, which
8536-674: The sides of the mark indicating the classification society that has surveyed the vessel's load line. The initials used include AB for the American Bureau of Shipping , BV for Bureau Veritas , VL for DNV GL , IR for the Indian Register of Shipping , LR for Lloyd's Register , NK for Nippon Kaiji Kyokai and RI for the Registro Italiano Navale . These letters are approximately 115 millimetres in height and 75 millimetres in width (4.5 by 3.0 in). The load line length
8633-610: The survivability of the vehicle and personnel. Similar tests conducted by Iveco confirmed the vehicle's ability to be launched and recovered from ships and transition in surf zones. BAE and Iveco then prepared for survivability demonstrations in the summer. The Marine Personnel Carrier was put on hold in June 2013, restarted in February 2014, and then restructured as Phase 1 of the Amphibious Combat Vehicle (ACV) program, which includes
8730-539: The test bench. In the January 1896 report, this was considered a success. In February 1896, Diesel considered supercharging the third prototype. Imanuel Lauster , who was ordered to draw the third prototype " Motor 250/400 ", had finished the drawings by 30 April 1896. During summer that year the engine was built, it was completed on 6 October 1896. Tests were conducted until early 1897. First public tests began on 1 February 1897. Moritz Schröter 's test on 17 February 1897
8827-420: The timber winter North Atlantic freeboard, the other freeboards are less than the standard freeboards. This allows these ships to carry additional timber as deck cargo, but with the facility to jettison this cargo. The letters on the timber load line marks have the following meanings: The summer timber load line is arrived at from the appropriate tables in the load line rules. The winter timber load line
8924-890: The timing of the start of injection of fuel into the cylinder is similar to controlling the ignition timing in a petrol engine. It is therefore a key factor in controlling the power output, fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. There are several different ways of categorising diesel engines, as outlined in the following sections. Günter Mau categorises diesel engines by their rotational speeds into three groups: High-speed engines are used to power trucks (lorries), buses , tractors , cars , yachts , compressors , pumps and small electrical generators . As of 2018, most high-speed engines have direct injection . Many modern engines, particularly in on-highway applications, have common rail direct injection . On bigger ships, high-speed diesel engines are often used for powering electric generators. The highest power output of high-speed diesel engines
9021-524: Was a student at the "Polytechnikum" in Munich , attended the lectures of Carl von Linde . Linde explained that steam engines are capable of converting just 6–10% of the heat energy into work, but that the Carnot cycle allows conversion of much more of the heat energy into work by means of isothermal change in condition. According to Diesel, this ignited the idea of creating a highly efficient engine that could work on
9118-488: Was attacked and criticised over several years. Critics claimed that Diesel never invented a new motor and that the invention of the diesel engine is fraud. Otto Köhler and Emil Capitaine [ de ] were two of the most prominent critics of Diesel's time. Köhler had published an essay in 1887, in which he describes an engine similar to the engine Diesel describes in his 1893 essay. Köhler figured that such an engine could not perform any work. Emil Capitaine had built
9215-472: Was built in Augsburg . On 10 August 1893, the first ignition took place, the fuel used was petrol. In winter 1893/1894, Diesel redesigned the existing engine, and by 18 January 1894, his mechanics had converted it into the second prototype. During January that year, an air-blast injection system was added to the engine's cylinder head and tested. Friedrich Sass argues that, it can be presumed that Diesel copied
9312-535: Was declared on 13 November, and full-rate production was approved on 10 December. Diesel engine The diesel engine , named after the German engineer Rudolf Diesel , is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression ; thus, the diesel engine is called a compression-ignition engine (CI engine). This contrasts with engines using spark plug -ignition of
9409-424: Was the main test of Diesel's engine. The engine was rated 13.1 kW with a specific fuel consumption of 324 g·kW ·h , resulting in an effective efficiency of 26.2%. By 1898, Diesel had become a millionaire. The characteristics of a diesel engine are The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto cycle by using highly compressed hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using
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