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111-626: (Redirected from Super-Pets ) Superpet may refer to: SuperPET , the Commodore PET model number SP9000 personal computer Legion of Super-Pets , fictional superhero team composed of pets from the DC Comics universe DC League of Super-Pets , a 2022 film based on the Legion of Super-Pets Pets of Superman -family of comics with superpowers, see List of Superman supporting characters "Superpets",

222-600: A MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor , Commodore BASIC in read-only memory , keyboard, monochrome monitor, and, in early models, a cassette deck . Development of the system began in 1976, and it was demonstrated and sold as the first personal computer for the masses at the January 1977 Consumer Electronics Show . The name "PET" was suggested by Andre Souson after he saw the Pet Rock in Los Gatos , and stated they were going to make

333-435: A PC speaker -class beeper, PETs did not have sound hardware (except for the 8000 models), but it was possible to rig a circuit (attributed to Hal Chamberlin ) up to the 6522 "user" port that could be used to output square wave tones to an external amplifier, and some games supported this feature. The PET had two empty sockets on the motherboard for adding expansion ROMs, which could be a total of 8K in size. A predecessor to

444-518: A " chiclet keyboard " because the keys resembled the chewing gum it was named after. The key tops also tended to rub off easily. Reliability was fairly poor, although that was common in many early microcomputers. Because of the poor keyboard on the PET, external replacement ones quickly appeared. The PET had somewhat of a competitive advantage over its Apple II and TRS-80 rivals as both were using relatively primitive integer BASICs for their first six months on

555-535: A "smart terminal" as well, so this single machine could replace many of the boxes currently in use at the university. Additionally this machine became a remote development environment where the user could later upload their creation to a mainframe after completing development and testing on the SuperPET. In 1982, Commodore retired the PET line with the intention of replacing it with the B-series machines; however, they were

666-416: A 1541 drive except for the back sporting an IEEE-488 connector instead of the two IEC DIN connectors . Of the previously extensive PET disk drive line, the only drives that returned were the 2031-LP and SFD-1001 (basically a 2040 and an 8250 repackaged in a 1541-style case with half-height drive mechanisms). The resurrected PET was sold through 1986 and then finally retired for good, having been superseded by

777-432: A 2008 skit from comedy stop-motion TV series Robot Chicken season 3 "Superpets", a 1977 episode of BBC TV magazine That's Life! See also [ edit ] Wonder Pets! , cartoon TV series that airs on Nick Jr. Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Superpet . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change

888-563: A GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically isolated semiconductor photodetector. On August 8, 1962, Biard and Pittman filed a patent titled "Semiconductor Radiant Diode" based on their findings, which described a zinc-diffused p–n junction LED with a spaced cathode contact to allow for efficient emission of infrared light under forward bias . After establishing the priority of their work based on engineering notebooks predating submissions from G.E. Labs, RCA Research Labs, IBM Research Labs, Bell Labs , and Lincoln Lab at MIT ,

999-503: A TDA 1170 chip was used in place of the original analog circuit so that if no sync went to the monitor, it would merely be shut off rather than send spurious signals. The PET 2001 and 2001-8N had a register that would disable the video output; this was also used as output for the IEEE-488 interface, so screen flicker would occur during disk drive or printer use. It also became a popular method of producing explosion effects in games, but because

1110-657: A current source of a battery or a pulse generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953. Rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide (GaSb), GaAs, indium phosphide (InP), and silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77  kelvins . In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that

1221-503: A demonstration of Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak 's Apple II prototype. Steve Jobs was offering to sell it to Commodore, but Commodore considered Jobs' offer too expensive. The Commodore PET was officially announced in 1976 and Jack Tramiel gave Chuck Peddle six months to have the computer ready for the January 1977 Consumer Electronics Show , with his team including John Feagans, Bill Seiler, two Japanese engineers named Fujiyama and Aoji, and Jack's son Leonard Tramiel, who helped design

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1332-613: A different fashion than the 8096. While on the 8096, the expansion RAM cannot be accessed at all without switching out the OS ROMs and video RAM, the 8296 has a setup closer to that of the Commodore 64 where writing to the memory locations with the OS ROMs accesses the RAM underneath, but reading from those locations will read back the ROMs instead. The 8296 also differs from the 8096 in that it has jumpers on

1443-504: A different video controller than the 2001/3000 models. This created a notorious compatibility problem known as the killer poke . On 2001/3000 PETs, there was a register which when enabled did not allow reading/writing of the video RAM except during the vertical blanking in order to prevent snow on the screen, caused by the CPU and video controller trying to access the VRAM at the same time. This feature

1554-554: A glass window or lens to let the light out. Modern indicator LEDs are packed in transparent molded plastic cases, tubular or rectangular in shape, and often tinted to match the device color. Infrared devices may be dyed, to block visible light. More complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation in high-power LEDs . Surface-mounted LEDs further reduce the package size. LEDs intended for use with fiber optics cables may be provided with an optical connector. The first blue -violet LED, using magnesium-doped gallium nitride

1665-568: A longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller sizes, and faster switching. In exchange for these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs include electrical limitations to low voltage and generally to DC (not AC) power, the inability to provide steady illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC electrical supply source, and a lesser maximum operating temperature and storage temperature. LEDs are transducers of electricity into light. They operate in reverse of photodiodes , which convert light into electricity. Electroluminescence as

1776-481: A loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music. We had a great deal of fun playing with this setup." In September 1961, while working at Texas Instruments in Dallas , Texas , James R. Biard and Gary Pittman discovered near-infrared (900 nm) light emission from a tunnel diode they had constructed on a GaAs substrate. By October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between

1887-492: A marketplace flop and also very expensive to manufacture. Because Commodore still had a strong business software market in Europe, the 80xx series PET was revived during 1984 in a new molded plastic case with a swivel monitor. Four models were offered, the 8032SK, 8096SK, and the new 8296 and 8296-D. The 8296 models had 128K of memory (96K on the expansion memory board) and the 8296-D had two internal half-height 8250 drives. In addition,

1998-557: A method for producing high-brightness blue LEDs using a new two-step process in 1991. In 2015, a US court ruled that three Taiwanese companies had infringed Moustakas's prior patent, and ordered them to pay licensing fees of not less than US$ 13 million. Two years later, in 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation using a gallium nitride (GaN) growth process. These LEDs had efficiencies of 10%. In parallel, Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano of Nagoya University were working on developing

2109-464: A number of programming languages including a BASIC in ROM for the 6502 and a separate ANSI Minimal BASIC-compatible BASIC for the 6809, along with APL , COBOL , FORTRAN , Pascal and a 6809 assembler on floppies. It also included microEDITOR, a text editor for use in writing and maintaining programs for any of the 6809 languages. Also included was a terminal program which allowed the machine to be used as

2220-459: A one byte sector–header size difference makes the formats write-incompatible). 8050 and 8250 drives had an incompatible higher density 500 KB / 1 MB format, but were popular well into the 1980s as server/ BBS storage devices because of their large capacity. In addition, Commodore had 8-inch 8060, 8061, 8062, and 8280 drives which used MFM encoding instead of the GCR used on their other disk drives and

2331-514: A phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the English experimenter Henry Joseph Round of Marconi Labs , using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector . Russian inventor Oleg Losev reported the creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades, partly due to

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2442-567: A phosphor-silicon mixture on the LED using techniques such as jet dispensing, and allowing the solvents to evaporate, the LEDs are often tested, and placed on tapes for SMT placement equipment for use in LED light bulb production. Some "remote phosphor" LED light bulbs use a single plastic cover with YAG phosphor for one or several blue LEDs, instead of using phosphor coatings on single-chip white LEDs. Ce:YAG phosphors and epoxy in LEDs can degrade with use, and

2553-460: A programming point of view, this was a relatively simple method of producing good-looking graphics, which used negligibly more RAM than a standard character display, and significantly less RAM than bitmap graphics. The PET's lack of a remappable character set is a major weakness in the machine's design. Somewhat offsetting this drawback, the PET's ROM-restricted character set – an ASCII-1963 deviation known as PETSCII  –

2664-503: A red light-emitting diode. GaAsP was the basis for the first wave of commercial LEDs emitting visible light. It was mass produced by the Monsanto and Hewlett-Packard companies and used widely for displays in calculators and wrist watches. M. George Craford , a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976, T. P. Pearsall designed

2775-411: A standard feature on the 8096. A register at $ FFF0 is used to set the RAM configuration. The extra RAM is banked in four 16K blocks, the first two blocks are switched into $ 8000 – $ BFFF and the second two in $ C000 – $ FFFF . Normally, banking in the expansion RAM will swap out the video RAM, I/O registers, and system ROMs, so interrupts must be turned off first, but it is also possible to set

2886-466: A variation on the PET called "Teacher's PET" – these were relabeled 2001-series PETs which were donated by Commodore as part of a "buy 2, get 1 free" program offered to schools as part of a promotion/ tax write-off scheme. Two more machines were released in the PET series. The 8000 series included a new display chip which drove an 80×25 character screen, but this resulted in a number of software incompatibilities with programs designed for

2997-578: A video controller based on the Motorola 6845 CRTC chip (unlike the TTL logic circuit in 2001/3000s/early 4000s) that eliminated the snow problem, but also placed a CRT control register in place of where the VBLANK flag had been on the 2001/3000. BASIC programs intended for the 2001/3000 thus had to be modified in order to run safely on 12-inch PETs. Later machines had modified video circuitry to prevent killer poke damage;

3108-550: Is difficult but desirable since it takes advantage of existing semiconductor manufacturing infrastructure. It allows for the wafer-level packaging of LED dies resulting in extremely small LED packages. GaN is often deposited using metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy (MOCVD), and it also uses lift-off . Even though white light can be created using individual red, green and blue LEDs, this results in poor color rendering , since only three narrow bands of wavelengths of light are being emitted. The attainment of high efficiency blue LEDs

3219-486: Is difficult on silicon , while others, like the University of Cambridge, choose a multi-layer structure, in order to reduce (crystal) lattice mismatch and different thermal expansion ratios, to avoid cracking of the LED chip at high temperatures (e.g. during manufacturing), reduce heat generation and increase luminous efficiency. Sapphire substrate patterning can be carried out with nanoimprint lithography . GaN-on-Si

3330-790: Is more apparent with higher concentrations of Ce:YAG in phosphor-silicone mixtures, because the Ce:YAG decomposes with use. The output of LEDs can shift to yellow over time due to degradation of the silicone. There are several variants of Ce:YAG, and manufacturers in many cases do not reveal the exact composition of their Ce:YAG offerings. Several other phosphors are available for phosphor-converted LEDs to produce several colors such as red, which uses nitrosilicate phosphors, and many other kinds of phosphor materials exist for LEDs such as phosphors based on oxides, oxynitrides, oxyhalides, halides, nitrides, sulfides, quantum dots, and inorganic-organic hybrid semiconductors. A single LED can have several phosphors at

3441-599: Is perceived as white light, with improved color rendering compared to wavelengths from the blue LED/YAG phosphor combination. The first white LEDs were expensive and inefficient. The light output then increased exponentially . The latest research and development has been propagated by Japanese manufacturers such as Panasonic and Nichia , and by Korean and Chinese manufacturers such as Samsung , Solstice, Kingsun, Hoyol and others. This trend in increased output has been called Haitz's law after Roland Haitz. Light output and efficiency of blue and near-ultraviolet LEDs rose and

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3552-451: Is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors —red, green and blue—and then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, similar to a fluorescent lamp . The yellow phosphor is cerium -doped YAG crystals suspended in the package or coated on the LED. This YAG phosphor causes white LEDs to appear yellow when off, and

3663-576: The Amiga , one of their conditions was that Commodore credit the original authors of BASIC, so BASIC 7.0 on the Commodore 128 displayed a Microsoft copyright notice). This feature was present in all 30xx series PETs. Commodore executives were unhappy when they learned about it and it was removed from BASIC on all subsequent Commodore machines. Microsoft also remained sensitive about their copyrighted code and pressured Commodore to not release any BASIC code listings to

3774-636: The Apple II (which shipped in June 1977), Atari 400/800 (1979), and, in particular, Commodore's own bestselling VIC-20 (1980/81). Commodore released a High Resolution Graphic board for the PET using the Thomson EF936x graphics chip with a resolution of 512×512 pixels. In addition, the Apple II, TRS-80 Model I , and Atari 400 (via 3rd party expansions)/800 could all be expanded to a maximum of 48 KB of RAM while

3885-573: The Commodore 128 , 1571 , and 1581 . Although not officially a member of the PET series, in 1983 Commodore packaged C64 motherboards in plastic cases similar to the PET 4000-series in order to create the Educator 64 . This was an attempt to retake some of the education market they had largely lost by then to the Apple IIe . In the home computer market, the PET line was soon outsold by machines that supported high-resolution color graphics and sound, mainly

3996-911: The Nobel Prize in Physics in 2014 for "the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes, which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources." In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and demonstrated a "transparent contact" LED using indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs). In 2001 and 2002, processes for growing gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon were successfully demonstrated. In January 2012, Osram demonstrated high-power InGaN LEDs grown on silicon substrates commercially, and GaN-on-silicon LEDs are in production at Plessey Semiconductors . As of 2017, some manufacturers are using SiC as

4107-472: The PETSCII graphic characters and acted as quality control. The result was Commodore's first mass-market personal computer, the PET, the first model of which was the PET 2001. Its 6502 processor controlled the screen, keyboard, cassette tape recorders and any peripherals connected to one of the computer's several expansion ports. The PET 2001 included either 4 KB (2001-4) or 8 KB (2001-8) of 8-bit RAM , and

4218-544: The U.S. patent office issued the two inventors the patent for the GaAs infrared light-emitting diode (U.S. Patent US3293513 ), the first practical LED. Immediately after filing the patent, Texas Instruments (TI) began a project to manufacture infrared diodes. In October 1962, TI announced the first commercial LED product (the SNX-100), which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit an 890 nm light output. In October 1963, TI announced

4329-457: The human eye as a pure ( saturated ) color. Also unlike most lasers, its radiation is not spatially coherent , so it cannot approach the very high intensity characteristic of lasers . By selection of different semiconductor materials , single-color LEDs can be made that emit light in a narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared through the visible spectrum and into the ultraviolet range. The required operating voltages of LEDs increase as

4440-521: The "pet computer". It was backronymed to Personal Electronic Transactor . Byte referred to the PET, Apple II and Tandy TRS-80 collectively as the "1977 trinity". Following the initial PET 2001, the design was updated through a series of models with more memory, better keyboard, larger screen, and other modifications. The systems were a top seller in the Canadian and United States education markets, as well as for business use in Europe. The PET line

4551-405: The 2001-N (the N was short for "New"). The new machine used a standard green- phosphor monitor in place of the white in the original 2001. It now had a conventional, full-sized keyboard and no longer sported the built-in cassette recorder. The kernel ROM was upgraded to add support for Commodore's newly introduced disk drive line. It was offered in 8 KB, 16 KB, or 32 KB models as

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4662-463: The 2001-N-8, the 3008 was quickly dropped. Later PET 3000 series machines switched to the BASIC 4.0 ROMs. In 1980, the 4000-series PETs were launched. These included the enhanced BASIC 4.0, which added commands for disk functions and significantly improved garbage cleanup. By this point, Commodore discovered that people were buying cheaper 8 KB and 16 KB models of the 3000-series and upgrading

4773-416: The 2001-N8, 2001-N16, and 2001-N32 (the 8 KB models were dropped soon after introduction). The 2001-N switched to using conventional DRAM instead of the 6550 (1kx4) SRAM in the original model. PET 2001-8Ns had eight 2108 (8kx1) DRAMs and 2001-16Ns used sixteen 2108s. The PET 4016 used eight 4116 (16kx1) chips. All 32K PETs used sixteen 4116 chips. Finally, Commodore added a machine-language monitor to

4884-451: The 3-subpixel model for digital displays. The technology uses a gallium nitride semiconductor that emits light of different frequencies modulated by voltage changes. A prototype display achieved a resolution of 6,800 PPI or 3k x 1.5k pixels. In a light-emitting diode, the recombination of electrons and electron holes in a semiconductor produces light (be it infrared, visible or UV), a process called " electroluminescence ". The wavelength of

4995-444: The 40 column screen, and it appears to have been unpopular as a result. Unlike the 30xx series, the 40xx and 80xx PETs came standard with a 1-channel speaker for sound generation. 2001/3000 and 4000-series PETs used what became known as the "graphics keyboard". Numbers were exclusively on the numeric keypad and the row above the alphabet keys had only punctuation symbols. The 3032 and 4032 were produced in two special variants known as

5106-491: The 6502 came Chuck Peddle 's KIM-1 design (short for "Keyboard Input Monitor") in January of 1976, a small computer kit based on the 6502. At Commodore, Peddle had long dreamed of making computers and convinced Jack Tramiel that calculators were a dead-end and that Commodore should explore the burgeoning microcomputer market instead. At first, they considered purchasing an existing design, and in September 1976 Peddle asked for

5217-477: The 8096, the video RAM and I/O registers can be set to "peek" through. The motherboard also sported "user" jumpers which "connected" the RAM banking to the user port, these required soldering to enable. If connected, the user port could be used to adjust the upper memory configuration via software. The IEEE-488–based PET disk drive line was also updated; the large, heavy metal-cased drives were replaced by smaller units in 1541 cases; they looked almost identical to

5328-446: The 8296 came bundled with an office suite on disk and the system ROMs included a menu program to launch each of its four applications. Early units contained leftover 8032/96 PCBs in order to get rid of remaining stock; after these were used up, Commodore equipped the machines with a new PCB that replaced the old triple-voltage 4116 DRAMs with more modern types. The 8296 had a completely redesigned motherboard and handled expansion RAM in

5439-405: The B models with the so-called "business keyboard", which had a conventional layout with mathematical symbols and numbers above the alphabet keys. The keypad contained only numerals. On the other hand, all 8000-series PETs sported the business layout. Entering graphics symbols on PETs with the business keyboard proved something of a challenge since they could not be directly typed out and usually it

5550-522: The PCB to select the power-on memory configuration for $ 8000 - $ FFFF . The factory default configuration was to have the I/O registers, video RAM, and ROMs occupying $ 8000 – $ FFFF . When operating from BASIC, the machine would be nearly indistinguishable from an 8032. By setting the jumpers, one could swap out any 8K region of upper memory for RAM, and it was even possible to have everything switched out and convert

5661-466: The PET 2001/3000, but in 1981 this was replaced by the 12-inch screen and 6845-based CRTC hardware. The PET's simple, rugged design and completely enclosed components made it an early favorite in the North American education market. Schools preferred the 40-column models because the 40-column display's larger characters vs. the 80xx PETs were easier for young children to read. Commodore manufactured

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5772-499: The PET was limited to 32 KB. Without the High Resolution Graphic board, the PET's graphics capabilities were limited to a character set hardwired in ROM , similar to the Apple II in text mode. On many of the PET range's home computer rivals, the look-up address of the character graphics could be changed and pointed to RAM , where new characters could be defined by a programmer to create custom graphics shapes. From

5883-540: The PET were the single-unit 2031 and dual-unit 2040, 3040. Then followed the 4040, 8050, and 8250. Later (near the end of the PET's lifespan), single-unit 2031 and SFD-1001 drives were produced that used the same case as the 1540/1541, but sported the PET's parallel interface instead of the VIC-20/C64 IEC serial interface. The 4040/2031 used the same 170 KB format as the 1541 and is read compatible (although software that performs low-level drive access will not work, and

5994-424: The RAM rather than paying extra for the 32 KB model. Because of this, they punched out the memory sockets in the 4008 and 4016 to prevent that practice. The 4032 was a major success in schools, where its tough all-metal construction and all-in-one design made it better able to stand up to the rigors of classroom use. Just as important in this role was the PET's otherwise underutilized IEEE-488 port. Used wisely,

6105-444: The US market in part because the 6502-based PETs could not run CP/M , which had become the standard for business software. In addition, the PET's 32 KB of memory was a disadvantage against the Apple II and TRS-80, both of which could accommodate 48 KB . The 8000-series PETs had a motherboard connector for a daughterboard that added an additional 64K of RAM for 96K total; this was

6216-797: The blending of the colors. Since LEDs have slightly different emission patterns, the color balance may change depending on the angle of view, even if the RGB sources are in a single package, so RGB diodes are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nonetheless, this method has many applications because of the flexibility of mixing different colors, and in principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light. There are several types of multicolor white LEDs: di- , tri- , and tetrachromatic white LEDs. Several key factors that play among these different methods include color stability, color rendering capability, and luminous efficacy. Often, higher efficiency means lower color rendering, presenting

6327-456: The calculator market directly in 1975. As a result, TI was selling complete calculators at lower price points than they sold just the chipset to their former customers, and the industry that had built up around it was frozen out of the market. Commodore initially responded by beginning their own attempt to form a vertically integrated calculator line as well, purchasing a vendor in California that

6438-479: The cartridge slots on later Commodore machines, they allowed various software add-ons such as machine language monitors. In addition, it was common for commercial programs to include a copy protection ROM that had to be installed prior to running the application; something of an inconvenience to users owning multiple applications protected in this way, as the chips would have to be swapped in order to run their respective programs. The original lineup of disk drives for

6549-443: The choice of either mixed-case characters, or uppercase with graphics; either could also be displayed as a reverse field, negative image. For specialized applications, alternative character sets could be programmed into an EPROM inserted in the character set ROM socket. Alternative character set EPROMs with diacritics and mathematical symbols were available in the aftermarket. A 2001-8B model with katakana keyboard and character set

6660-1083: The cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of InGaN/GaN blue/green devices. If unalloyed GaN is used in this case to form the active quantum well layers, the device emits near-ultraviolet light with a peak wavelength centred around 365 nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN/GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems, but practical devices still exhibit efficiency too low for high-brightness applications. With AlGaN and AlGaInN , even shorter wavelengths are achievable. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 360–395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, as black light lamp replacements for inspection of anti- counterfeiting UV watermarks in documents and bank notes, and for UV curing . Substantially more expensive, shorter-wavelength diodes are commercially available for wavelengths down to 240 nm. As

6771-444: The computer). On the original PET 2001, the uppercase/graphics character set and upper/lowercase character set were reversed compared to how they would be on later machines; PET owners who upgraded their machines to the BASIC 2.0 ROMs often also swapped out the character ROMs for the newer version. Although the machine was moderately successful, there were frequent complaints about the tiny calculator-like keyboard, often referred to as

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6882-417: The cost of reliable devices fell. This led to relatively high-power white-light LEDs for illumination, which are replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting. Experimental white LEDs were demonstrated in 2014 to produce 303 lumens per watt of electricity (lm/W); some can last up to 100,000 hours. Commercially available LEDs have an efficiency of up to 223 lm/W as of 2018. A previous record of 135 lm/W

6993-1075: The earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared (IR) light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as those used with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to red. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small incandescent bulbs , and in seven-segment displays . Later developments produced LEDs available in visible , ultraviolet (UV), and infrared wavelengths with high, low, or intermediate light output, for instance, white LEDs suitable for room and outdoor lighting. LEDs have also given rise to new types of displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology with applications as diverse as aviation lighting , fairy lights , strip lights , automotive headlamps , advertising, general lighting , traffic signals , camera flashes, lighted wallpaper , horticultural grow lights , and medical devices. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower power consumption,

7104-539: The emitted wavelengths become shorter (higher energy, red to blue), because of their increasing semiconductor band gap. Blue LEDs have an active region consisting of one or more InGaN quantum wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can in theory be varied from violet to amber. Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga fraction can be used to manufacture

7215-478: The entire $ 8000 – $ FFFF to RAM, although such a machine would be useless with no I/O or system ROMs accessible. Like with the 8096, the user could also manipulate the register at $ FFF0 to control which RAM banks occupied upper memory. The 8296's RAM is banked in 16K chunks like the 8096, although since it has 128K, there are six possible banks instead of four, three that can go into $ 8000 – $ BFFF and three that can go into $ C000 – $ FFFF , and like with

7326-491: The field of luminescence with research on radium . Hungarian Zoltán Bay together with György Szigeti patenting a lighting device in Hungary in 1939 based on silicon carbide, with an option on boron carbide, that emitted white, yellowish white, or greenish white depending on impurities present. Kurt Lehovec , Carl Accardo, and Edward Jamgochian explained these first LEDs in 1951 using an apparatus employing SiC crystals with

7437-602: The first commercial hemispherical LED, the SNX-110. In the 1960s, several laboratories focused on LEDs that would emit visible light. A particularly important device was demonstrated by Nick Holonyak on October 9, 1962, while he was working for General Electric in Syracuse, New York . The device used the semiconducting alloy gallium phosphide arsenide (GaAsP). It was the first semiconductor laser to emit visible light, albeit at low temperatures. At room temperature it still functioned as

7548-518: The first commercially available blue LED, based on the indirect bandgap semiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC). SiC LEDs had very low efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the visible light spectrum. In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation, Theodore Moustakas at Boston University patented

7659-721: The first high-brightness, high-efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths. Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of US$ 200 per unit, and so had little practical use. The first commercial visible-wavelength LEDs used GaAsP semiconductors and were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps , and in seven-segment displays , first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as calculators, TVs, radios, telephones, as well as watches. The Hewlett-Packard company (HP)

7770-407: The important GaN deposition on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN. This new development revolutionized LED lighting, making high-power blue light sources practical, leading to the development of technologies like Blu-ray . Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention. Nakamura, Hiroshi Amano , and Isamu Akasaki were awarded

7881-423: The kernal contained screen editor functions (the screen editor on 80 column PETs differed from 40-column models) with the second half containing a number of function calls for tasks such as inputting and outputting data to and from different I/O devices, reading the keyboard, and positioning the cursor. In addition, the kernal ROM received system interrupts and scanned the keyboard. The kernel, an idea of John Feagans,

7992-460: The kernel ROM that could be accessed by jumping to any memory location with a BRK instruction. It did not include a built-in assembler and required the user to enter hexadecimal numbers for coding. Commodore contacted Microsoft to upgrade BASIC for the new machines; this resulted in the soon-to-be-familiar BASIC 2.0 which removed the 256 element array limitation and had a rearranged zero page . Most bugs were fixed and IEEE-488 support in BASIC

8103-417: The light depends on the energy band gap of the semiconductors used. Since these materials have a high index of refraction, design features of the devices such as special optical coatings and die shape are required to efficiently emit light. Unlike a laser , the light emitted from an LED is neither spectrally coherent nor even highly monochromatic . Its spectrum is sufficiently narrow that it appears to

8214-420: The light produced is engineered to suit the human eye. Because of metamerism , it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white. The appearance of objects illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies. This is the issue of color rendition, quite separate from color temperature. An orange or cyan object could appear with the wrong color and much darker as the LED or phosphor does not emit

8325-503: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Superpet&oldid=1192190422 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages SuperPET The Commodore PET is a line of personal computers produced starting in 1977 by Commodore International . A single all-in-one case combines

8436-426: The market while the PET had a full-featured BASIC with floating-point support , a sophisticated screen editor, and lowercase letters, the last being a feature that the two competing platforms would not have for a few years. On the other hand, Commodore were a year behind Apple and Tandy in making disk drives available for their computers. In 1979, Commodore replaced the original PET 2001 with an improved model known as

8547-445: The phosphors, the Ce:YAG phosphor converts blue light to green and red (yellow) light, and the PFS phosphor converts blue light to red light. The color, emission spectrum or color temperature of white phosphor converted and other phosphor converted LEDs can be controlled by changing the concentration of several phosphors that form a phosphor blend used in an LED package. The 'whiteness' of

8658-599: The photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum of DNA , with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250–270 nm are expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective disinfection and sterilization devices. UV-C wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using aluminium nitride (210 nm), boron nitride (215 nm) and diamond (235 nm). There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting diodes. One

8769-405: The port could be used as a simple local area network and allowed printers and disk drives (which were then very expensive) to be shared among all of the machines in the classroom. Unlike later Commodore machines, PETs had no kernel ROM functions for the IEEE-488 port and users had to write their own to use peripherals such as modems. First year 4000-series PETs retained the same video hardware as

8880-451: The public, although user groups eventually made disassemblies of BASIC. Sales of the newer machines were strong, and Commodore then introduced the models to Europe. However, Philips owned a competing trademark on the PET name, so these models were renamed. The result was the CBM 3000 series ('CBM' standing for Commodore Business Machines), which included the 3008 , 3016 and 3032 models. Like

8991-421: The rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein "…had set up a simple optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player was used via suitable electronics to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode. The emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an audio amplifier and played back by

9102-480: The same time. Some LEDs use phosphors made of glass-ceramic or composite phosphor/glass materials. Alternatively, the LED chips themselves can be coated with a thin coating of phosphor-containing material, called a conformal coating. The temperature of the phosphor during operation and how it is applied limits the size of an LED die. Wafer-level packaged white LEDs allow for extremely small LEDs. In 2024, QPixel introduced as polychromatic LED that could replace

9213-501: The screen flickered while using the IEEE-488 port, the 16K and 32K models had this feature removed. The last in the series was the SP9000, known as the SuperPET or MicroMainframe. This machine was designed at the University of Waterloo for teaching programming. In addition to the basic CBM 8000 hardware, the 9000 added a second CPU in the form of the Motorola 6809 , more RAM and included

9324-408: The space between the crystals allow some blue light to pass through in LEDs with partial phosphor conversion. Alternatively, white LEDs may use other phosphors like manganese(IV)-doped potassium fluorosilicate (PFS) or other engineered phosphors. PFS assists in red light generation, and is used in conjunction with conventional Ce:YAG phosphor. In LEDs with PFS phosphor, some blue light passes through

9435-547: The subsequent device Pankove and Miller built, the first actual gallium nitride light-emitting diode, emitted green light. In 1974 the U.S. Patent Office awarded Maruska, Rhines, and Stanford professor David Stevenson a patent for their work in 1972 (U.S. Patent US3819974 A ). Today, magnesium-doping of gallium nitride remains the basis for all commercial blue LEDs and laser diodes . In the early 1970s, these devices were too dim for practical use, and research into gallium nitride devices slowed. In August 1989, Cree introduced

9546-422: The substrate for LED production, but sapphire is more common, as it has the most similar properties to that of gallium nitride, reducing the need for patterning the sapphire wafer (patterned wafers are known as epi wafers). Samsung , the University of Cambridge , and Toshiba are performing research into GaN on Si LEDs. Toshiba has stopped research, possibly due to low yields. Some opt for epitaxy , which

9657-569: The team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions. LED producers have continued to use these methods as of about 2009. The early red LEDs were bright enough for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors became widely available and appeared in appliances and equipment. Early LEDs were packaged in metal cases similar to those of transistors, with

9768-461: The very inefficient light-producing properties of silicon carbide, the semiconductor Losev used. In 1936, Georges Destriau observed that electroluminescence could be produced when zinc sulphide (ZnS) powder is suspended in an insulator and an alternating electrical field is applied to it. In his publications, Destriau often referred to luminescence as Losev-Light. Destriau worked in the laboratories of Madame Marie Curie , also an early pioneer in

9879-463: The video RAM and I/O registers to "peek" through. Regardless, switching the OS ROMs out will require the user to either have interrupts disabled or supply their own interrupt handler. The expansion RAM cannot be seen by BASIC and machines equipped with the RAM board will still report the standard 31,743 bytes free on power up. A relatively small amount of software could utilize it. As noted above, 8000-series PETs (and later 4000s) used larger monitors and

9990-532: The wavelength it reflects. The best color rendition LEDs use a mix of phosphors, resulting in less efficiency and better color rendering. The first white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were offered for sale in the autumn of 1996. Nichia made some of the first white LEDs which were based on blue LEDs with Ce:YAG phosphor. Ce:YAG is often grown using the Czochralski method . Mixing red, green, and blue sources to produce white light needs electronic circuits to control

10101-486: Was 1500 baud , but the data was recorded to tape twice for safety, giving an effective rate of 750 baud. The computer's main board carried four expansion ports: extra memory, a second cassette tape recorder interface, a parallel ("user") port which could be used for sound output or connection to "user" projects or non-Commodore devices and a parallel IEEE-488 port which allowed for daisy-chaining peripherals such as disk drives and printers. A working PET 2001 prototype

10212-618: Was achieved by Nichia in 2010. Compared to incandescent bulbs, this is a huge increase in electrical efficiency, and even though LEDs are more expensive to purchase, overall lifetime cost is significantly cheaper than that of incandescent bulbs. The LED chip is encapsulated inside a small, plastic, white mold although sometimes an LED package can incorporate a reflector. It can be encapsulated using resin ( polyurethane -based), silicone, or epoxy containing (powdered) Cerium-doped YAG phosphor particles. The viscosity of phosphor-silicon mixtures must be carefully controlled. After application of

10323-452: Was broken, so that when Commodore later came out with disk drives, they could not be used from BASIC (although the kernel routines supported them), and only supported 256 array elements. The PEEK function would not work on memory locations above 49152 so as to prevent the user from viewing the copyrighted code in the system ROMs . Aside from the 8K BASIC ROM, the PET also included a 4K character ROM and an 8K kernal ROM. The first half of

10434-444: Was discontinued in 1982 after approximately 219,000 machines were sold. In the 1970s, Commodore was one of many electronics companies selling calculators designed around Texas Instruments (TI) chips. TI faced increasing competition from Japanese vertically integrated companies who were using new CMOS -based processors and had a lower total cost of production. These companies began to undercut TI business, so TI responded by entering

10545-415: Was engaged in research and development (R&D) on practical LEDs between 1962 and 1968, by a research team under Howard C. Borden, Gerald P. Pighini at HP Associates and HP Labs . During this time HP collaborated with Monsanto Company on developing the first usable LED products. The first usable LED products were HP's LED display and Monsanto's LED indicator lamp , both launched in 1968. Monsanto

10656-487: Was essentially a single-board computer with discrete logic driving a small built-in monochrome monitor with 40×25 character graphics, enclosed in a sheet metal case that reflected Commodore's background as a manufacturer of office equipment . The machine also included a built-in Datasette for data storage located on the front of the case, which left little room for the keyboard. The data transfer rate to cassette tape

10767-433: Was made at Stanford University in 1972 by Herb Maruska and Wally Rhines , doctoral students in materials science and engineering. At the time Maruska was on leave from RCA Laboratories , where he collaborated with Jacques Pankove on related work. In 1971, the year after Maruska left for Stanford, his RCA colleagues Pankove and Ed Miller demonstrated the first blue electroluminescence from zinc-doped gallium nitride, though

10878-418: Was made to be functional. The PEEK function was unblocked for memory locations above 49152. BASIC 2.0 also included an easter egg that Bill Gates personally coded, which would cause "MICROSOFT!" to appear if the user typed WAIT 6502,x (x being the number of times to display the message); this was reportedly due to a dispute with Commodore over ownership of BASIC (years later, when Microsoft developed BASIC for

10989-665: Was mainly intended to allow PET users to read disks written on IBM mainframes/ minicomputers . 5 MB and 7.5 MB hard disks were produced as well. They have no sub-directory support and are treated as simply a larger floppy disk. All PET peripherals will work on VIC-20/C64/Plus-4/C128 machines with an IEEE-488 parallel to IEC serial adapter (reverse IEC serial to IEEE-488 parallel adapters were also made), and as mentioned above, using these adapters, 8050/8250 drives were sometimes used on C64s for BBS service because of their large capacity and faster interface. Light-emitting diode Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,

11100-540: Was necessary to display them indirectly via a CHR$ function. The 4000/8000 PETs were more explicitly targeted at professional/business use than the 2001/3000. Business customers were the main target for the features of the enhanced BASIC 4.0, and a good selection of prepackaged business software was available. A large line of 5.25-inch and 8-inch floppy drives were made for the PET family, and even 5 and 7 MB external hard disks . While they became fairly popular for business use in Europe, they failed to make much impact on

11211-402: Was one of the most varied and flexible of the era. It allowed PET games with rudimentary graphics to be created, exemplified by clones of video games such as Space Invaders and Lunar Lander . The PETSCII character set was even flexible enough to allow for the creation of simple 3D games such as Labyrinth . This flexibility was achieved by the use of two switchable character sets, allowing

11322-443: Was quickly followed by the development of the first white LED . In this device a Y 3 Al 5 O 12 :Ce (known as " YAG " or Ce:YAG phosphor) cerium -doped phosphor coating produces yellow light through fluorescence . The combination of that yellow with remaining blue light appears white to the eye. Using different phosphors produces green and red light through fluorescence. The resulting mixture of red, green and blue

11433-577: Was saved by Apple's decision to license Microsoft BASIC for the Apple II line. The BASIC included on the original PET 2001 was known as Commodore BASIC 1.0; Microsoft supplied Commodore with a source listing for their 6502 BASIC, essentially a port of BASIC-80, and Commodore performed the rest of the work themselves, including changing the startup screen and prompts, adding I/O support, the SYS command for invoking machine language programs, and fixing bugs . BASIC 1.0 still had numerous bugs and IEEE-488 support

11544-559: Was shown to the public at the Winter CES 1977 in January 1977, and the first hundred units were shipped in October, mostly going to magazines and software developers, while the machine was not generally available to consumers until December. However, the PET was back-ordered for months, so to ease deliveries, early in 1978, Commodore decided to cancel the 4 KB version (also because the user would be left with barely 3 KB of RAM). Commodore

11655-583: Was sold in Japan. In 2012, Commodore enthusiast Steve Gray began a project to convert the Commodore PET to colour. This involves upgrading a 4032 machine or downgrading an 8032 machine. The result is 16 colours for foreground and background, The colour RAM is located at $ 8800 which is not used in regular PET machines. Colour PET emulation is available in the newer versions of the Vice Emulator software. Other than

11766-401: Was the first company to license Microsoft 's 6502 BASIC, but the agreement nearly drove Microsoft into receivership as Commodore stipulated that they would only pay for it when the PET began shipping. This was delayed by over six months, during which Microsoft lost money and had their cash reserves further depleted by a lawsuit over ownership of Altair BASIC. At the end of the year, Microsoft

11877-567: Was the first intelligent LED display, and was a revolution in digital display technology, replacing the Nixie tube and becoming the basis for later LED displays. In the 1970s, commercially successful LED devices at less than five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar process (developed by Jean Hoerni , ). The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods enabled

11988-479: Was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. Monsanto had previously offered to supply HP with GaAsP, but HP decided to grow its own GaAsP. In February 1969, Hewlett-Packard introduced the HP Model 5082-7000 Numeric Indicator, the first LED device to use integrated circuit (integrated LED circuit ) technology. It

12099-456: Was the first personal computer OS ROM to be a distinct entity from BASIC. The character ROM was 4K in size, containing four different 128 character tables, the uppercase/graphics character set and upper/lowercase character set, plus reverse video versions of both. This included a number of graphics characters for creating pseudographics on the screen as well as playing card symbols (reportedly because Jack Tramiel's sons wanted to play card games on

12210-470: Was used because of the extremely slow 6550 SRAMs in the PET 2001, although it ceased to be a problem on 3000-series PETs since they used faster 2114 SRAMs for the video memory instead. Ordinarily, this feature was enabled on power-up. If the user did not mind snow, they could turn it off and get faster text output. BASIC programs and some machine-language software commonly did this for performance reasons. PETs with 12-inch displays (all 8000s and later 4000s) used

12321-453: Was working on a competitive CMOS calculator chip and an LED production line. They also went looking for a company with an existing calculator chip line, something to tide them over in the immediate term, and this led them to MOS Technology . MOS had been building calculator chips for some time, but more recently had begun to branch out into new markets with its 6502 microprocessor design, which they were trying to bring to market. Along with

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