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129-429: Zitkala-Ša , also Zitkála-Šá ( Lakota : Zitkála-Šá , meaning Red Bird ; February 22, 1876 – January 26, 1938), was a Yankton Dakota writer, editor, translator, musician, educator, and political activist . She was also known by her Anglicized and married name, Gertrude Simmons Bonnin . She wrote several works chronicling her struggles with cultural identity, and the pull between the majority culture in which she

258-535: A Bachelor of Arts or a Bachelor of Science degree from the School of Arts and Sciences at Tufts and a Bachelor of Music degree from NEC over 5 years of study, immersing students in intensive studies in liberal arts, music theory, and musicianship, along with weekly lessons and ensembles. Admission to the Tufts/NEC program is highly selective as Tufts and NEC make their initial admission decisions separately, then NEC makes

387-501: A Google Doodle that incorporated ledger art for use in the United States on February 22, 2021, to celebrate her 145th birthday. In 2022 an opera based on her life and work was released: Mináǧi kiŋ dowáŋ: A Zitkála-Šá Opera . It is the first opera to use Dakota language. Zitkala-Ša's legacy lives on as one of the most influential Native American activists of the 20th century. She left an influential theory of Indian resistance and

516-630: A Christian manner. From Washington, Zitkala-Ša began lecturing nationwide on behalf of SAI to promote greater awareness of the cultural and tribal identity of Native Americans. During the 1920s she promoted a pan-Indian movement to unite all of America's tribes in the cause of lobbying for citizenship rights. In 1924 the Indian Citizenship Act was passed, granting US citizenship rights to most Indigenous peoples who did not already have it. While Native Americans now had citizenship, discrimination remained widespread. In some states their right to vote

645-531: A Yavapi (Mohave-Apache) doctor and Indigenous activist. Her letters to Montezuma verify that the Carlisle school and its president and founder were a major cause of concern. In her letters, she repeatedly mentions Pratt and Carlisle, calling Pratt "woefully small" and "bigoted" (5 March 1901) and writing that she "imagines Carlisle will rear up on its haunches" after one of her stories is published (Summer 1901). Zitkala-Ša explains to Montezuma that even though she "offends

774-548: A concentration in Music Technology. The artist diploma (AD) is the highest-level performance designation offered at NEC. The program is extremely selective with only a small number of applicants admitted to the program each year. The AD program typically lasts two years, and students are awarded a full-tuition scholarship and a living stipend for both years of the program, and they are often featured in special performances and events. The Doctor of Musical Arts degree (DMA)

903-452: A crucial model for reform. Through her activism, Zitkala-Ša was able to make crucial changes to education, health care, and legal standing for Native American people and the preservation of Indian culture. Zitkala-Ša is featured on a 2024 American Women quarter . Lakota language Speakers of the Lakota language make up one of the largest Native American language speech communities in

1032-638: A diploma from NEC was Rachel M. Washington, who earned a diploma in voice in 1872. Puerto-Rican pianist Jesus Maria Sanroma received his diploma from NEC in 1920, while the first Black students to earn bachelor's degrees were Anna Bobbitt (Gardner) and Luther Fuller, both in 1932. Some of NEC's most famous African American alumni include Florence Price , Coretta Scott King , J. Rosamond Johnson , Cecil Taylor , D. Antoinette Handy, McHenry Boatwright , Buckner Gamby, and Denyce Graves . NEC's Black faculty members have included talents such as Jaki Byard , George Russell , Geri Allen , and Carl Atkins. NEC also has

1161-500: A fluent speaker to use. In 2013 Lakota teachers at Red Cloud Indian School on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation discussed their use of orthography for their K–12 students as well as adult learners. The orthography used at Red Cloud "is meant to be more phonetic than other orthographies... That means there are usually more 'H's than other versions. While many orthographies use tipi ... Red Cloud spells it thípi." He continues, "the orthography also makes heavy use of diacritical marks... that

1290-454: A following ⟨ƞ⟩ , ⟨ŋ⟩ , or ⟨n⟩ ; historically, these were written with ogoneks underneath, ⟨į ą ų⟩ . No syllables end with consonantal /n/ . A neutral vowel ( schwa ) is automatically inserted between certain consonants, e.g. into the pairs ⟨gl⟩ , ⟨bl⟩ and ⟨gm⟩ . So the clan name written phonemically as ⟨Oglala⟩ has become

1419-516: A grammatical sentence that contains only a verb. (interjection) (conjunction) (adverb(s)) (nominal) (nominal) (nominal) (adverb(s)) verb (enclitic(s)) (conjunction) When interjections are used, they begin the sentence or end it. A small number of interjections are used only by one gender, for instance the interjection expressing disbelief is ečéš for women but hóȟ for men; for calling attention women say máŋ while men use wáŋ . Most interjections, however, are used by both genders. It

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1548-481: A higher tone than all other vowels in the word. This is generally the vowel of the second syllable of the word, but often the first syllable can be stressed, and occasionally other syllables as well. Stress is generally indicated with an acute accent: ⟨á⟩ , etc. Compound words will have stressed vowels in each component; proper spelling will write compounds with a hyphen. Thus máza-ská , literally "metal-white", i.e. "silver; money" has two stressed vowels,

1677-551: A housekeeper, a role the school anticipated most female students would pursue. She studied piano and violin and started to teach music at White's after the music teacher resigned. In June 1895, when Zitkala-Ša was awarded her diploma, she gave a speech on the inequality of women's rights , which was praised highly by the local newspaper. Though her mother wanted her to return home after graduation, Zitkala-Ša chose to attend Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana , where she had been offered

1806-652: A long history of awarding honorary degrees to many significant artists, such as Roland Hayes (1961), Marian Anderson (1964), Shinichi Suzuki (1966), Coretta Scott King (1971), William Grant Still (1973), Seiji Ozawa (1982), Miles Davis (1986), John Birks "Dizzy" Gillespie (1991), Ravi Shankar (1993), Aretha Franklin (1997), Ali Akbar Khan (2000), Jose Antonio Abreu (2002), Halim El-Dabh (2007), Quincy Jones (2010), Kyung Wha Chun (2015), Sofia Gubaidulina (2017), Herbie Hancock (2018), Chou Wen-chung (2019), Jessye Norman (2019), Mavis Staples (2021), Wu Man (2021), and Ella Jenkins (2022). Although

1935-453: A major capital campaign to fund the 1994–95 restoration of Jordan Hall, and instituted the Doctorate of Musical Arts (DMA) degree along with a considerable number of additional graduate school offerings. Daniel Steiner, a former member of the board of trustees, served as the conservatory's only president who was not also a musician. During his tenure from 1999 to 2006, his goal was to "make NEC

2064-606: A music conservatory in Boston, Massachusetts . He met with a group of Boston's most influential musical leaders to discuss the foundation of a school based on popular and well-established European conservatories. Among the voices in the discussion were John Sullivan Dwight , an influential music critic; Dr. J. Baxter Upham, president of the Harvard Musical Association ; and Oliver Ditson , a prominent music publisher. The group initially rejected Tourjée's plans, arguing that it

2193-428: A property. (In English, such descriptions are usually made with adjectives .) Verbs are inflected for first-, second- or third person , and for singular, dual or plural grammatical number . There are two paradigms for verb inflection . One set of morphemes indicates the person and number of the subject of active verbs. The other set of morphemes agrees with the object of transitive action verbs or

2322-499: A scholarship. While initially feeling isolated and uncertain among her predominantly white peers, she proved her oratorical talents with a speech titled "Side by Side.” During this time, she began gathering traditional stories from a spectrum of Native tribes, translating them into Latin and English for children to read. In 1897, six weeks before graduation, she was forced to leave Earlham College due to ill health and financial difficulties. From 1897 to 1899 Zitkala-Ša studied and played

2451-649: A second level of admission for the dual-degree program itself. Students in the Harvard/NEC dual-degree program receive a Bachelor of Arts from Harvard and a Master of Music from NEC over 5 years of study. For the first 4 years, students pursue the typical Bachelor of Arts curriculum in their concentration (major) and take weekly studio instruction at NEC. Students begin their Master of Music coursework during their 4th year and complete their 5th year entire at NEC. Students must be admitted independently to both institutions before receiving an additional decision for admission to

2580-436: A small class of 8–12 students each year to ensure the highest degree of flexibility and individual attention. The conservatory offers five-year joint double-degree programs with Harvard University and Tufts University . These programs allow students who have dual passions in both music and another field to have access to the world's best resources for both pursuits. The Tufts/NEC allows highly motivated students to receive

2709-427: A top school in its field like MIT and Harvard." Toward that end, Steiner established a joint-degree program with Harvard and a chamber music training program, boosted financial aid resources, and hired prominent faculty members to attract more applicants. Both the size and reputation of NEC saw a substantial increase, and Steiner raised $ 72 million over the last three years of his presidency. In 2007, Tony Woodcock took

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2838-610: A voter registration drive among Native Americans. She encouraged them to support the Curtis Bill , which she believed would be favorable for Indians. Though the bill granted Native Americans US citizenship, it did not grant those living on reservations the right to vote in local and state elections. Zitkala-Ša continued to work for civil rights, and better access to health care and education for Native Americans until she died in 1938. Zitkala-Ša died on January 26, 1938, in Washington, D.C., at

2967-497: A wide variety of global and ethnic musical traditions, aural traditions, and improvisation into the conservatory's traditionally classical roots. Schuller also helped to renew interest in another style of American music: ragtime . He formed the New England Conservatory Ragtime Ensemble in 1971. Additional changes to the curriculum included a new program in early musical performance, as well as an overhaul of

3096-400: Is postpositional , with adpositions occurring after the head nouns: mas'óphiye él , "at the store" (literally 'store at'); thípi=kiŋ ókšaŋ , "around the house" (literally 'house=the around') (Rood and Taylor 1996). Rood and Taylor (1996) suggest the following template for basic word order. Items in parentheses are optional; only the verb is required. It is therefore possible to produce

3225-567: Is NEC's central and most famous performing space. Officially opened in 1903, Jordan Hall was the gift of trustee Eben D. Jordan Jr., son of the co-founder of the Jordan Marsh retail stores and himself an amateur musician. The dedication concert of Jordan Hall, performed by the Boston Symphony Orchestra, took place on October 20, 1903. Newspaper accounts deemed the hall "unequaled the world over," and The Boston Globe reported that it

3354-964: Is a private music school in Boston , Massachusetts . The conservatory is located on Huntington Avenue along the Avenue of the Arts near Boston Symphony Hall , and is home to approximately 750 students pursuing undergraduate and graduate studies, and 1,500 more in its Preparatory School and School of Continuing Education. NEC offers bachelor's degrees in instrumental and vocal classical music performance, contemporary musical arts, composition , jazz studies, music history, and music theory , as well as graduate degrees in collaborative piano, conducting , and musicology . The conservatory has also partnered with Harvard University and Tufts University to create joint double-degree, five-year programs. The faculty and alumni of New England Conservatory comprise nearly fifty percent of

3483-552: Is a rigorous and selective program intended for performer-scholars who combine the highest standards in their major area with proven accomplishments in research and scholarship. It is designed to provide professional musicians with the necessary knowledge and skills for artistic, cultural, social, and educational leadership. The DMA degree is offered in all areas of solo performance, composition, collaborative piano, chamber music for piano, conducting, jazz performance and composition, contemporary musical arts, and music theory. NEC enrolls

3612-837: Is available for younger students, ages 0–6, to increase exposure to music in general from an early age and build foundational practices for beginners on string instruments. Students enrolled in NEC Prep may participate in the Certificate Program, allowing students to achieve their optimum performance skills and demonstrate competence in music theory, literature, and solo repertoire. Multiple certificate levels are offered for each instrumental and vocal area for students to progress through with each subsequent year of attendance. Large ensemble programming includes four full orchestras, five string orchestras, three wind ensembles, Youth Jazz Orchestra, Youth Brass Ensemble, and three Choral groups. NEC Prep

3741-541: Is characterized by its liminal nature: tensions between tradition and assimilation, and between literature and politics. This tension has been described as generating much of the dynamism of her work. The second phase of her writing career was from 1916 to 1924. During this period, Zitkala-Ša concentrated on writing and publishing political works. She and her husband had moved to Washington, D.C., where she became politically active. She published some of her most influential writings, including American Indian Stories (1921) with

3870-524: Is common for a sentence to begin with a conjunction. Both čhaŋké and yuŋkȟáŋ can be translated as and ; k’éyaš is similar to English but . Each of these conjunctions joins clauses. In addition, the conjunction na joins nouns or phrases. Lakota uses postpositions , which are similar to English prepositions, but follow their noun complement. Adverbs or postpositional phrases can describe manner, location, or reason. There are also interrogative adverbs, which are used to form questions. To

3999-649: Is home to the Youth Philharmonic Orchestra (YPO), the most selective of the large ensembles, as well as the Youth Symphony (YS). All large ensembles perform at least twice each year in NEC's Jordan Hall. YPO, YS, and the Sr. Massachusetts Youth Wind Ensemble are touring ensembles whose recent tour destinations included Iceland, Ireland, Norway, and Spain, Italy and Central Europe. The Contemporary Music Festival, hosted in

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4128-478: Is marked with an acute accent : ⟨á, é, í, ó, ú, áŋ, íŋ, úŋ⟩ on stressed vowels (which receive a higher tone than non-stressed ones) The following consonants approximate their IPA values: ⟨b, g, h, k, l, m, n, ŋ, p, s, t, w, z⟩ . ⟨Y⟩ has its English value of /j/ . An apostrophe, ⟨'⟩ , is used for the glottal stop . A caron is used for sounds, other than /ŋ/ , which are not written with Latin letters in

4257-398: Is more appropriate. They are both used in matters of time and space. As mentioned above, nominals are optional in Lakota, but when nouns appear the basic word order is subject–object–verb. Pronouns are not common, but may be used contrastively or emphatically. Lakota has four articles : waŋ is indefinite, similar to English a or an , and kiŋ is definite, similar to English

4386-440: Is not popular among some educators and academics". Delphine Red Shirt, an Oglala Lakota tribal member and a lecturer on languages at Stanford University , disagrees and prefers a Lakota orthography without diacritical marks. "I'm very against any orthography that requires a special keyboard to communicate," she said. First language speaker and veteran language teacher at Red Cloud, the late Philomine Lakota, had similar concerns with

4515-484: Is often written without diacritics . Besides failing to mark stress, this also results in the confusion of numerous consonants: /s/ and /ʃ/ are both written ⟨s⟩ , /h/ and /χ/ are both written ⟨h⟩ , and the aspirate stops are written like the unaspirates, as ⟨p, t, c, k⟩ . All digraphs (i.e. characters created by two letters, such as kh, kȟ, k') are treated as groups of individual letters in alphabetization. Thus for example

4644-420: Is phonetically [laˈkˣota] ). For some speakers, there is a phonemic distinction between the two, and both occur before /e/ . No such variation occurs for the affricate /tʃʰ/. Some orthographies mark this distinction; others do not. The uvular fricatives /χ/ and /ʁ/ are commonly spelled ⟨ȟ⟩ and ⟨ǧ⟩ . All monomorphemic words have one vowel which carries primary stress and has

4773-774: Is spent teaching and speaking the language. On May 3, 2022, the Tribal Council of the Standing Rock Sioux , in a near-unanimous vote, banished the Lakota Language Consortium (and specifically, LLC linguist Jan Ullrich and co-founder Wilhelm Meya) from ever again setting foot on the reservation. The council's decision was based on the LLC's history with not only the Standing Rock community, but also with at least three other communities that also voiced concerns about Meya and

4902-636: The American Indian boarding school system and vivid portrayal of Indian deracination contrasted markedly to the more idealistic writings of most of her contemporaries. Also in 1901, Zitkala-Ša was sent by Carlisle's founder, Colonel Richard Henry Pratt , to the Yankton Reservation to recruit students. It was her first visit in several years. She was troubled to find her mother's house in disrepair, her brother's family had fallen into poverty, and white settlers were beginning to occupy lands allotted to

5031-468: The Boston Symphony Orchestra in 1881, he called on 19 members of NEC faculty to serve as section leaders. The close ties between these historic institutions continue today. By the turn of the century, NEC had come under the leadership of George W. Chadwick , a well-known composer who had been on the faculty since 1882. During his tenure, the foundation was laid that shaped NEC's identity for

5160-441: The Boston Symphony Orchestra , including 6 members of l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres , 14 Rome Prize recipients, 51 Guggenheim Fellows , and prizewinners at nearly every major respected music forum in the world. As of January 2020, 11 MacArthur Fellows have also been affiliated as faculty or alumni. In June 1853, a nineteen-year-old music teacher from Providence, Rhode Island named Eben Tourjée made his first attempt to found

5289-454: The Lyon Park neighborhood of Arlington County, Virginia , near Washington, DC. In 2020, a park in that neighborhood that had previously been named for Henry Clay was renamed in her honor. In 2018, Melodia Women's Choir of New York City performed the world premiere of a commissioned work based on the story of Zitkala-Ša, Red Bird by Cevanne Horrocks-Hopayian . Chris Pappan illustrated

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5418-725: The New York Light Opera Guild presented The Sun Dance Opera at The Broadway Theatre as its opera of the year. Zitkala-Ša was politically active throughout most of her adult life. During her time on the Uintah-Ouray reservation in Utah, she was involved with the Society of American Indians (SAI) which was dedicated to preserving the Native American way of life while lobbying for the right to full American citizenship. The letterhead of

5547-494: The United States , with approximately 2,000 speakers, who live mostly in the northern plains states of North Dakota and South Dakota . Many communities have immersion programs for both children and adults. Like many indigenous languages, the Lakota language did not have a written form traditionally. However, efforts to develop a written form of Lakota began, primarily through the work of Christian missionaries and linguists, in

5676-660: The Yankton Dakota under the Dawes Act of 1887 . Upon returning to the Carlisle School, Zitkala-Ša came into conflict with Pratt. She resented his rigid program to assimilate Native Americans into dominant white culture and the limitations of the curriculum. It prepared Native American children only for low-level manual work, assuming they would return to rural cultures. That year she published an article in Harper's Monthly describing

5805-434: The "Mason-song" system. By the end of 1868, the conservatory had grown from its original seven rooms to twenty-five, with 1,212 students enrolled. Meanwhile, Tourjée established an affiliation with Boston University in hopes of providing a more comprehensive collegiate education for musicians. He eventually took on the role of Dean at the university, holding the position until his death in 1891. By 1882, NEC had outgrown

5934-544: The "SLO" or even "Suggested Lakota Orthography." Tasha Hauff writes, Choosing a writing system, or orthography, is often a serious point of contention in Indigenous communities engaging in revitalization work (Hinton, 2014). While writing a traditionally oral language can itself be considered a colonial act, standardizing a writing system is fraught with political as well as pedagogical complications. Because teachers at Standing Rock were in need of language-teaching materials, and

6063-426: The . In addition, waŋží is an indefinite article used with hypothetical or irrealis objects, and k’uŋ is a definite article used with nouns that have been mentioned previously. There are also nine demonstratives , which can function either as pronouns or as determiners . Verbs are the only word class that are obligatory in a Lakota sentence. Verbs can be active, naming an action, or stative , describing

6192-480: The 1920s, numerous Osage were murdered. The work influenced Congress to pass the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 , which encouraged tribes to re-establish self-government, including management of their lands. Under this act, the government returned some lands to them as communal property, which it had previously classified as surplus, so they could put together parcels that could be managed. Zitkala-Ša

6321-519: The 1930s and early 1940s, NEC saw a decline in enrollment throughout the Great Depression and the closely following events of World War II . But by 1946, enrollment had doubled to over 2,300 students, with fifty percent of those degree candidates enrolled through the G.I. Bill to earn their college degrees following service in WWII. Through the 1950s, the school once again began redefining itself under

6450-509: The Boston publisher Ginn and Company, Old Indian Legends (1901) was a collection of stories including some that she learned as a child and others she had gathered from various tribes. Directed primarily at children, the collection was an attempt both to preserve Native American traditions and stories in print and to garner respect and recognition for those from the dominant European-American culture. One of Zitkala-Ša's most influential pieces of political writing, "Oklahoma's Poor Rich Indians”,

6579-476: The Carlisle School and cared for her ailing mother. Her relationship with her mother was strained after a disagreement over Zitkala-Ša's decision to continue her education. She also spent this time gathering material for her collection of traditional Sioux stories to publish in Old Indian Legends , commissioned by the Boston publisher Ginn and Company . In early 1901, she was engaged to Carlos Montezuma ,

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6708-580: The Center for Cultural Equity and Belonging (CEB) to shape, support, and advance institutional practices relative to equity, diversity, inclusion, and belonging." Today, the NEC campus consists of four buildings along both sides of Gainsborough Street, between St. Botolph Street and Huntington Avenue. Unofficially called "the Jordan Hall Building," NEC's main building is home to Jordan Hall and three smaller performance spaces: Williams Hall, Brown Hall, and

6837-518: The Col.," she "won't be another's mouthpiece-[she] will say just what [she] thinks" (5 March 1901). It is both because of and through her rejection of Pratt and his educational plan that Zitkala-Ša inscribes her strategic rhetoric of pedagogical resistance. She broke off her engagement and relationship with Montezuma by August. He had refused to give up his private medical practice in Chicago and relocate with her to

6966-636: The Czech linguist advocates resembles the Czech orthography – making it easier for Czech people to read. The Europeans predominantly use the internet to give the impression that this "Czech orthography" is a Lakota product and the standard for writing Lakota." "The Rosebud Sioux Tribe was the first of the Lakota tribes to take legal action against the self-authorizing practices the LLC committed by utilizing names of Lakota language experts without their consent to obtain funding for their projects." Rosebud Resolution No. 2008–295 goes further and compares these actions to what

7095-465: The Department of Music for Young People, the precursor to NEC's present-day Preparatory School, and also oversaw construction of a new dormitory which opened in 1960. In 1967, composer, conductor, and author Gunther Schuller was selected President of NEC, just as the school was celebrating its centennial. Like Chadwick, Schuller was a transformational leader for the conservatory. In 1969, he established

7224-785: The Hayworth Publishing House. She co-authored Oklahoma's Poor Rich Indians: An Orgy of Graft and Exploitation of the Five Civilized Tribes, Legalized Robbery (1923), an influential pamphlet, with Charles H. Fabens of the American Indian Defense Association and Matthew K. Sniffen of the Indian Rights Association . Included in the Oklahoma's Poor Rich Indians publication was information about Stella Mason , as well as others. She also created

7353-482: The IPA: ⟨č⟩ /tʃ/ , ⟨ǧ⟩ /ʁ/ , ⟨ȟ⟩ /χ/ , ⟨š⟩ /ʃ/ , ⟨ž⟩ /ʒ/ . Aspirates are written with ⟨h⟩ : ⟨čh, kh, ph, th,⟩ and velar frication with ⟨ȟ⟩ : ⟨kȟ, pȟ, tȟ.⟩ Ejectives are written with an apostrophe: ⟨č', ȟ', k', p', s', š', t'⟩ . The spelling used in modern popular texts

7482-692: The Indian Welfare Committee in 1924. She helped initiate a government investigation into the exploitation of Native Americans in Oklahoma and the attempts being made to defraud them of drilling rights and leasing fees for their oil-rich lands. She undertook a speaking tour across the country for the General Federation of Women's Clubs where she called for the abolition of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. In addition to her other organizing, Zitkala-Ša also ran

7611-510: The Indian Welfare Committee of the General Federation of Women's Clubs , working as a researcher for it through much of the 1920s. American Indian Stories is a collection of childhood stories, allegorical fiction, and an essay, including several of Zitkala-Ša's articles that were originally published in Harper's Monthly and Atlantic Monthly . First published in 1921, these stories told of

7740-577: The Keller Room; the Performance Library; faculty offices and teaching studios; and student practice rooms. At 33 Gainsborough sits the former Residence Hall, which is now commonly known as "33 G" for its location on Gainsborough Street. This building primarily houses administrative departments, the copy/mail center, the store Music Espresso, and additional practice rooms. The "St. Botolph Building" at 241 St. Botolph Street contains Pierce Hall, along with

7869-569: The LLC materials but do not write in the orthography. These are usually Elders who remain in the habit of writing the way they learned. A few people at Standing Rock, however, have been offended by the notion of a standard way of writing Lakota/Dakota, especially one that seems unlike any of the systems used by Elders. Community members have been particularly wary of the SLO ["Standard Lakota Orthography"], which appears to be developed by outsiders who are not fluent speakers and would require considerable study for

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7998-422: The LLC was one of the few organizations developing such resources, Standing Rock adopted the new orthography, but not without resistance from members of the community. ... The new writing system at Standing Rock was often criticized or even rejected within the community. Some fluent speakers at Standing Rock have not accepted the new writing system. There are some who continue to work in language education and who use

8127-469: The LLC's promotion of their New Lakota Dictionary , websites and other Internet projects aimed at revising and standardizing their new spelling of the Lakota language. "Lakota first language speakers and Lakota language teachers criticize the "Czech orthography" for being overloaded with markings and – foremost – for the way it is being brought into Lakota schools"; it has been criticized as " neocolonial domination." Sonja John writes that "The new orthography

8256-510: The LLC, "saying he broke agreements over how to use recordings, language materials and historical records, or used them without permission." The "Standard Lakota Orthography" as the LLC calls it, is in principle phonemic, which means that each character ( grapheme ) represents one distinctive sound ( phoneme ), except for the distinction between glottal and velar aspiration, which is treated phonetically. Lakota vowels are ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩ nasal vowels are aŋ, iŋ, uŋ. Pitch accent

8385-407: The Lakota Language Consortium and its " Czech orthography " from the reservation and its educational system. This ban was a response to a series of protests by community members and grassroots language preservation workers, at Rosebud and other Lakota communities, against the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC). Despite its name, the LLC is an organization formed by two Europeans. Concerns arose due to

8514-779: The Lakota Sun Dance, which the federal government prohibited the Ute from performing on the reservation. The opera premiered in Utah in February 1913, with dancing and some parts performed by the Ute from the nearby Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation , and lead singing roles filled by non-natives. According to historian Tadeusz Lewandowski, it was the first Native opera. It debuted at Orpheus Hall in Vernal, Utah , to high local praise and critical acclaim. Few works of Native American opera since have dealt so exclusively with Native American themes. In 1938,

8643-509: The NCAI. Her early work was largely forgotten after the organization was revived in 1944 under male leadership. Zitkala-Ša was also active in the 1920s in the movement for women's rights, joining the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC) in 1921. This grassroots organization was dedicated to diversity in its membership and to maintaining a public voice for women's concerns. Through the GFWC she created

8772-661: The October 1901 issue, Volume 103. She also wrote "A Warrior's Daughter", published in 1902 in Volume 6 of Everybody's Magazine . In 1902, Zitkala-Ša published "Why I Am a Pagan" in Atlantic Monthly , volume 90. It was a treatise on her personal spiritual beliefs. She countered the contemporary trend that suggested Native Americans readily adopted and conformed to the Christianity forced on them in schools and public life. Much of her work

8901-507: The SAI appointed her as national secretary in 1916. As the secretary for SAI, Zitkala-Ša corresponded with the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). She began to criticize practices of the BIA, such as their attempt at the national boarding schools to prohibit Native American children from using their native languages and cultural practices. She reported incidents of abuse resulting from children's refusal to pray in

9030-487: The Spring semesters, encourages students to explore new music in an intensive setting and learn contemporary performance practice. Every year, the festival hosts a composer-in-residence who engages with the community in a variety of ways, including visiting classes, working with small and large ensembles, and leading masterclasses. NEC Prep student compositions are performed throughout the festival, sometimes in readings with one of

9159-643: The Summer Orchestra Institute (SOI), a two-week full symphony orchestra program open to intermediate through advanced-level strings, brass, winds, and percussion students between the ages of 13 and 18. Program activities include full orchestral rehearsals, sectional rehearsals, chamber music reading/coaching sessions, masterclasses, workshops, mock auditions, individual practice time, and two concerts in Jordan Hall. NEC has always accepted students regardless of their race. The first African American to receive

9288-560: The Sun Dance Opera . Zitkala-Ša's articles in the Atlantic Monthly were published from 1900 to 1902. They included "An Indian Teacher Among Indians", published in Volume 85 in 1900. Included in the same issue were "Impressions of an Indian Childhood" and "School Days of an Indian Girl". Zitkala-Ša's other articles were published in Harper's Monthly . "Soft-Hearted Sioux" appeared in the March 1901 issue, Volume 102, and "The Trial Path" in

9417-419: The Uintah-Ouray reservation in Utah, she met American composer William F. Hanson , who was a professor of music at Brigham Young University . Together, in 1910, they started their collaboration on the music for The Sun Dance Opera , for which Zitkala-Ša wrote the libretto and songs. She also played Sioux melodies on the violin and flute, and Hanson used this as the basis of his music composition. She based it on

9546-567: The Yankton Indian Agency, where she wanted to return. In 1902, she met and married Raymond Talephause Bonnin, who was of Yankton-European ancestry and culturally Yankton. Soon after their marriage, Bonnin was assigned by the BIA to the Uintah-Ouray reservation in Utah. The couple lived and worked there with the Ute people for the next fourteen years. During this period, Zitkala-Ša gave birth to

9675-631: The age of 61. She is buried as Gertrude Simmons Bonnin in Arlington National Cemetery with her husband Raymond. In the late 20th century, the University of Nebraska reissued many of her writings on Native American culture. She has been recognized by the naming of a Venusian crater "Bonnin" in her honor. In 1997 she was designated a Women's History Month Honoree by the National Women's History Project . Zitkala-Ša lived part of her life in

9804-453: The agency within the Department of Interior that oversaw American Indians. Many of her political writings have since been criticized for favoring assimilation. She called for recognition of Native American culture and traditions, while also advocating US citizenship rights to bring Native Americans into mainstream America. She believed this was the way that they could both gain political power and protect their cultures. While Zitkala-Ša lived on

9933-614: The approach... then the question is whose version will be adopted? This will cause dissent and politics to become a factor in the process." Also in 2002, Sinte Gleska University rejected a partnership with the European-owned Lakota Language Consortium. Sinte Gleska uses the orthography developed by Albert White Hat , which on December 13, 2012, was formally adopted by the Rosebud Sioux Tribe per Tribal Resolution No. 2012–343. This resolution also banned

10062-582: The care of her mother's people and tribe. In 1884, when Zitkala-Ša was eight, missionaries came to the reservation. They recruited several Yankton children, including Zitkala-Ša, taking them to be educated at the White's Indiana Manual Labor Institute, a Quaker missionary boarding school in Wabash, Indiana . This training school was founded by Josiah White for the education of "poor children, white, colored, and Indian" to help them advance in society. Zitkala-Ša attended

10191-449: The charm of her early life on the reservation with the "iron routine" which she found in the assimilation boarding schools. Zitkala-Ša wrote: "Perhaps my Indian nature is the moaning wind which stirs them [schoolteachers] now for their present record. But, however tempestuous this is within me, it comes out as the low voice of a curiously colored seashell, which is only for those ears that are bent with compassion to hear it." Commissioned by

10320-568: The council stationery claimed that the overall goals for SAI was to "help Indians help themselves in protecting their rights and properties". Zitkala-Ša served as SAI's secretary beginning in 1916. Since the late 20th century, activists have criticized SAI and Zitkala-Ša as misguided in their strong advocacy of citizenship and employment rights for Native Americans. Such critics believe that Native Americans have lost cultural identity as they have become more part of mainstream American society. Zitkala-Ša and her family relocated to Washington, D.C. , when

10449-425: The council's president until her death in 1938. Zitkala-Ša has been noted as one of the most influential Native American activists of the 20th century. Working with American musician William F. Hanson , Zitkala-Ša wrote the libretto and songs for The Sun Dance Opera (1913), the first American Indian opera . It was composed in romantic musical style, and based on Sioux and Ute cultural themes. Zitkala-Ša

10578-615: The couple's only child, Raymond Ohiya Bonnin. Her husband, Bonnin, enlisted in the US Army in 1917 after the United States declared war against the German Empire during World War I . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in 1918. He served in the Quarter Master Corps in Washington, D.C., and was honorably discharged with the rank of captain in 1920. Zitkala-Ša had a fruitful writing career, with two major periods. The first period

10707-627: The creation of the tribe. Other creation stories say language was invented by Iktomi . A wholly Lakota newspaper named the Anpao Kin ("Daybreak") circulated from 1878 by the Protestant Episcopal Church in Niobrara Mission , Nebraska until its move to Mission, South Dakota in 1908 continuing until its closure in 1937. The print alongside its Dakota counterpart Iapi Oaye ("The Word Carrier") played an important role in documenting

10836-523: The dual-degree. New England Conservatory's Preparatory School is an open-enrollment institution for pre-college students, with over 225 faculty members and 1,300 students ages 0–18. NEC Prep offers private lessons, theory and composition courses, chamber music, and over 35 small and large ensembles of varying levels. Additionally, NEC Prep offers courses, ensembles, and lessons in jazz and Baroque music styles. Early Childhood Music Education, including Eurhythmics and Suzuki Strings for violin, viola, and cello,

10965-472: The enlistment and affairs including obituaries of Native Sioux soldiers into the army as America became involved in World War I . Lakota has five oral vowels, /i e a o u/ , and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ã ũ/ (phonetically [ɪ̃ ə̃ ʊ̃] ). Lakota /e/ and /o/ are said to be more open than the corresponding cardinal vowels, perhaps closer to [ɛ] and [ɔ] . Orthographically, the nasal vowels are written with

11094-399: The first a in each component. If it were written without the hyphen, as mazaska , it would imply a single main stress. A common phonological process which occurs in rapid speech is vowel contraction , which generally results from the loss of an intervocalic glide. Vowel contraction results in phonetic long vowels ( phonemically a sequence of two identical vowels), with falling pitch if

11223-445: The first fully-accredited jazz degree program in the United States and, a few years later, introduced "Third Stream" studies into the curriculum. "Third Stream" was the term coined by Schuller to describe the synthesis of jazz and classical music. Eventually, it gained its own department and degree program, first renamed Contemporary Improvisation, and renamed again in 2022 to Contemporary Musical Arts (CMA). The CMA department incorporates

11352-415: The first underlying vowel is stressed, and rising pitch if the second underlying vowel is stressed: kê: (falling tone), "he said that", from kéye ; hǎ:pi (rising tone), "clothing", from hayápi . If one of the vowels is nasalized, the resulting long vowel is also nasalized: čhaŋ̌:pi , "sugar", from čhaŋháŋpi . When two vowels of unequal height contract, or when feature contrasts exist between

11481-429: The hardships which she and other Native Americans encountered at the missionary and manual labor schools designed to "civilize" them and assimilate them to majority culture. The autobiographical writings described her early life on the Yankton Reservation, her years as a student at White's Manual Labor Institute and Earlham College, and her time teaching at Carlisle Indian Industrial School. Her autobiography contrasted

11610-503: The helm and served as NEC's president until 2015. He instituted both of the programs for Sistema Fellows and Entrepreneurial Musicianship, and ended his tenure with the groundbreaking for the Student Life and Performance Center (SLPC), the school's first new building since 1960. In January 2019, Andrea Kalyn became NEC's 17th and first female president. Demonstrating an immediate commitment to expanding diversity initiatives, Kalyn "founded

11739-479: The hotel and, almost immediately, construction began on a new recital hall. Through substantial contributions from wealthy trustees, including Jacob Sleeper , the new hall was rushed to completion and Sleeper Hall opened on January 13, 1886. The hall was rapidly put to heavy use, with 109 classical music concerts and hundreds of student recitals performed in the first year. As the conservatory grew, so did its ties to musical life in Boston. When Henry Higginson founded

11868-637: The late 19th and early 20th centuries. The orthography has since evolved to reflect contemporary needs and usage. One significant figure in the development of a written form of Lakota was Ella Cara Deloria , also called Aŋpétu Wašté Wiŋ (Beautiful Day Woman), a Yankton Dakota ethnologist, linguist, and novelist who worked extensively with the Dakota and Lakota peoples, documenting their languages and cultures. She collaborated with linguists such as Franz Boas and Edward Sapir to create written materials for Lakota, including dictionaries and grammars. Another key figure

11997-512: The leadership of president Harrison Keller . He minimized the original diploma program by encouraging students to enroll into degree programs instead—which, by this time, had also expanded to include master's degree programs. Keller also established an academic studies department and developed a full four-year theory curriculum. In addition, the Artist Diploma program was initiated for a small number of highly gifted performers. Keller later founded

12126-856: The majority of the school's classrooms and administrative offices. NEC's newest building, the Student Life and Performance Center (SLPC), opened in 2017 and now serves as the NEC Residence Hall. It is also home to the Green Room Café and Speed Dining Commons; the Blumenthal Family Library; the Burnes Hall and Eben Jordan Ensemble Room rehearsal spaces; the Elfers Commons; and the Plimpton Shattuck Black Box Theater, designed specifically for opera performances. Jordan Hall

12255-584: The music education department. Finally, Schuller expanded local outreach into the community by creating the Community Services department, known today as the Community Performances and Partnerships department. From 1983 to 1996, NEC was headed by renowned cellist and longtime faculty member Laurence Lesser. During his tenure, the campus expanded with the purchase of two additional buildings for classrooms and administrative offices. Lesser shepherded

12384-534: The non-Lakota speaker, the postpositions él and ektá sound like they can be interchangeable, but although they are full synonyms of each other, they are used in different occasions. Semantically (word meaning), they are used as locational and directional tools. In the English language they can be compared to prepositions like "at", "in", and "on" (when used as locatives) on the one hand, and "at", "in", and "on" (when used as directionals), "to", "into", and "onto", on

12513-533: The official inauguration of the concert hall took place on October 20, 1903, with a grand performance by the Boston Symphony Orchestra. In addition, Chadwick assembled the first complete orchestral ensemble and established the first opera program at NEC. Chadwick ultimately shifted the focus of NEC's curriculum from casual music students interested in occasional lessons or courses to prioritizing students who wished to earn college diplomas and, beginning in 1926, baccalaureate degrees. Like most academic institutions in

12642-470: The orchestras. Past Composers-in-Residence include the founding member and artistic director of ETHEL, Ralph Farris (2018), Pulitzer Prize Winner and MacArthur Fellow recipient, John Harbison (2015), and British Composer and former Master of the Queen's Music, Judith Weir (2014). NEC Prep will be welcoming Valerie Coleman as the 2023 Contemporary Music Festival Composer-in-Residence in February 2023. NEC Prep hosts

12771-435: The orthography, and argues against changing the spelling forms she learned from her father. However, she did consider that, a shared curriculum could "create consistency across the region and encourage the long-term viability of the language. However, Philomine is also cognizant that it will take more than a school curriculum to preserve the language." She added, "In order for a language to survive, it can't simply be taught from

12900-424: The other. (Pustet 2013) A pointer for when to use él and when to use ektá can be determined by the concepts of location (motionless) or motion; and space vs. time. These features can produce four different combinations, also called semantic domains, which can be arranged as follows (Pustet 2013): Summed up, when a context describes no motion, él is the appropriate postposition; when in motion, ektá

13029-441: The place name Ogallala . The voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/ becomes a uvular trill ( [ʀ] ) before /i/ and in fast speech it is often realized as a voiced velar fricative [ɣ] . The voiceless aspirated plosives have two allophonic variants each: those with a delay in voicing ([pʰ tʰ kʰ]) , and those with velar friction ([pˣ tˣ kˣ]) , which occur before /a/ , /ã/ , /o/ , /ĩ/ , and /ũ/ (thus, lakhóta , /laˈkʰota/

13158-403: The preceding vowel is nasalized, then the resulting vowel is also nasalized): hi=pi=kte , "they will arrive here", [hiukte]; yatkáŋ=pi=na , "they drank it and...", [jatkə̃õna] . Lakota also exhibits some traces of sound symbolism among fricatives, where the point of articulation changes to reflect intensity: zí , "it's yellow", ží , "it's tawny", ǧí , "it's brown". (Compare with

13287-504: The profound loss of identity felt by a Native American boy after undergoing the assimilationist education at the school, a story called "The Soft Hearted Sioux," which Pratt called "trash." In 1901, Zitkala-Ša was dismissed from the Carlisle School. Soon after, she took a job as a clerk at the Standing Rock Indian Reservation where she likely met Bonnin. Zitkala-Ša returned to the Yankton Reservation after her time at

13416-622: The rooms in the Boston Music Hall and moved operations to the St. James Hotel in Franklin Square in Boston's South End. The large building functioned as both an academic facility and a residence hall for female students. Even though St. James Hotel provided many amenities the Music Hall had been lacking, it still desperately needed a recital hall. So in 1884, the conservatory purchased land adjacent to

13545-460: The school for three years until 1887. She later wrote about this period in her work, The School Days of an Indian Girl. She described the deep misery of having her heritage stripped away when she was forced to pray as a Quaker and to cut her traditionally long hair. By contrast, she took joy in learning to read, write, and play the violin. In 1887, Zitkala-Ša returned to the Yankton Reservation to live with her mother. She spent three years there. She

13674-458: The similar examples in Mandan .) Several orthographies as well as ad hoc spelling are used to write the Lakota language, with varying perspectives on whether standardization should be implemented. In 2002, Rosebud Cultural Studies teacher Randy Emery argued that standardization of the language could cause problems "because the language is utilized diversely. If standardization is determined to be

13803-664: The subject and object need to be marked, two affixes occur on the verb. Below is a table illustrating this. Subject affixes are marked in italics and object affixes are marked in underline . Some affixes encompass both subject and object (such as čhi - ...). The symbol ∅ indicates a lack of marking for a particular subject/object (as in the case of 3rd Person Singular forms). Cells with three forms indicate Class I, Class II, and Class III verb forms in this order. Example: uŋk á ni pȟepi "We are waiting for you" from apȟé "to wait for somebody". New England Conservatory of Music The New England Conservatory of Music ( NEC )

13932-507: The subject of stative verbs. Most of the morphemes in each paradigm are prefixes, but plural subjects are marked with a suffix and third-person plural objects with an infix . First person arguments may be singular, dual , or plural; second or third person arguments may be singular or plural. Examples: máni "He walks." mánipi "They walk." Example: waŋwíčhayaŋke "He looked at them" from waŋyáŋkA "to look at something/somebody". Subject and object pronouns in one verb If both

14061-545: The thirteen-year interim, Tourjée had gained both experience and success in founding three music schools in Rhode Island, and this time was able to convince his audience of the persisting need and demand for such institutions. The men agreed to support Tourjée, and The New England Conservatory—then consisting of just seven rented rooms above the Boston Music Hall off Tremont Street—officially opened on February 18, 1867. At

14190-506: The top. A language is a living thing and students need to breathe life into it daily; talking with friends, family and elders in Lakota". In 2018, at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation , Lakota speaker Manny Iron Hawk and his wife Renee Iron Hawk discussed opening an immersion school and the difficulties around choosing an orthography to write Lakota; Mr. Iron Hawk voiced support for the LLC (SLO) Orthography, saying it

14319-526: The turn of the century, the original building was converted into a vaudeville theater called the Orpheum Theater , which still stands today. Tourjée continued establishing his public presence within the musical community in Boston by initiating the first national conference of music teachers, which met in Boston as the National Music Congress in 1869. Under the direction of Patrick Gilmore , he

14448-661: The violin at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston. In 1899, she took a position at Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania, where she taught music to children. She also facilitated debates on the treatment of Native Americans. At the 1900 Paris Exposition , she played violin with the school's Carlisle Indian Band. In the same year, she began writing articles on Native American life, which were published in national periodicals such as Atlantic Monthly and Harper's Monthly . Her critical appraisal of

14577-425: The vowels and the glide, two new phonetic vowels, [æː] and [ɔː] , result: iyæ̂: , "he left for there", from iyáye ; mitȟa: , "it's mine", from mitȟáwa . The plural enclitic =pi is frequently changed in rapid speech when preceding the enclitics =kte , =kiŋ , =kštó , or =na . If the vowel preceding =pi is high/open, =pi becomes [u]; if the vowel is non-high (mid or closed), =pi becomes [o] (if

14706-500: The whole of the 20th century. Chadwick again recognized the need for a new facility and selected a location on Huntington Ave, which was quickly becoming a cultural center of Boston with the recently-built Symphony Hall one block away. Once again through the generosity of its trustees, namely Eben Dryer Jordan Jr., another plot of land was purchased and, in 1901, construction began on a new concert hall at 290 Huntington Ave. The Jordan Hall building opened for students beginning in 1902, but

14835-429: The word čhíŋ precedes čónala in a dictionary. In 1982, Lakota educator Leroy Curley (1935–2012) devised a 41-letter circular alphabet. The basic word order of Lakota is subject–object–verb , although the order can be changed for expressive purposes (placing the object before the subject to bring the object into focus or placing the subject after the verb to emphasize its status as established information). It

14964-577: Was Albert White Hat Sr. , who taught at and later became the chair of the Lakota language program at his alma mater, Sinte Gleska University at Mission, South Dakota, one of the first tribal-based universities in the US. His work focused on the Sicangu dialect using an orthography developed by Lakota in 1982 and which today is slowly supplanting older systems provided by linguists and missionaries. The Lakota people 's creation stories say that language originated from

15093-685: Was "a place of entertainment that European musicians who were present that evening say excels in beauty anything of the kind they ever saw." A major renovation to the performance space was completed in 1995. Admission to NEC can be rigorous and is based primarily on a pre-screening recorded video audition followed by a competitive live audition. The conservatory offers degrees in orchestral instruments, conducting, piano, jazz studies, contemporary musical arts, opera and vocal performance and pedagogy, composition, music history, and music theory . NEC also offers minors in Liberal Arts and Music Theory, as well as

15222-570: Was a poor idea to open a conservatory amidst the nation's current political and economic uncertainty, which would ultimately lead to the American Civil War . It wasn't until the Civil War subsided that Tourjée made his next attempt to establish a school in Boston. In December 1866, he again met with a group of Boston's top musicians and music patrons. Joining the former attendees Upham, Dwight, and Ditson were Carl Zerrahn and Charles Perkins . In

15351-503: Was accessible to second language learners, but know not all agreed with him. Others in the community voiced a preference for the tribe creating their own orthography. While Mr. Iron Hawk supports this approach, Renee Iron Hawk also expressed a sense of urgency, saying "We should just use what we have, and then fix and replace it, but we need to start speaking it now". The Iron Hawks both agreed that too much time has been spent arguing over which orthography to use or not use, and not enough time

15480-546: Was also establishing itself as a pioneering institution even in its infancy. It was the first school in the United States to offer a course in public school music, and one of the faculty members who taught that course, Luther Whiting Mason , was the first to introduce music into Boston Public Schools. At the request of the Japanese government, Mason traveled to the country from 1879 to 1882 to introduce western music education to Japanese schools. In Japan, this system came to be known as

15609-450: Was also selected as one of the organizers behind Boston's National Peace Jubilee . That same year, he assembled and rehearsed a chorus of over 10,000 that performed in present-day Copley Square to celebrate the end of the Civil War. Three years later at the World's Peace Jubilee , which he also co-organized under Gilmore, the size of his chorus was doubled. Similarly, New England Conservatory

15738-526: Was an active member of the Society of American Indians (SAI), which published American Indian Magazine . From 1918 to 1919 she served as editor of the magazine, as well as contributing numerous articles. These were her most explicitly political writings, covering topics such as the contribution of Native American soldiers to World War I, issues of land allotment, and corruption within the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA),

15867-634: Was born on February 22, 1876, on the Yankton Indian Reservation in South Dakota . She was raised by her mother, Ellen Simmons, whose Dakota name was Thaté Iyóhiwiŋ (Every Wind or Reaches for the Wind). Her father was a Frenchman named Felker, who abandoned the family when Zitkala-Ša was very young. For her first eight years, Zitkala-Ša lived with her mother on the reservation. She later described those days as ones of freedom and happiness, safe in

15996-511: Was denied, a situation not fully changed until the Civil rights movement of the 1960s. In 1926, she and her husband founded the National Council of American Indians (NCAI), dedicated to the cause of uniting the tribes throughout the US in the cause of gaining full citizenship rights through suffrage. From 1926 until she died in 1938, Zitkala-Ša served as president, major fundraiser, and speaker for

16125-409: Was dismayed to realize that, while she still longed for the native Yankton traditions, she no longer fully belonged to them. Besides, she thought that many on the reservation were conforming to the dominant white culture. In 1891, wanting more education, Zitkala-Ša decided at age fifteen to return to the White's Indiana Manual Labor Institute. She planned to gain more through her education than becoming

16254-415: Was done to children taken from their families by the residential schools . In 2006 some of the Lakota language teachers at Standing Rock chose to collaborate with Sitting Bull College , and the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC), with the aim of expanding their language curriculum. Teachers at Standing Rock use several different orthographies. Language activists at Standing Rock also refer to it as simply

16383-450: Was educated, and the Dakota culture into which she was born and raised. Her later books were among the first works to bring traditional Native American stories to a widespread white English-speaking readership. She was co-founder of the National Council of American Indians in 1926, which was established to lobby for Native people's right to United States citizenship and other civil rights they had long been denied. Zitkala-Ša served as

16512-473: Was from 1900 to 1904, when she published legends collected from Native American culture, as well as autobiographical narratives. She continued to write during the following years, but she did not publish any of these writings. These unpublished writings, along with others including the libretto of the Sun Dance Opera , were collected and published posthumously in 2001 as Dreams and Thunder: Stories, Poems, and

16641-489: Was published in 1923 by the Indian Rights Association . The article exposed several American corporations that had been working systematically, through such extra-legal means as robbery and even murder, to defraud Native American tribes, particularly the Osage . After oil was discovered on their lands, speculators and criminals tried to acquire their headrights to leasing fees from development of their oil-rich land in Oklahoma. During

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