Sudarshana Lake is an artificial lake located in the semi-arid region of Girnar . The lake was originally commissioned by Chandragupta Maurya and later renovated by several kings across different dynasties.
100-458: Sudarshana Lake was originally constructed by Pushyagupta, a governor under the Maurya emperor Chandragupta Maurya (c. 324–297 BCE). The lake was built as part of a water conservation project in the semi-arid region of Kathiawar, now Gujarat. Later, during the reign of Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE), the lake underwent renovations by Tushaspha , a governor appointed by Ashoka. The lake suffered damage in
200-470: A strong economy from a solid infrastructure such as irrigation, temples, mines, and roads. Ancient epigraphical evidence suggests Chandragupta, under counsel from Chanakya, started and completed many irrigation reservoirs and networks across the Indian subcontinent to ensure food supplies for the civilian population and the army, a practice continued by his dynastic successors. Regional prosperity in agriculture
300-521: A Christian understanding of religion, the original "God-given religion" was corrupted by priests, in this case Brahmins, and their religion, "Brahminism", which was supposedly imposed on the Indian population. Reformist Hindus, and others such as Ambedkar , structured their criticism along similar lines. Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit , are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas , but
400-501: A Greek ambassador in his court for four years. According to Appian, Seleucus I Nicator , one of Alexander's Macedonian generals who in 312 BCE established the Seleucid Empire with its capital at Babylon , brought Persia and Bactria under his own authority, putting his eastern front facing the empire of Chandragupta. Somewhere between 305 and 303 BCE Seleucus and Chandragupta confronted each other, Seleucus intending to retake
500-413: A better understanding of the Vedic religion and its shared heritage and theology with contemporary Hinduism, led scholars to view the historical Vedic religion as ancestral to modern Hinduism. The historical Vedic religion is now generally accepted to be a predecessor of modern Hinduism , but they are not the same because the textual evidence suggests significant differences between the two. These include
600-705: A council of ministers ( amatya ), with Chanakya was his chief minister. The empire was organised into territories ( janapada ), centres of regional power were protected with forts ( durga ), and state operations were funded with treasury ( kosa ). Strabo, in his Geographica composed about 300 years after Chandragupta's death, describes aspects of his rule in his chapter XV.46–69. He had councillors for matters of justice and assessors to collect taxes on commercial activity and trade goods. He routinely performed Vedic sacrifices, Brahmanical rituals, and hosted major festivals marked by procession of elephants and horses. His officers inspected situations requiring law and order in
700-455: A couple of miraculous incidents that involved Sandracottus (Chandragupta) and presents these legends as omens and portents of his fate. In the first incident, when Chandragupta was asleep after having escaped from Nandrum, a big lion came up to him, licked him, and then left. In the second incident, when Chandragupta was readying for war with Alexander's generals, a huge wild elephant approached him and offered itself to be his steed. According to
800-498: A depleted treasury, exhausted merit, and insufficient intelligence, the Nanda emperor lost. These legends state that the Nanda emperor was defeated, but allowed to leave Pataliputra alive with a chariot full of items his family needed. The Jain sources attest that his daughter fell in love at first sight with Chandragupta and married him.Though daughter is not named the source later name mother of Chandragupta's son as Durdhara . With
900-752: A different Moriya dynasty in the Deccan region in the fifth century CE. According to Upinder Singh, these poems may be mentioning Mokur and Koshar kingdoms of Vadugars (northerners) in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh , with one interpretation being that the Maurya Empire had an alliance with these at some point of time. Greek writer Phylarchus (c. third century BCE), who is quoted by Athenaeus , calls Chandragupta "Sandrokoptos". The later Greco-Roman writers Strabo , Arrian , and Justin (c. second century) call him "Sandrocottus". In Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta
1000-414: A form of the ancient Vedic religion. It has also been suggested by Michael Witzel that Shinto , the native religion of Japan , contains some influences from the ancient Vedic religion. Brahmanism, also called Brahminism or Brahmanical Hinduism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a region stretching from the northwest Indian subcontinent to
1100-554: A group of Jain monks to south India, where Chandragupta Maurya joined him as a monk after abdicating his empire to his son Bindusara. Together, states a Digambara legend, Chandragupta and Bhadrabahu moved to Shravanabelagola , in present-day south Karnataka. These Jain accounts appeared in texts such as Brihakathā kośa (931 CE) of Harishena, Bhadrabāhu charita (1450 CE) of Ratnanandi, Munivaṃsa bhyudaya (1680 CE) and Rajavali kathe . Chandragupta lived as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola for several years before fasting to death as per
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#17330927033161200-456: A patron of Buddhism – were Moriyas , a branch of Gautama Buddha 's Shakya noble family. These Buddhist sources attempt to link the dynasty of their patron Ashoka directly to the Buddha. The sources claim that the family branched off to escape persecution from a King of Kosala and Chandragupta's ancestors moved into a secluded Himalayan kingdom known for its peacocks. The Buddhist sources explain
1300-414: A period where intrigue and vice multiplied. Chanakya states that Chandragupta returned dharma, nurtured diversity of views, and ruled virtuously that kindled love among the subjects for his rule. Buddhist texts such as Mahavamsa describe Chandragupta to be of Kshatriya origin. These sources, written about seven centuries after his dynasty ended, state that both Chandragupta and his grandson Ashoka –
1400-564: A rival of the Alexander's successors in north-western India. He states that after Alexander's death, Chandragupta freed Indian territories from the Greeks and executed some of the governors. According to Boesche, this war with the northwestern territories was in part fought by mercenaries hired by Chandragupta and Chanakya, and these wars may have been the cause of the demise of two of Alexander's governors, Nicanor and Philip . Megasthenes served as
1500-666: A second-century text written by the Roman historian Justin . They predominantly mention the last Nanda emperor , who usurped the throne of the king before him. Justin states that Chandragupta was of humble origin, and includes stories of miraculous legends associated with him, such as a wild elephant appearing and submitting itself to him as a ride to him before a battle. Justin's text notes that Chandragupta and Chanakya defeated and removed Nanda from his throne. Megasthenes ' account, as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him, states that Alexander
1600-553: A separate people in the early 2nd millennium BCE. From the BMAC Indo-Aryan tribes migrated to the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent , and the Vedic religion developed there during the early Vedic period ( c. 1500–1100 BCE) as a variant of Indo-Aryan religion, influenced by the remnants of the late Indus Valley Civilisation (2600–1900 BCE). During the late Vedic period ( c. 1100–500 BCE) Brahmanism developed out of
1700-503: A state monopoly of the state. The state, however, encouraged competing private parties to operate mines and supply these centres. They considered economic prosperity essential to the pursuit of dharma (virtuous life) and adopted a policy of avoiding war with diplomacy yet continuously preparing the army for war to defend its interests and other ideas in the Arthashastra . The evidence of arts and architecture during Chandragupta's time
1800-402: Is also often mentioned, but rejected by contemporary scholarship. The details of the engagement treaty are not known. Since the extensive sources available on Seleucus never mention an Indian princess, it is thought that Chandragupta himself or his son Bindusara marrying a Seleucid princess, in accordance with contemporary Greek practices to form dynastic alliances. An Indian Puranic source,
1900-521: Is attested to by Ashoka's inscription in Junagadh . On the same rock, about 400 years later, Rudradaman inscribed a longer text sometime about the mid second–century. Rudradaman's inscription states that the Sudarshana lake in the area was commissioned during the rule of Chandragupta through his governor Vaishya Pushyagupta and conduits were added during Ashoka's rule through Tushaspha. The Mauryan control of
2000-561: Is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesized Proto-Indo-European religion , and shows relations with rituals from the Andronovo culture , from which the Indo-Aryan people descended. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between
2100-460: Is found in Harisena 's Brhatkathakosa , a Sanskrit text of stories about Digambara Jains. The Brhatkathakosa describes the legend of Bhadrabahu and mentions Chandragupta in its 131st story. However, the story makes no mention of the Maurya empire, and mentions that his disciple Chandragupta lived in and migrated from Ujjain – a kingdom (northwest Madhya Pradesh ) about a thousand kilometers west of
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#17330927033162200-519: Is known as Sandrakottos ( Greek : Σανδράκοττος ) and Androcottus ( Greek : Ανδροκόττος ). The king's epithets mentioned in the Sanskrit play Mudrarakshasa include "Chanda-siri" (Chandra-shri), "Piadamsana" (Priya-darshana), and Vrishala. Piadamsana is similar to Priyadasi , an epithet of his grandson Ashoka . The word "Vrishala" is used in Indian epics and law books to refer to non-orthodox people. According to one theory, it may be derived from
2300-410: Is mostly limited to texts such as those by Megasthenese and Kautilya. The edict inscriptions and carvings on monumental pillars are attributed to his grandson Ashoka. The texts imply the existence of cities, public works, and prosperous architecture but the historicity of these is in question. Archeological discoveries in the modern age, such as those Didarganj Yakshi discovered in 1917 buried beneath
2400-490: Is posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles. The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism. With the growth of political entities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins including;
2500-591: Is significantly different from the historical Vedic religion. The Vedic religion has roots in the Indo-Iranian culture and religion of the Sintashta ( c. 2200–1750 BCE) and Andronovo ( c. 2000–1150 BCE) cultures of Eurasian Steppe . This Indo-Iranian religion borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the non-Indo-Aryan Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC; 2250–1700 BCE) of south of Central Asia , when pastoral Indo-Aryan tribes stayed there as
2600-524: Is the main and earliest Jain source of the complete legend of Chandragupta. It was written nearly 1,400 years after Chandragupta's death. Canto 8, verses 170 to 469, describes the legend of Chandragupta and Chanakya's influence on him. Other Digambara Jain sources state he moved to Karnataka after renouncing his kingdom and performed Sallekhana – the Jain religious ritual of peacefully welcoming death by fasting. The earliest mention of Chandragupta's ritual death
2700-612: Is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect the folk practices, iconography, and other practical aspects of the Vedic religion. The Vedic religion changed when Indo-Aryan people migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers, further syncretizing with the native cultures of northern India. The evidence suggests that the Vedic religion evolved in "two superficially contradictory directions", namely an ever more "elaborate, expensive, and specialized system of rituals", which survives in
2800-564: The BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda , are found in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom. The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving. The Old Indic term r'ta , meaning "cosmic order and truth",
2900-604: The Brahmanas , Aranyakas , and some of the older Upanishads are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices. These texts are also considered as a part of the scripture of contemporary Hinduism. Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? — Nasadiya Sukta , Rig Veda , 10:129-6 The idea of reincarnation , or saṃsāra ,
3000-592: The Brahmo Samaj and the Neo-Vedanta in the late 19th and early 20th century rejected the 'superstitions' of Puranic Hinduism, which in their view had deviated from the Vedic heritage, instead propagating a return to the Vedas and to restore an "imagined" original, rational and monotheistic ancient Hinduism with an equal standing as Protestant Christianity. In the 20th century, the neo-Hindu emphasis on Vedic roots, and
3100-557: The Greek pantheon were respected. A memorial for Chandragupta Maurya exists on the Chandragiri hill along with a seventh-century hagiographic inscription. Chandragupta's life and accomplishments are described in ancient and historical Greek, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain texts, but they significantly vary in detail. His main biographical sources in chronological order are: The Greek and Roman texts do not mention Chandragupta directly, except for
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3200-539: The Hindu religion , treating the term Brahmanism as synonymous with Hinduism , and using it interchangeably. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Brahminism was the most common term used in English for Hinduism. Brahmanism gave importance to Absolute Reality (Brahman) speculations in the early Upanishads , as these terms are etymologically linked, which developed from post-Vedic ideas during the late Vedic era. The concept of Brahman
3300-637: The Kuru-Pancala realm , and expanded over a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala kingdom and its incorporation into the Magadha-based empires. It co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults. The word Brahmanism was coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520–1596) in the 16th century. Historically, and still by some modern authors, the word 'Brahmanism' was used in English to refer to
3400-634: The Magadha and Patliputra (central Bihar). This has led to the proposal that Harisena 's Chandragupta may be a later era, different person. None of the ancient texts mention when Chandragupta was born. Plutarch claims that he was a young man when he met Alexander III during the latter's invasion of India ( c. 326 -325 BCE). Assuming the Plutarch account is true, Raychaudhuri proposed in 1923 that Chandragupta may have been born after 350 BCE. According to other Greco-Roman texts, Chandragupta attacked
3500-515: The Maurya clan of Pipphalivana . The Buddhist sources also mention that " Brahmin Chanakya " was his counselor and with whose support Chandragupta became the king at Patliputra. He has also been variously identified with Shashigupta (which has same etymology as of Chandragupta) of Paropamisadae on the account of same life events. The 12th-century Digambara text Parishishtaparvan by Hemachandra
3600-577: The Nanda Empire . Eventually, they won and proclaimed Patliputra as their capital. The Buddhist and Hindu legends present different versions of how Chandragupta met Chanakya . Broadly, they mention young Chandragupta creating a mock game of a royal court that he and his shepherd friends played near Vinjha forest . Chanakya saw him give orders to the others, bought him from the hunter, and adopted Chandragupta. Chanakya taught and admitted him in Taxila to study
3700-655: The Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana , described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek (" Yavana ") princess, daughter of Seleucus. Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants to Seleucus, which played a key role in Seleucus' victory at the Battle of Ipsus . In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched Megasthenes as an ambassador to Chandragupta's court, and later Antiochos sent Deimakos to his son Bindusara at
3800-631: The Sramanic movement , the conquests of eastern empires from Magadha including the Nanda Empire and the Mauryan Empire , and also invasions and foreign rule of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent which brought in new political entities. This was overcome by providing new services and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporary Hinduism . This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to
3900-530: The Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan ) and (present-day) Iran. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements" which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC). This syncretic influence is supported by at least 383 non-Indo-European words that were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and
4000-595: The 2nd century CE due to heavy rains, which led to a breach in the dam. In 150 CE, Rudradaman I , a king of the Western Kshatrapas , undertook a major renovation as recorded in the Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman . The lake was also repaired by Suvisakha, a Parthian governor under Rudradaman. (L.8)... for the sake of ordered to be made by the Vaishya Pushyagupta, the provincial governor of
4100-581: The Buddhist text Mahavamsa Tika , Chandragupta and Chanakya raised an army by recruiting soldiers from many places after the former completed his education at Taxila. Chanakya made Chandragupta the leader of the army. The Digambara Jain text Parishishtaparvan states that this army was raised by Chanakya with coins he minted and an alliance formed with Parvataka. According to Justin, Chandragupta organized an army. Early translators interpreted Justin's original expression as "body of robbers", but states Raychaudhuri,
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4200-583: The Ganges valley. Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras , which gave prominence to the priestly ( Brahmin ) class of the society, Heesterman also mentions the post-Vedic Smriti ( Puranas and the Epics), which are also incorporated in the later Smarta tradition . The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmans developed as an ideology in
4300-552: The Great and Chandragupta met, which, if true, would mean his rule started before 321 BCE. He is described as a great king, but not as great in power and influence as Porus in northwestern India or Agrammes ( Dhana Nanda ) in eastern India. As Alexander did not cross the Beas river , Chandragupta's territory probably included the Punjab region . The pre-4th century Hindu Puranic texts mostly mirror
4400-686: The Great had invaded the Northwest Indian subcontinent before abandoning his campaign in 325 BCE due to a mutiny caused by the prospect of facing another large empire, presumably the Nanda Empire centered in Pataliputra , Magadha. Chandragupta defeated and conquered both the Nanda Empire and the Greek satraps that were appointed or formed from Alexander's Empire in South Asia . Afterwards, Chandragupta expanded and secured his western border, where he
4500-401: The Greek royal title Basileus , but there is no concrete evidence of this: the Indian sources apply it to several non-royals, especially wandering teachers and ascetics. There are no records of Chandragupta's military conquests and the reach of his empire. It is based on inferences from Greek and Roman historians and the religious Indian texts written centuries after his death. Based on these,
4600-403: The Greek sources. These texts do not discuss the details of Chandragupta's ancestry, but rather cover the ancestry of the last Nanda king. The Nanda king is described to be cruel, against dharma and shastras , and born out of an illicit relationship followed by a coup. The Chanakya's Arthasastra refers to the Nanda rule as against the spiritual, cultural, and military interests of the country,
4700-610: The Greek-Indian governors after Alexander's death ( c. 323 BCE ) with Seleucus I Nicator entering into a treaty with Chandragupta years later. Seleucus Nicator, under this treaty, gave up Arachosia ( Kandahar ), Gedrosia ( Makran ), and Paropamisadae ( Kabul ) to Chandragupta, in exchange for 500 war elephants. The texts do not include the start or end year of Chandragupta's reign. According to some Hindu and Buddhist texts, Chandragupta ruled for 24 years. The Buddhist sources state Chandragupta Maurya ruled 162 years after
4800-519: The Indian subcontinent except for Kalinga and Tamilakam , parts that are now Odisha , Tamil Nadu and Kerala . After unifying much of India, Chandragupta and Chanakya passed a series of major economic and political reforms. Chandragupta established a strong central administration from Pataliputra (now Patna ). Chandragupta applied the statecraft and economic policies described in Chanakya's text Arthashastra . There are varying accounts in
4900-476: The Indian subcontinent. Chandragupta expanded "roads suitable for carts" as he preferred those over narrow tracks suitable for only pack animals. According to Kaushik Roy, the Maurya dynasty rulers were "great road builders". The Greek ambassador Megasthenes credited this tradition to Chandragupta after the completion of a thousand-mile-long highway connecting Chandragupta's capital Pataliputra in Bihar to Taxila in
5000-447: The Jain authors cast doubt on Jain sources. This Digambara Jain chronology, also, is not reconcilable with the chronology implied in other Indian and non-Indian sources. Historians such as Irfan Habib and Vivekanand Jha assign Chandragupta's reign to c. 322-298 BCE. Upinder Singh dates his rule from 324 or 321 BCE to 297 BCE. Kristi Wiley states he reigned between 320 and 293 BCE. One medieval commentator states Chandragupta to be
5100-662: The Maurya court at Patna. After the acquisition of territory west of the Indus river, Chandragupta had a vast empire extending across the northern Indian sub-continent from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea . Chandragupta began expanding his empire southwards beyond the Vindhya Range and into the Deccan Plateau . By the time his expansion halted, Chandragupta's reign extended over most of
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#17330927033165200-504: The Maurya king Chandragupta Maurya ; adorned with conduits for Ashoka the Maurya by the Yavana king Tushaspha while governing; and by the conduit ordered to be made by him, constructed in a manner worthy of a king (and) seen in that breach, the extensive dam. — Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman The lake was also restored by Chakrapalita, the son of Parnadatta, the governor of Saurashtra under King Skandagupta . Chakrapalita repaired
5300-424: The Nanda king ("Nandrum" or "Nandrus") who ordered his execution. An alternative version states that it was the Nanda king who was publicly insulted by Chanakya. Chandragupta and Chanakya escaped and became rebels who planned to remove the Nanda king from power. The Mudrarakshasa also states that Chanakya swore to destroy the Nanda dynasty after he felt insulted by the king. The Roman text by Justin mentions
5400-644: The Nanda lineage was very short. Chandragupta was a son of Purva-Nanda, the older Nanda based in Ayodhya. The common theme in the Hindu sources is that Chandragupta came from a humble background and with Chanakya, he emerged as a dharmic king loved by his subjects. According to the Digambara legend by Hemachandra, Chanakya was a Jain layperson and a Brahmin. When Chanakya was born, Jain monks prophesied that Chanakya will one day grow up to help make someone an emperor and will be
5500-500: The North-West reach of his empire included parts of present-day Afghanistan (eastern part of Aria , and Paropamisadae ) that Seleucus I Nicator ceded to him, together with Arachosia and Gandhara , and the easternmost part of Gedrosia . These are the areas where his grandson Ashoka left the major Kandahar rock edict and other edicts in the Greek and Aramaic languages. In the west, Chandragupta's rule over present-day Gujarat
5600-489: The University of Minnesota says "we cannot pretend to have definitive answers; and perhaps, as with most art, we must recognize that there is no single answer or explanation". The circumstances and year of Chandragupta's death are unclear and disputed. According to Digambara Jain accounts, Acharya Bhadrabahu forecast a 12-year famine because of all the killing and violence during the conquests by Chandragupta Maurya. He led
5700-474: The Vedas, military arts, law, and other shastras. After Taxila , Chandragupta and Chanakya moved to Pataliputra , the capital and a historic learning center in the eastern Magadha Kingdom of India. They met Nanda there according to Hindu sources, and Dhana Nanda according to Pali -language Buddhist sources. Chandragupta became a commander of the Nanda Army, but according to Justin, Chandragupta offended
5800-567: The Vedic religion include, among others: the Soma rituals; Fire rituals involving oblations ( havir ); and the Ashvamedha ( horse sacrifice ). The rites of grave burials as well as cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period. Deities emphasized in the Vedic religion include Dyaus , Indra , Agni , Rudra and Varuna , and important ethical concepts include satya and ṛta . Vedism refers to
5900-560: The Vedic religion, as an ideology of the Kuru - Panchala realm which expanded into a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala realm and the domination of the non-Vedic Magadha cultural sphere. Brahmanism was one of the major influences that shaped contemporary Hinduism , when it was synthesized with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain (which also gave rise to Buddhism and Jainism ), and with local religious traditions. Specific rituals and sacrifices of
6000-485: The ancient Vedic religion. According to Heinrich von Stietencron , in 19th century western publications, the Vedic religion was believed to be different from and unrelated to Hinduism. Instead, Hinduism was thought to be linked to the Hindu epics and the Puranas through sects based on purohita , tantras and Bhakti . In response to western colonialism and (Protestant) proselytizing, Hindu reform movements like
6100-504: The authority of non-Vedic textual sources. The Vedic religion is described in the Vedas and associated with voluminous Vedic literature, including the early Upanishads , preserved into the modern times by the different priestly schools. The religion existed in the western Ganges plain in the early Vedic period from c. 1500–1100 BCE, and developed into Brahmanism in the late Vedic period ( c. 1100–500 BCE). The eastern Ganges plain
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#17330927033166200-524: The banks of the Ganges suggest exceptional artisanal accomplishment. The site was dated to third century BCE by many scholars but later dates such as the Kushan era (1st-4th century CE) have also been proposed. The competing theories state that the art linked to Chandragupta Maurya's dynasty was learnt from the Greeks and West Asia in the years Alexander the Great waged war; or that these artifacts belong to an older indigenous Indian tradition. Frederick Asher of
6300-520: The belief in an afterlife instead of the later developed reincarnation and samsāra concepts. Nevertheless, while "it is usually taught that the beginnings of historical Hinduism date from around the beginning of the Common Era," when "the key tendencies, the crucial elements that would be encompassed in Hindu traditions, collectively came together," some scholars have come to view the term "Hinduism" as encompassing Vedism and Brahmanism, in addition to
6400-421: The breach and rebuilt the embankment—100 cubits long, 68 cubits wide, and as tall as seven men—in just two months. Sudarshana Lake has an elaborate system of channels and conduits that were constructed to direct water into the lake. The embankment of the lake was reportedly 100 cubits long, 68 cubits wide, and 7 cubits high. Chandragupta Maurya Chandragupta Maurya (reigned c. 320 – c. 298 BCE)
6500-623: The brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society." During the late Vedic period, the Brahmanas and early Upanishads were composed. Both Vedism and Brahmanism regard the Veda as sacred, but Brahmanism is more inclusive, incorporating doctrines and themes beyond the Vedas with practices like temple worship, puja, meditation, renunciation, vegetarianism, the role of the guru, and other non-Vedic elements important to Hindu religious life. The terms ancient Hinduism and Vedic Hinduism have also been used when referring to
6600-526: The campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army. The conquest was fictionalised in Mudrarakshasa , in which Chandragupta is said to have first acquired Punjab and allied with a local king named Parvatka under the Chanakya's advice before advancing on the Nanda Empire . Chandragupta laid siege to Patliputra (now Patna ), the capital of Magadha around 322 B.C, by deploying guerrilla warfare methods with
6700-540: The central concept of the Rig Veda , was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom. Old Indic gods, including Indra , were also known in the Mitanni kingdom. The Vedic religion was the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations". White (2003) cites three other scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley civilization . It
6800-631: The cities; the crime rate was low. According to Megasthenes, Chandragupta's rule was marked by three parallel administrative structures. One managed the affairs of villages, ensuring irrigation, recording land ownership, monitoring tools supply, enforcing hunting, wood products and forest-related laws, and settling disputes. Another administrative structure managed city affairs, including all matters related to trade, merchant activity, visit of foreigners, harbors, roads, temples, markets, and industries. They also collected taxes and ensured standardized weights and measures. The third administrative body overlooked
6900-421: The death of the Buddha . However, the Buddha's birth and death vary by source and all these lead to a chronology that is significantly different from the Greco-Roman records. Similarly, Jain sources composed give different gaps between Mahavira 's death and his accession. As with the Buddha's death, the date of Mahavira's death itself is also a matter of debate, and the inconsistencies and lack of unanimity among
7000-431: The defeat of Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in ancient India. The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great ended before Chandragupta came into power. Alexander had left India in 325 BCE and assigned the northwestern (Indus Valley) Indian subcontinent territories to Greek governors. The nature of early relationship between these governors and Chandragupta is unknown. Justin mentions Chandragupta as
7100-457: The east, to as far westward as Afghanistan below the Hindu Kush , as well as making inroads into Central India and as far south as the northern Deccan ; however, beyond the core Magadha area, the prevailing levels of technology and infrastructure limited how deeply his rule could penetrate society. In contrast to the Jain legends which developed 900 years later, contemporary Greek evidence states that Chandragupta did not give up performing
7200-512: The epithet maurya comes from these peacocks, or Mora in Pali (Sanskrit: Mayura ). The Buddhist texts are inconsistent; some offer other legends to explain his epithet. For example, they mention a city named "Moriya-nagara" where all buildings were made of bricks colored like the peacock's neck. The Maha-bodhi-vasa states he hailed from Moriya-nagara, while the Digha-Nikaya states he came from
7300-475: The former interpretation to posit that Chandragupta had a Shudra background. However, historian Radha Kumud Mukherjee opposed this theory, and stated that the word should be interpreted as "the best of kings". The same drama also refers to Chandragupta as someone of humble origin, like Justin. According to the 11th-century texts of the Kashmiri Hindu tradition – Kathasaritsagara and Brihat-Katha-Manjari –
7400-566: The former satrapies each of the Indus. According to Strabo , in his Geographica composed about 300 years after Chandragupta's death, Seleucus Nicator and Chandragupta formed a dynastic marriage-alliance, Seleucus receiving five hundred elephants, and Chandragupta gaining control over the regions bordering at the east on the Indus. The Maurya Empire seems to have been expanded over the easternmost part of Gedrosia ( Balochistan ) Paropamisadae ( Gandhara ), and Arachosia ( Kandahar , present-day Afganistan). Aria (present-day Herat, Afganistan)
7500-567: The help of mercenaries from conquered areas. Historian P. K. Bhattacharyya states that the empire was built by a gradual conquest of provinces after the initial consolidation of Magadha. According to the Digambara Jain version by Hemachandra, the success of Chandragupta and his strategist Chanakya was stopped by a Nanda town that refused to surrender. Chanakya disguised himself as a mendicant and found seven mother goddesses ( saptamatrikas ) inside. He concluded these goddesses were protecting
7600-416: The historic, legendary, and hagiographic literature of various Indian religions about Chandragupta's rule, but Allchin and Erdosy' are suspect; they state, "one cannot but be struck by the many close correspondences between the (Hindu) Arthashastra and the two other major sources the (Buddhist) Asokan inscriptions and (Greek) Megasthenes text". The Maurya rule was a structured administration; Chandragupta had
7700-419: The legends written centuries later are inconsistent. Buddhist texts such as Milindapanha claim Magadha was ruled by the Nanda dynasty, which, with Chanakya's counsel, Chandragupta conquered to restore dhamma . The army of Chandragupta and Chanakya first conquered the Nanda outer territories before invading Pataliputra. In contrast to the easy victory of Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that
7800-488: The military, its training, its weapons supply, and the needs of the soldiers. Chanakya was concerned about Chandragupta's safety and developed elaborate techniques to prevent assassination attempts. Various sources report Chandragupta frequently changed bedrooms to confuse conspirators. He left his palace only for certain tasks: to go on military expeditions, to visit his court for dispensing justice, to offer sacrifices, for celebrations, and for hunting. During celebrations, he
7900-439: The north-west where he studied. The other major strategic road infrastructure credited to this tradition spread from Pataliputra in various directions, connecting it with Nepal , Kapilavastu , Dehradun , Mirzapur , Odisha , Andhra , and Karnataka. Roy stated this network boosted trade and commerce, and helped move armies rapidly and efficiently. Chandragupta and Chanakya seeded weapon manufacturing centres, and kept them as
8000-461: The oldest form of the Vedic religion , when Indo-Aryans entered into the valley of the Indus River in multiple waves during the 2nd millennium BCE. Brahmanism refers to the further developed form of the late Vedic period which took shape at the Ganges basin around c. 1000 BCE. According to Heesterman, "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on
8100-499: The original expression used by Justin may mean mercenary soldier, hunter, or robber. Greco-Roman writer Plutarch stated, in his Life of Alexander , that the Nanda king was so unpopular that had Alexander tried, he could have easily conquered India. After Alexander ended his campaign and left, Chandragupta's army conquered the Nanda capital Pataliputra around 322 BCE with Chanakya's counsel. Historically reliable details of Chandragupta's campaign into Pataliputra are unavailable and
8200-500: The power behind the throne. Chanakya believed in the prophecy and fulfilled it by agreeing to help the daughter of a peacock-breeding community chief deliver a baby boy. In exchange, he asked the mother to give up the boy and let him adopt him at a later date. The Jain Brahmin then went about making money through magic, and returned later to claim young Chandragupta, whom he taught and trained. Together, they recruited soldiers and attacked
8300-660: The practice of sallekhana , according to the Digambara legend. Vedic Brahminism Traditional Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The historical Vedic religion , also called Vedicism or Vedism , and sometimes ancient Hinduism or Vedic Hinduism , constituted
8400-616: The present-day srauta -ritual, and "abstraction and internalization of the principles underlying ritual and cosmic speculation" within oneself, akin to the Jain and Buddhist tradition. Aspects of the historical Vedic religion still continue in modern times. For instance, the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals, and the complex Vedic rituals of Śrauta are practiced in Kerala and coastal Andhra . The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice
8500-587: The recent synthesis. The Vedic religion refers to the religious beliefs of some Vedic Indo-Aryan tribes, the aryas , who migrated into the Indus River valley region of the Indian subcontinent after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation . The Vedic religion, and subsequent Brahmanism, center on the myths and ritual ideologies of the Vedas, as distinguished from Agamic , Tantric and sectarian forms of Indian religion, which take recourse to
8600-547: The region is further corroborated by the inscription on the rock, which suggests that Chandragupta controlled the Malwa region in Central India, located between Gujarat and Pataliputra. There is uncertainty about the other conquests that Chandragupta may have achieved, especially in the Deccan region of southern India. At the time of his grandson Ashoka's ascension in c. 268 BCE, the empire extended up to present-day Karnataka in
8700-537: The religious ideas and practices prevalent amongst some of the Indo-Aryan peoples of the northwest Indian subcontinent ( Punjab and the western Ganges plain) during the Vedic period ( c. 1500–500 BCE). These ideas and practices are found in the Vedic texts , and some Vedic rituals are still practiced today. The Vedic religion is one of the major traditions which shaped modern Hinduism , though present-day Hinduism
8800-561: The rites of sacrificing animals associated with Vedic Brahminism ; he delighted in hunting and otherwise leading a life remote from the Jain practice of ahimsa or nonviolence towards living beings. Chandragupta's reign, and the Maurya Empire, set an era of economic prosperity, reforms, infrastructure expansions, and tolerance. Many religions thrived within his realms and his descendants' empire. Buddhism , Jainism and Ājīvika gained prominence alongside Vedic and Brahmanistic traditions, and minority religions such as Zoroastrianism and
8900-436: The ritual drink Soma . According to Anthony, Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna , were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda . He was associated more than any other deity with Soma , a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra ) probably borrowed from
9000-423: The son of one of the Nanda's wives with the name Mura. Other sources describe Mura as a concubine of the king. Another Sanskrit dramatic text Mudrarakshasa uses the terms Vrishala and Kula-Hina (meaning - "not descending from a recognized clan or family") to describe Chandragupta. The word Vrishala has two meanings: one is the son of a shudra ; the other means the best of kings . A later commentator used
9100-534: The south, so the southern conquests may be attributed to either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara. If the Jain tradition about Chandragupta ending his life as a renunciate in Karnakata is considered correct, it appears that Chandragupta initiated the southern conquest. Maurya with his counsellor Chanakya together built one of the largest empires ever on the Indian subcontinent . Chandragupta's empire extended from Bengal to central Afghanistan encompassing most of
9200-611: The subcontinent. Two poetic anthologies from the Tamil Sangam literature corpus – Akananuru and Purananuru – allude to the Nanda rule and Maurya empire. For example, poems 69, 281 and 375 mention the army and chariots of the Mauryas, while poems 251 and 265 may be alluding to the Nandas. However, the poems dated between first-century BCE to fifth-century CE do not mention Chandragupta Maurya by name, and some of them could be referring to
9300-428: The supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmins could provide, and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE. Nowadays, the term Brahmanism, used interchangeably with Brahminism , is used in several ways. It denotes the specific Brahmanical rituals and worldview as preserved in the Śrauta ritual, as distinct from
9400-445: The town people. The townspeople sought the disguised mendicant's advice on how to end the blockade of the army surrounding their town. Hemacandra wrote Chanakya swindled them into removing the mother goddesses. The townspeople removed the protective goddesses and an easy victory over the town followed. Thereafter, the alliance of Chandragupta and Parvataka overran the Nanda empire and attacked Pataliputra with an "immeasurable army". With
9500-601: The wide range of popular cultic activity with little connection with them. Brahminism also refers specifically to the Brahminical ideology, which sees Brahmins as naturally privileged people entitled to rule and dominate society. The term is frequently used by anti-Brahmin opponents , who object against their domination of Indian society and their exclusivist ideology. They follow the outline of 19th century colonial rulers, who viewed India's culture as corrupt and degenerate, and its population as irrational. In this view, derived from
9600-563: Was confronted by Seleucus I Nicator in the Seleucid–Mauryan war . Chandragupta was considered to have gained the upper hand in the conflict and annexed satrapies up to the Hindu Kush . Instead of prolonging the war, both parties settled on a marriage treaty . Chandragupta's suzerainty —extended through military conquests and diplomatic treaties—spanned further than any previous Indian ruler: across North India , from modern day Bengal in
9700-691: Was dominated by another Indo-Aryan complex, which rejected the later Brahmanical ideology and gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism , and the Maurya Empire . The Indo-Aryans were speakers of a branch of the Indo-European language family which originated in the Sintashta culture and further developed into the Andronovo culture , which in turn developed out of the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes . The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age
9800-574: Was one of the required duties of his state officials. The strongest evidence of infrastructure development is found in the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman in Gujarat, dated to about 150 CE. It states, among other things, that Rudradaman repaired and enlarged the reservoir and irrigation conduit infrastructure built by Chandragupta and enhanced by Asoka. Chandragupta's empire also built mines, manufacturing centres, and networks for trading goods. His rule developed land routes to transport goods across
9900-667: Was the founder of the Maurya Empire , which ruled over a geographically-extensive empire based in Magadha (present-day Bihar ). The Magadha kingdom expanded to become an empire that reached its peak under the reign of his grandson, Ashoka the Great , from 268 BCE to 231 BCE. The nature of the political formation that existed in Chandragupta's time is not certain. The Mauryan empire was a loose-knit one with large autonomous regions within its limits. Historical facts about Chandragupta's origins and early life are obscure and shrouded in legends. Prior to his consolidation of power, Alexander
10000-534: Was well-guarded, and on hunts, he was surrounded by female guards who were presumed to be less likely to participate in a coup conspiracy. These strategies may have resulted from the historical context of the Nanda emperor who had come to power by assassinating the previous emperor. During Chandragupta's reign and that of his dynasty, many religions thrived in India, with Buddhism , Jainism and Ajivika gaining prominence along with other folk traditions. The empire built
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