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102-561: The company became a major manufacturer of helicopters, designing and producing several types which went on to be built in large numbers, including the Alouette II (the first production helicopter powered by a gas turbine engine; first flight in 1955), the Puma (1965) and Gazelle (1967). In 1967, an agreement between France and the United Kingdom arranged for joint production and procurement of

204-415: A turbojet , driving the fan of a turbofan , rotor or accessory of a turboshaft , and gear reduction and propeller of a turboprop . If the engine has a power turbine added to drive an industrial generator or a helicopter rotor, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible with only enough energy left to overcome the pressure losses in the exhaust ducting and expel the exhaust. For

306-409: A turboprop engine there will be a particular balance between propeller power and jet thrust which gives the most economical operation. In a turbojet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the compressor and other components. The remaining high-pressure gases are accelerated through a nozzle to provide a jet to propel an aircraft. The smaller the engine, the higher

408-420: A turbopump to permit the use of lightweight, low-pressure tanks, reducing the empty weight of the rocket. A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller using a reduction gear to translate high turbine section operating speed (often in the 10s of thousands) into low thousands necessary for efficient propeller operation. The benefit of using the turboprop engine is to take advantage of

510-452: A turboshaft design. They supply: Industrial gas turbines differ from aeronautical designs in that the frames, bearings, and blading are of heavier construction. They are also much more closely integrated with the devices they power—often an electric generator —and the secondary-energy equipment that is used to recover residual energy (largely heat). They range in size from portable mobile plants to large, complex systems weighing more than

612-597: A Brazilian subsidiary of NYRBA, Inc. (New York, Rio, and Buenos Aires Line), forerunner of Pan American . Both airlines were established by Ralph Ambrose O'Neill for the transportation of post and passengers using seaplanes between the United States , Brazil and Argentina , flying over the east coast of the continent. NYRBA do Brasil came as an American competitive response to a service that had been provided by Germans since 1927. Starting that year, Condor Syndikat and later its successor Deutsche Luft Hansa explored

714-413: A buildup on the outside of the blades. Nickel-based superalloys boast improved strength and creep resistance due to their composition and resultant microstructure . The gamma (γ) FCC nickel is alloyed with aluminum and titanium in order to precipitate a uniform dispersion of the coherent Ni 3 (Al,Ti) gamma-prime (γ') phases. The finely dispersed γ' precipitates impede dislocation motion and introduce

816-461: A centrifugal or axial compressor ). Heat is added in the combustion chamber and the specific volume of the gas increases, accompanied by a slight loss in pressure. During expansion through the stator and rotor passages in the turbine, irreversible energy transformation once again occurs. Fresh air is taken in, in place of the heat rejection. Air is taken in by a compressor, called a gas generator , with either an axial or centrifugal design, or

918-421: A combination of the two. This air is then ducted into the combustor section which can be of a annular , can , or can-annular design. In the combustor section, roughly 70% of the air from the compressor is ducted around the combustor itself for cooling purposes. The remaining roughly 30% the air is mixed with fuel and ignited by the already burning air-fuel mixture , which then expands producing power across

1020-517: A few dozen hours per year—depending on the electricity demand and the generating capacity of the region. In areas with a shortage of base-load and load following power plant capacity or with low fuel costs, a gas turbine powerplant may regularly operate most hours of the day. A large single-cycle gas turbine typically produces 100 to 400 megawatts of electric power and has 35–40% thermodynamic efficiency . Industrial gas turbines that are used solely for mechanical drive or used in collaboration with

1122-482: A foreign airline wanted to operate in Brazilian territory, it was required to create a subsidiary. This allowed a fair competition between national and foreign carriers. Advised by politicians, O'Neill established NYRBA do Brasil. The creation of this subsidiary was authorized on October 15, 1929, and on January 24, 1930, its operations were authorized in all Brazilian territory, with extensions to Uruguay , Argentina , and

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1224-579: A gas turbine engine is its power to weight ratio. Since significant useful work can be generated by a relatively lightweight engine, gas turbines are perfectly suited for aircraft propulsion. Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of a design. They are hydrodynamic oil bearings or oil-cooled rolling-element bearings . Foil bearings are used in some small machines such as micro turbines and also have strong potential for use in small gas turbines/ auxiliary power units A major challenge facing turbine design, especially turbine blades ,

1326-567: A heavily modified armed reconnaissance variant for the French Army. However, in October 1969, the French Army cancelled its requirement for the Lynx, thus development of the specialised army variant was terminated at an early stage. Gas turbine A gas turbine or gas turbine engine is a type of continuous flow internal combustion engine . The main parts common to all gas turbine engines form

1428-715: A high standard for its customer services, and for many years in Brazil the expression padrão Panair (English: Panair standard ), became a synonym of excellence in aviation. In fact, the excellence was so well known at the time that years later its DC-8-33 appeared in a handful of movies, including the Italian-French co-production, Copacabana Palace (1962), and the French productions La Peau Douce (1964), and L'homme de Rio (1964). In 1953, Panair placed an order for four de Havilland Comet 2 with an option for two Comet 3. Panair

1530-487: A hundred tonnes housed in purpose-built buildings. When the gas turbine is used solely for shaft power, its thermal efficiency is about 30%. However, it may be cheaper to buy electricity than to generate it. Therefore, many engines are used in CHP (Combined Heat and Power) configurations that can be small enough to be integrated into portable container configurations. Gas turbines can be particularly efficient when waste heat from

1632-404: A joint-venture with NYRBA, took place between February 19 and 25, 1930. In this operation, 8 different seaplanes were used. On April 30, 1930, NYRBA was sold to Pan American and, as a consequence, on November 21, 1930, the new owner of the subsidiary renamed NYRBA do Brasil as Panair do Brasil . Regular passenger services began on March 2, 1931, with a flight between Belém and Rio de Janeiro,

1734-454: A journey that took 5 days. This service was later extended to Buenos Aires and the operations enhanced to the point that it took the same 5 days, with overnight stops in Fortaleza , Salvador , Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre . Starting in 1933, Panair do Brasil, competing with Syndicato Condor established services to the interior of Brazil. Panair specialized in water-landing operations in

1836-418: A lesser extent, on cars, buses, and motorcycles. A key advantage of jets and turboprops for airplane propulsion – their superior performance at high altitude compared to piston engines, particularly naturally aspirated ones – is irrelevant in most automobile applications. Their power-to-weight advantage, though less critical than for aircraft, is still important. Gas turbines offer a high-powered engine in

1938-467: A low-risk option for airlines. Only Air France and British Airways (the successor company to BOAC) ultimately took up their orders for Concorde. In the early 1960s, Sud Aviation entered the general aviation light aircraft market when it introduced the GY-80 Horizon , designed by Yves Gardan. The first GY-80 prototype flew on 21 July 1960 and 267 of the type were eventually built. The Super Frelon

2040-532: A recovery steam generator differ from power generating sets in that they are often smaller and feature a dual shaft design as opposed to a single shaft. The power range varies from 1 megawatt up to 50 megawatts. These engines are connected directly or via a gearbox to either a pump or compressor assembly. The majority of installations are used within the oil and gas industries. Mechanical drive applications increase efficiency by around 2%. Oil and gas platforms require these engines to drive compressors to inject gas into

2142-569: A threshold stress, increasing the stress required for the onset of creep. Furthermore, γ' is an ordered L1 2 phase that makes it harder for dislocations to shear past it. Further Refractory elements such as rhenium and ruthenium can be added in solid solution to improve creep strength. The addition of these elements reduces the diffusion of the gamma prime phase, thus preserving the fatigue resistance, strength, and creep resistance. The development of single crystal superalloys has led to significant improvements in creep resistance as well. Due to

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2244-550: A very small and light package. However, they are not as responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of RPMs and powers needed in vehicle applications. In series hybrid vehicles, as the driving electric motors are mechanically detached from the electricity generating engine, the responsiveness, poor performance at low speed and low efficiency at low output problems are much less important. The turbine can be run at optimum speed for its power output, and batteries and ultracapacitors can supply power as needed, with

2346-447: Is added to drive a propeller ( turboprop ) or ducted fan ( turbofan ) to reduce fuel consumption (by increasing propulsive efficiency) at subsonic flight speeds. An extra turbine is also required to drive a helicopter rotor or land-vehicle transmission ( turboshaft ), marine propeller or electrical generator (power turbine). Greater thrust-to-weight ratio for flight is achieved with the addition of an afterburner . The basic operation of

2448-677: Is reducing the creep that is induced by the high temperatures and stresses that are experienced during operation. Higher operating temperatures are continuously sought in order to increase efficiency, but come at the cost of higher creep rates. Several methods have therefore been employed in an attempt to achieve optimal performance while limiting creep, with the most successful ones being high performance coatings and single crystal superalloys . These technologies work by limiting deformation that occurs by mechanisms that can be broadly classified as dislocation glide, dislocation climb and diffusional flow. Protective coatings provide thermal insulation of

2550-475: Is used, it is possible to use exhaust air from the turbine as the primary combustion air. This effectively reduces global heat losses, although heat losses associated with the combustion exhaust remain inevitable. Closed-cycle gas turbines based on helium or supercritical carbon dioxide also hold promise for use with future high temperature solar and nuclear power generation. Gas turbines are often used on ships , locomotives , helicopters , tanks , and to

2652-942: The Airbus A400M transport, Lockheed AC-130 and the 60-year-old Tupolev Tu-95 strategic bomber. While military turboprop engines can vary, in the civilian market there are two primary engines to be found: the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 , a free-turbine turboshaft engine, and the Honeywell TPE331 , a fixed turbine engine (formerly designated as the Garrett AiResearch 331). Aeroderivative gas turbines are generally based on existing aircraft gas turbine engines and are smaller and lighter than industrial gas turbines. Aeroderivatives are used in electrical power generation due to their ability to be shut down and handle load changes more quickly than industrial machines. They are also used in

2754-525: The BMW 801 . This, however, also translated into poor efficiency and reliability. More advanced gas turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines or combined cycle power plants) may have 2 or 3 shafts (spools), hundreds of compressor and turbine blades, movable stator blades, and extensive external tubing for fuel, oil and air systems; they use temperature resistant alloys, and are made with tight specifications requiring precision manufacture. All this often makes

2856-496: The Brayton cycle , also known as the "constant pressure cycle" . It is distinguished from the Otto cycle , in that all the processes (compression, ignition combustion, exhaust), occur at the same time, continuously. In a real gas turbine, mechanical energy is changed irreversibly (due to internal friction and turbulence) into pressure and thermal energy when the gas is compressed (in either

2958-640: The Brazilian National Truth Commission , established in 2012 by the Brazilian government to investigate acts of human rights violations between 1946 and 1988, held a public event in Rio de Janeiro to address the circumstances behind the shutdown of Panair do Brasil. The group has recently had access to unpublished documentation which would prove that the company's owners were victims of the country's military regime. On March 11, 2019, Brazilian newspaper O Globo informed that Daniel Leb Sasaki's book about

3060-508: The Douglas DC-8 -33 scheduled to operate flight PB22, departing at 10:30 PM from Rio de Janeiro-Galeão to Recife , Lisbon , Paris-Orly and Frankfurt was immediately replaced by a Varig Boeing 707 . There were no flight cancellations. The operation also involved the transfer of 3 of its Caravelles and 3 of its Catalinas to Cruzeiro do Sul , and 2 of its DC-8-33 to Varig . It is known today that Varig and Cruzeiro had previous knowledge of

3162-585: The German Navy , which both had released details on its anticipated demands for a heavy helicopter; however, these requirements were revised upwards by the customer, leading to the redesign and emergence of the Super Frelon. On 23 July 1963, a modified prototype Super Frelon helicopter was used to break the FAI absolute helicopter world speed record, having attained a maximum speed of 217.7 mph (350.4 km/h) during

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3264-488: The Puma , a mid-sized helicopter, to meet a requirement of the French Army for a medium-sized all-weather helicopter capable of carrying up to 20 soldiers as well as various cargo-carrying duties. The choice was made to develop a completely new design for the helicopter with backing from the French government. The first of two Puma prototypes flew on 15 April 1965; deliveries to the French Army commenced in early 1969. The Puma

3366-450: The Rallye family of light aircraft inherited from Morane-Saulnier. Sud Aviation soon transferred GY-80 production to SOCATA as well. During 1966, Sud Aviation began working on a light observation helicopter as a successor to its Alouette II. The first prototype Gazelle made its maiden flight on 7 April 1967, it initially flying with a conventional tail rotor. However, this was replaced with

3468-434: The turbine . This expansion of the mixture then leaves the combustor section and has its velocity increased across the turbine section to strike the turbine blades, spinning the disc they are attached to, thus creating useful power. Of the power produced, 60-70% is solely used to power the gas generator. The remaining power is used to power what the engine is being used for, typically an aviation application, being thrust in

3570-614: The Amazon basin, whereas Condor invested in land operations using the route of Mato Grosso. In 1937, Panair opened its own dedicated headquarters at Santos Dumont Airport in Rio de Janeiro, a project inspired by the Pan American Seaplane Base and Terminal Building in Miami, including not only passenger operations but also offices and hangars. It remained its headquarters until it was forced to cease operations in 1965. Presently, it houses

3672-488: The Brazilian market by establishing the subsidiary Syndicato Condor , and the Brazilian airline Varig . Initially, O'Neill tried to purchase ETA – Empresa de Transporte Aéreo , a Brazilian airline which claimed to have exclusive concessions to fly within Brazil. The legality of the sale and purchase contract was questioned and the operation was aborted. O'Neill decided then to create his own Brazilian subsidiary, which would operate in partnership with NYRBA. At that time, if

3774-503: The Brazilian territory was divided into areas of influence. The agreement also included leasing of aircraft. Between November 30, 1960, and 1965 Panair operated with TAP-Transportes Aéreos Portugueses the Voo da amizade (English: Friendship Flight ), between São Paulo-Congonhas , Rio de Janeiro-Galeão , and Lisbon , with stops in Recife and Sal , using a dedicated Douglas DC-7C aircraft bearing

3876-503: The Caravelle was at Sud Aviation's factory at Blagnac Airport near Toulouse . Parts of the aircraft were also manufactured at other sites across France and in other countries. Production ceased after 282 Caravelles of all types had been manufactured, including 2 prototypes or pre-production aircraft and 280 production aircraft. Sud Aviation's break-even point had been forecast to be around the 200-unit mark. Despite its commercial success,

3978-481: The Caravelle was not the focus of Sud Aviation's development efforts during the early 1960s as the majority of the company's design engineers were reallocated onto a successor for the Caravelle. The project ambitiously aimed at producing a supersonic transport with the same general size and range as the Caravelle. It was decided that this should be named after the firm's recent success, thus the Super-Caravelle name

4080-477: The Centre Experimental du Pacifique; negotiations for a further order was already being negotiated for the naval version, which were to be equipped for anti-submarine duties. However, West German support for the Super Frelon programme had already declined by this point, partially due to interest in the rival Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King , which was evaluated against the type. Both civilian and military versions of

4182-651: The Federal Decree-Law 3.462 of June 25, 1941, Panair was authorized to build, enhance and maintain the airports of Macapá , Belém , São Luís , Fortaleza , Natal , Recife , Maceió , and Salvador , which remain operational to the present day. They had crucial strategic importance in the defense of the South Atlantic and in the transportation logistics between Brazil and West Africa. The authorization lasted for 20 years. NYRBA do Brasil/Panair do Brasil remained under full control of NYRBA/Pan American until 1942, when

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4284-792: The Guianas , pending on bi-lateral agreements. The first flight took off from the Calabouço Airport (which in 1936 would be officially named Santos Dumont Airport ) in Rio de Janeiro to Buenos Aires with intermediate stops on December 23, 1929, and in January 1930 it started flying between Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza with intermediate stops in Campos dos Goytacazes , Vitória , Caravelas , Ilhéus , Salvador , Aracaju , Maceió , Recife and Natal . The first successful cargo operation between Buenos Aires and Miami ,

4386-712: The Puma and Gazelle, together with the British-manufactured Westland Lynx . Sud Aviation also developed the Caravelle , the first jet-powered passenger airliners for the short-medium range market. In 1970, Sud Aviation merged with both Nord Aviation and the Société d'étude et de réalisation d'engins balistiques (SEREB) to form Aérospatiale . Sud Aviation became an early innovator in the field of commercial jetliners. Almost two years prior to its formation, on 27 May 1955,

4488-483: The Super Frelon were built, with the military variants being the most numerous by far, entering service with the French military as well as being exported to Israel , South Africa , Libya , China and Iraq . Three military variants were produced: military transport, anti-submarine and anti-ship. The transport version is able to carry 38 equipped troops, or alternatively 15 stretchers for casualty evacuation tasks. During 1963, Sud Aviation began work on what would become

4590-534: The Third Regional Air Command of the Brazilian Air Force . In October 1937, Panair received its first land planes, a Lockheed Model 10 Electra, and started operations not restricted by water-landing. It was used on services to Belo Horizonte, locations in the state of Minas Gerais reaching later Goiânia and to São Paulo. New domestic services were continually opened to the point that in the 1940s,

4692-453: The active species (typically vacancies) within the alloy and reducing dislocation and vacancy creep. It has been found that a coating of 1–200 μm can decrease blade temperatures by up to 200 °C (392 °F). Bond coats are directly applied onto the surface of the substrate using pack carburization and serve the dual purpose of providing improved adherence for the TBC and oxidation resistance for

4794-510: The addition of a ducted fan are called turbofans or (rarely) fan-jets. These engines produce nearly 80% of their thrust by the ducted fan, which can be seen from the front of the engine. They come in two types, low-bypass turbofan and high bypass , the difference being the amount of air moved by the fan, called "bypass air". These engines offer the benefit of more thrust without extra fuel consumption. Gas turbines are also used in many liquid-fuel rockets , where gas turbines are used to power

4896-427: The airline had one of the most extensive domestic networks in the world, covering most of Brazil via the coast and inland and the Amazon region. As World War II erupted, Panair gained a clear advantage in relation to its fiercest competitor, Syndicato Condor, controlled by German capital. Furthermore, since the newly created Ministry of Air Force did not have the capacity or technique to build and maintain air fields, by

4998-820: The airline had operated within regular technical and financial parameters when it was shut down and the Federal government was sentenced to pay reparations to its former owners and/or heirs. The forced bankruptcy was suspended on May 5, 1995, and since then Panair seeks indemnification from the Ministry of Justice. On August 27, 2009, after a 44-year delay, the Air Command of the Brazilian Ministry of Defence revoked Panair's route and schedule concessions, which are mandatory for airline operations. Former employees of Panair do Brasil, their families and friends attend an annual reunion on

5100-401: The blade and offer oxidation and corrosion resistance. Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are often stabilized zirconium dioxide -based ceramics and oxidation/corrosion resistant coatings (bond coats) typically consist of aluminides or MCrAlY (where M is typically Fe and/or Cr) alloys. Using TBCs limits the temperature exposure of the superalloy substrate, thereby decreasing the diffusivity of

5202-420: The closely related form of the turbocharger . The turbocharger is basically a compact and simple free shaft radial gas turbine which is driven by the piston engine's exhaust gas . The centripetal turbine wheel drives a centrifugal compressor wheel through a common rotating shaft. This wheel supercharges the engine air intake to a degree that can be controlled by means of a wastegate or by dynamically modifying

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5304-473: The compressor and the turbine with a compressed air store. In a conventional turbine, up to half the generated power is used driving the compressor. In a compressed air energy storage configuration, power is used to drive the compressor, and the compressed air is released to operate the turbine when required. Turboshaft engines are used to drive compressors in gas pumping stations and natural gas liquefaction plants. They are also used in aviation to power all but

5406-504: The compressor/shaft/turbine rotor assembly, with other moving parts in the fuel system. This, in turn, can translate into price. For instance, costing 10,000  ℛℳ for materials, the Jumo 004 proved cheaper than the Junkers 213 piston engine, which was 35,000  ℛℳ , and needed only 375 hours of lower-skill labor to complete (including manufacture, assembly, and shipping), compared to 1,400 for

5508-444: The construction of a simple gas turbine more complicated than a piston engine. Moreover, to reach optimum performance in modern gas turbine power plants the gas needs to be prepared to exact fuel specifications. Fuel gas conditioning systems treat the natural gas to reach the exact fuel specification prior to entering the turbine in terms of pressure, temperature, gas composition, and the related Wobbe index . The primary advantage of

5610-514: The distinctive fenestron tail in early 1968 on the second prototype. Four Gazelle prototypes were flown, including one for British firm Westland Helicopters . On 13 May 1967, a Gazelle demonstrated its speed capabilities when two separate world speed records were broken on a closed course, achieving speeds of 307 km/h over 3 kilometres and 292 km/h over 100 kilometres. Early on, the Gazelle had attracted British interest, which would culminate in

5712-473: The documentary Panair do Brasil was released. The film, directed by Marco Altberg and screenwritten by Daniel Leb Sasaki summarises the history of the airline. In October 2012, director Ricardo Pinto e Silva and journalist Daniel Leb Sasaki began production for a new feature documentary film called Mario Wallace Simonsen, entre a memória e a história , still unreleased. The pair interviewed former Panair employees during their 2012 reunion. On March 23, 2013,

5814-425: The early 2020s. In March 2018, GE Power achieved a 63.08% gross efficiency for its 7HA turbine. Aeroderivative gas turbines can also be used in combined cycles, leading to a higher efficiency, but it will not be as high as a specifically designed industrial gas turbine. They can also be run in a cogeneration configuration: the exhaust is used for space or water heating, or drives an absorption chiller for cooling

5916-435: The engine cycled on and off to run it only at high efficiency. The emergence of the continuously variable transmission may also alleviate the responsiveness problem. Turbines have historically been more expensive to produce than piston engines, though this is partly because piston engines have been mass-produced in huge quantities for decades, while small gas turbine engines are rarities; however, turbines are mass-produced in

6018-562: The engine's crankshaft instead of to a centrifugal compressor, thus providing additional power instead of boost. While the turbocharger is a pressure turbine, a power recovery turbine is a velocity one. Panair do Brasil Panair do Brasil was an airline of Brazil . it ceased operations in 1965. Between 1945 and 1965, it was considered to be the largest carrier not only in Brazil but in all of Latin America. Panair do Brasil began operations on October 22, 1929, as NYRBA do Brasil S.A. ,

6120-533: The entire engine from raw materials, including the fabrication of a centrifugal compressor wheel from plywood, epoxy and wrapped carbon fibre strands. Several small companies now manufacture small turbines and parts for the amateur. Most turbojet-powered model aircraft are now using these commercial and semi-commercial microturbines, rather than a Schreckling-like home-build. Small gas turbines are used as auxiliary power units (APUs) to supply auxiliary power to larger, mobile, machines such as an aircraft , and are

6222-407: The exhaust gases, or from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines. Jet engines that produce thrust from the direct impulse of exhaust gases are often called turbojets . While still in service with many militaries and civilian operators, turbojets have mostly been phased out in favor of the turbofan engine due to the turbojet's low fuel efficiency, and high noise. Those that generate thrust with

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6324-725: The first airline outside the United States to operate this aircraft. The first flight took off on April 27, 1946, from Rio de Janeiro to Recife, Dakar, Lisbon, Paris and London. Panair was also the first international airline to land on the then newly inaugurated London Heathrow Airport . As Panair received further equipment, flights to Madrid and Rome were inaugurated. In 1947, services were extended to Cairo and Istanbul, and in 1948 to Zurich and Frankfurt. The same year, services to Montevideo and Buenos Aires began. Santiago de Chile , Lima and Beirut were added in 1950 and Hamburg and Düsseldorf in 1954. The airline gradually set such

6426-575: The first prototype of the Sud Aviation Caravelle had conducted its maiden flight . The company continued the Caravelle's flight test programme, which received its certificate of airworthiness in May 1959, and it commenced operations with the French flag carrier Air France shortly thereafter. Further orders for the type would be received from various airlines and in four years, 172 Caravelles had been sold. The Caravelle's favourable early sales record

6528-478: The flight. Flown by Jean Boulet and Roland Coffignot, a total of three international records were broken, these being: speed over 3 km at low altitude, 212.03 mph; speed at any altitude over 15 and 25 km, 217.77 mph; and 100 km closed circuit 207.71 mph. By July 1964, the French Government had placed an initial order for the Super Frelon, intended to perform logistic support duties at

6630-408: The gas turbine is a Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid : atmospheric air flows through the compressor that brings it to higher pressure; energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so that the combustion generates a high-temperature flow; this high-temperature pressurized gas enters a turbine, producing a shaft work output in the process, used to drive the compressor;

6732-532: The government's decision and time to prepare. The sudden suspension of Panair shocked the country. Since its financial problems were not serious enough to justify the government's actions, the company tried to protect its assets by filing for bankruptcy protection while its lawyers debated the issue in Court. Pressured by the military, the judge that was studying the carrier's plea declared Panair officially bankrupt on February 15, 1965. It has since been determined that

6834-489: The government-owned Atlas Aircraft Corporation to upgrade their own Pumas; the resulting rotorcraft was named the Oryx . On 20 May 1965, Sud Aviation acquired the bankrupt Morane-Saulnier aircraft company from Potez , and established a new subsidiary, Gerance de Etablissements Morane-Saulnier (GEMS), to manage its assets. In early 1966, Sud Aviation created a new subsidiary, SOCATA , to continue development and production of

6936-557: The high projected cost of the project, it was decided, at the direction of both the French and British governments, to form a consortium with the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) in November 1962, merging their design and production efforts to develop a supersonic transport. Out of these combined efforts, Concorde would emerge. At first, the new consortium intended to produce long-range and short-range versions, however there

7038-550: The hobby of engine collecting. In its most extreme form, amateurs have even rebuilt engines beyond professional repair and then used them to compete for the land speed record. The simplest form of self-constructed gas turbine employs an automotive turbocharger as the core component. A combustion chamber is fabricated and plumbed between the compressor and turbine sections. More sophisticated turbojets are also built, where their thrust and light weight are sufficient to power large model aircraft. The Schreckling design constructs

7140-435: The inlet air and increase the power output, technology known as turbine inlet air cooling . Another significant advantage is their ability to be turned on and off within minutes, supplying power during peak, or unscheduled, demand. Since single cycle (gas turbine only) power plants are less efficient than combined cycle plants, they are usually used as peaking power plants , which operate anywhere from several hours per day to

7242-556: The issuing of a major joint development and production work share agreement between Aerospatiale and Westland. The deal, signed in February 1967, facilitated the licensed production in Britain of 292 Gazelles and 48 Pumas for the British armed forces; additionally, Westland received a 65% work share in the manufacturing of the Gazelle, becoming a joint partner for further refinements and upgrades of

7344-611: The lack of grain boundaries, single crystals eliminate Coble creep and consequently deform by fewer modes – decreasing the creep rate. Although single crystals have lower creep at high temperatures, they have significantly lower yield stresses at room temperature where strength is determined by the Hall-Petch relationship. Care needs to be taken in order to optimize the design parameters to limit high temperature creep while not decreasing low temperature yield strength. Airbreathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from

7446-515: The larger models in development by the early 1960s were the Super Frelon and what would become the Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma . The Super Frelon was the largest helicopter in development by the firm, being substantially increased over the earlier Frelon, and was considered to be an ambitious design at the time. The earlier Frelon had been developed to meet the requirements of both the French Navy and

7548-468: The latter sold a big portion of shares to Brazilian capital. On December 7, 1943, the participation of Pan American was further reduced to 58%. That same year Panair was authorized to fly to all South American countries. Panair also innovated by starting on September 2, 1943, the first overnight service in Brazil: Rio/Belém with intermediate stops. Shortly after the end of World War II, Panair seized

7650-540: The marine industry to reduce weight. Common types include the General Electric LM2500 , General Electric LM6000 , and aeroderivative versions of the Pratt & Whitney PW4000 , Pratt & Whitney FT4 and Rolls-Royce RB211 . Increasing numbers of gas turbines are being used or even constructed by amateurs. In its most straightforward form, these are commercial turbines acquired through military surplus or scrapyard sales, then operated for display as part of

7752-470: The names of both airlines, TAP flight numbers and crew of the two airlines. Only Brazilian and Portuguese citizens or foreigners with permanent residence in Brazil or Portugal could purchase tickets for those flights, which were extremely popular due to their low fares. In 1961, Panair started operating the Douglas DC-8 -33 to Europe. However, in spite of its excellent service, Panair faced increasing competition from other foreign state-run airlines. Addressing

7854-478: The opportunity to grow further. In 1946, the majority of its shares – 52% - was in the hands of Brazilian nationals and thus satisfied one of the preconditions to operate abroad. The last lot of shares in the hands of Pan Am was sold in 1961. As such the Brazilian government granted to Panair the concession to operate services to Europe, being the only Brazilian airline with such a concession. In March 1946, Panair received its first Lockheed L-049 Constellation , being

7956-500: The original projections, arriving at a unit cost of £23 million in 1977 (equivalent to £180.49 million in 2023). Its sonic boom also made supersonic travel over land unrealistic. World events, such as the 1973–74 stock market crash and the 1973 oil crisis , had made airlines cautious about aircraft with high fuel consumption rates; and new wide-body aircraft , such as the Boeing 747 , had made subsonic aircraft more efficient, presenting

8058-463: The pioneer of modern Micro-Jets, Kurt Schreckling , produced one of the world's first Micro-Turbines, the FD3/67. This engine can produce up to 22 newtons of thrust, and can be built by most mechanically minded people with basic engineering tools, such as a metal lathe . Evolved from piston engine turbochargers , aircraft APUs or small jet engines , microturbines are 25 to 500 kilowatt turbines

8160-431: The power-producing part (known as the gas generator or core) and are, in the direction of flow: Additional components have to be added to the gas generator to suit its application. Common to all is an air inlet but with different configurations to suit the requirements of marine use, land use or flight at speeds varying from stationary to supersonic. A propelling nozzle is added to produce thrust for flight. An extra turbine

8262-474: The purpose of using pulverized coal or finely ground biomass (such as sawdust) as a fuel. In the indirect system, a heat exchanger is used and only clean air with no combustion products travels through the power turbine. The thermal efficiency is lower in the indirect type of external combustion; however, the turbine blades are not subjected to combustion products and much lower quality (and therefore cheaper) fuels are able to be used. When external combustion

8364-670: The rotation rate of the shaft must be to attain the required blade tip speed. Blade-tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This, in turn, limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must double. For example, large jet engines operate around 10,000–25,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm. Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex than Reciprocating engines . Simple turbines might have one main moving part,

8466-568: The shaft work is achieved. The fourth step of the Brayton cycle (cooling of the working fluid) is omitted, as gas turbines are open systems that do not reuse the same air. Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, pumps, gas compressors, and tanks . In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo four thermodynamic processes: an isentropic compression, an isobaric (constant pressure) combustion, an isentropic expansion and isobaric heat rejection. Together, these make up

8568-500: The shutdown of Panair do Brasil was not based on financial or technical reasons, but on other political factors, such as the military government persecution of the company's shareholders, businessmen Celso da Rocha Miranda and Mário Wallace Simonsen . The controversial decision to liquidate Panair so suddenly triggered a lengthy legal battle. On December 14, 1984, the Brazilian Supreme Federal Court acknowledged that

8670-597: The situation, Panair formed an operational pool with Aerolíneas Argentinas , Alitalia , and Lufthansa . In 1962, Panair incorporated SUD SE-210 Caravelle 6-R jet aircraft for its main domestic and South American routes. Panair do Brasil was forced to cease operations abruptly on February 10, 1965, when the Brazilian military government , which seized power the year before, suspended its operational certification and allotted its international route concessions to Varig and domestic to Cruzeiro do Sul . In fact, that very night,

8772-545: The size of a refrigerator . Microturbines have around 15% efficiencies without a recuperator , 20 to 30% with one and they can reach 85% combined thermal-electrical efficiency in cogeneration . Most gas turbines are internal combustion engines but it is also possible to manufacture an external combustion gas turbine which is, effectively, a turbine version of a hot air engine . Those systems are usually indicated as EFGT (Externally Fired Gas Turbine) or IFGT (Indirectly Fired Gas Turbine). External combustion has been used for

8874-503: The smallest modern helicopters, and function as an auxiliary power unit in large commercial aircraft. A primary shaft carries the compressor and its turbine which, together with a combustor, is called a Gas Generator . A separately spinning power-turbine is usually used to drive the rotor on helicopters. Allowing the gas generator and power turbine/rotor to spin at their own speeds allows more flexibility in their design. Also known as miniature gas turbines or micro-jets. With this in mind

8976-503: The substrate. The Al from the bond coats forms Al 2 O 3 on the TBC-bond coat interface which provides the oxidation resistance, but also results in the formation of an undesirable interdiffusion (ID) zone between itself and the substrate. The oxidation resistance outweighs the drawbacks associated with the ID zone as it increases the lifetime of the blade and limits the efficiency losses caused by

9078-578: The turbine engines high power-to-weight ratio to drive a propeller, thus allowing a more powerful, but also smaller engine to be used. Turboprop engines are used on a wide range of business aircraft such as the Pilatus PC-12 , commuter aircraft such as the Beechcraft 1900 , and small cargo aircraft such as the Cessna 208 Caravan or De Havilland Canada Dash 8 , and large aircraft (typically military) such as

9180-463: The turbine housing's geometry (as in a variable geometry turbocharger ). It mainly serves as a power recovery device which converts a great deal of otherwise wasted thermal and kinetic energy into engine boost. Turbo-compound engines (actually employed on some semi-trailer trucks ) are fitted with blow down turbines which are similar in design and appearance to a turbocharger except for the turbine shaft being mechanically or hydraulically connected to

9282-480: The turbine is recovered by a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to power a conventional steam turbine in a combined cycle configuration. The 605 MW General Electric 9HA achieved a 62.22% efficiency rate with temperatures as high as 1,540 °C (2,800 °F). For 2018, GE offers its 826 MW HA at over 64% efficiency in combined cycle due to advances in additive manufacturing and combustion breakthroughs, up from 63.7% in 2017 orders and on track to achieve 65% by

9384-527: The type. While principally sold to military operators, a number of Gazelles for the civil market were also sold. As part of the Anglo-French helicopter agreement signed in February 1967, Sud Aviation gained a 30 per cent share of production work in the Westland Lynx while Westland Helicopters performed the remainder of the work share. It was intended that France would procure the Lynx for its navy, along with

9486-408: The unused energy comes out in the exhaust gases that can be repurposed for external work, such as directly producing thrust in a turbojet engine , or rotating a second, independent turbine (known as a power turbine ) that can be connected to a fan, propeller, or electrical generator. The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable split of energy between the thrust and

9588-486: The week of October 22, the airline's birthday, in Rio de Janeiro. This tradition has been religiously preserved since 1966 and there is a movement to include it in the Guinness World Records . Panair do Brasil has been featured in a number of Brazilian television productions, such as Anos Rebeldes (1992), Hilda Furacão (1998), JK (TV series) (2006) and Maysa: Quando Fala o Coração (2009). In 2008

9690-498: The wells to force oil up via another bore, or to compress the gas for transportation. They are also often used to provide power for the platform. These platforms do not need to use the engine in collaboration with a CHP system due to getting the gas at an extremely reduced cost (often free from burn off gas). The same companies use pump sets to drive the fluids to land and across pipelines in various intervals. One modern development seeks to improve efficiency in another way, by separating

9792-602: The worldwide fleet had accumulated in excess of 500,000 operational hours. Numerous nations struck deals of manufacture the Puma overseas. Romania produced it under license as the IAR 330 , manufacturing at least 163 of the type for the Romanian armed forces, civil operators, and several export customers. Indonesia also undertook domestic manufacturing of the Puma. South Africa became a prolific Puma operator as well, performed their own major modification and production program conducted by

9894-553: Was an instant success on the export market, numerous countries purchased military variants to serve in their armed forces; the type was also popularly received in the civil market, finding common usage by operators for transport duties to off-shore oil platforms . Throughout most of the 1970s, the SA 330 Puma was the best selling transport helicopter being produced in Europe. By July 1978, over 50 Pumas had already been delivered to civil customers, and

9996-494: Was applied to the design. The French Government had requested supersonic transport designs from Sud Aviation, as well as French rival firms Nord Aviation and Dassault during the late 1950s and of the three submissions, the Super-Caravelle won the contest with a medium-range design, which was deliberately sized to avoid competition with transatlantic designs assumed to already be on the drawing board. However, in part due to

10098-467: Was attributed to it having effectively no jet-powered rivals, being the only short-haul jetliner for several years following its introduction. Several models of the Caravelle were developed, generally in response to the increasing power of available engines, which allowed progressively higher takeoff weights. By 1963, there were six versions of the Caravelle in production, designated III , VI-N , VI-R , 10A , 10B , and X-BIR . The final assembly line for

10200-427: Was developed by Sud Aviation from the original SE.3200 Frelon . During the type's development, Sud Aviation had risen to prominence as a major helicopter manufacturer, having exported more rotorcraft than any other European rival. Having already developed the popular Alouette II and Alouette III series, the firm was keen to establish a range of helicopters fulfilling various roles, functions, and size requirements; two of

10302-711: Was no interest in the short-range version and it was dropped to focus on the long-range airliner. The consortium received non-binding options for over 100 of the long-range version from the major airlines of the day, and Pan Am , BOAC , and Air France were to be the launch customers, with six Concordes each. Other airlines in the order book included Panair do Brasil , Continental Airlines , Japan Airlines , Lufthansa , American Airlines , United Airlines , Air India , Air Canada , Braniff , Singapore Airlines , Iran Air , Olympic Airways , Qantas , CAAC Airlines , Middle East Airlines , and TWA . Concorde sold very poorly due to several factors. Costs spiralled to more than six times

10404-659: Was the second airline to place an order for such aircraft, only behind BOAC. Those orders were canceled in 1954 due to flaws found on the plane's original design. In 1955, the unused funds of the Comet order were used to purchase four Douglas DC-7 C, at that time the ideal aircraft for long-haul operations. The first arrived in 1957. In 1961, Panair purchased 4 Sud Aviation Caravelle , which entered into service in 1962, operating on domestic trunk routes. In terms of agreements, between 1956 and 1958, Panair and Lóide Aéreo Nacional maintained an agreement to avoid harmful competition, in which

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