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115-469: The northern part of the street is a cul-de-sac for motor vehicles while a bridge for pedestrians and cyclists across Trangraven is currently under construction. Strandgade is one of the streets seen in Johan Semp 's plan for Christianshavn from 1617. The original intention was only to build along the south-east side of the street, away from the water, while the beach provided private harbour facilities for

230-498: A no-through road or no-exit road , is a street with only one combined inlet and outlet. The term "dead end" is not the most common expression used in all English-speaking places. Official terminology and traffic signs include many alternatives, some only used regionally. In the United States, a cul-de-sac is often not an exact synonym for "dead end " and refers to a dead end street with a circular end allowing for easy turning at

345-435: A place , a special place, a handsome place, a safe place, a welcoming place, a place where you might wish to live." "narrowness and enclosure and intimacy bring a feeling of safety to Roslyn Place... 'Stay on our street' is all the kids have to know". Gated communities , whose numbers steadily increase worldwide, use cul-de-sac and loop street networks because the dendrite structure reduces the number of through roads and thus

460-459: A 2010 study on sprawl in North America by a legal expert concludes that "neighborhoods dominated by cul-de-sacs are less walkable than those that include street grids.   ... On the other hand, cul-de-sacs do have a countervailing public benefit: because of their very inaccessibility, they tend to have less automobile traffic. Given the existence of important public policy goals on both sides,

575-561: A Loss, and be in Confusion and Suspense; or if he pushes on daringly, may be easily destroyed. The same opinion is expressed by an earlier thinker, Aristotle , when he criticized the Hippodamian grid : ... but for security in war [the arrangement is more useful if it is planned in] the opposite [manner], as it used to be in ancient times. For that [arrangement] is difficult for foreign troops to enter and find their way about when attacking. In

690-647: A certain number of rest stops that usually include refreshments, first aid and maintenance tools. Routes can vary by as much as 100 miles (160 km). Some organized rides are entirely social events. One example is the monthly San Jose Bike Party which can reach attendance of one to two thousand riders in Summer months. Mountain biking began in the 1970s, originally as a downhill sport, practised on customized cruiser bicycles around Mount Tamalpais . Most mountain biking takes place on dirt roads, trails and in purpose-built parks. Downhill mountain biking has just evolved in

805-476: A city seeking to maximize walkability should not favor cul-de-sacs over grids, but should also allow some cul-de-sacs as a legitimate residential option.   ... In addition, there are "middle ground" alternatives between prohibiting cul-de-sacs and mandating them. For example, a city could encourage cul-de-sacs combined with pedestrian walkways." This design combination is shown in the Village Homes layout and

920-627: A collision. There is also some debate about the safety of the various types of separated facilities. Bicycles are considered a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and relatively shorter distances when used for transport (compared to recreation). Case studies and good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate this kind of functional cycling in cities can be found at Eltis , Europe's portal for local transport. A number of cities, including Paris, London and Barcelona , now have successful bike hire schemes designed to help people cycle in

1035-834: A commercial activity, mainly to transport goods, mostly accomplished in an urban environment . The postal services of many countries have long relied on bicycles. The British Royal Mail first started using bicycles in 1880; now bicycle delivery fleets include 37,000 in the UK, 25,700 in Germany, 10,500 in Hungary and 7000 in Sweden. In Australia, Australia Post has also reintroduced bicycle postal deliveries on some routes due to an inability to recruit sufficient licensed riders willing to use their uncomfortable motorbikes. The London Ambulance Service has recently introduced bicycling paramedics , who can often get to

1150-505: A cul-de-sac or being on a through-street. It also established again that simple, linear cul-de-sacs with good numbers of dwellings that are joined to through streets tend to be safe. As for permeability, it suggests that residential areas should be permeable enough to allow movement in all directions but no more. The overprovision of poorly-used permeability is a crime hazard. More generally, the New Urbanism movement has offered criticism of

1265-560: A cul-de-sac street as does social networking. Design guidelines based on the CPTED perspective recommend its use for those reasons. Cul-de-sac streets increase spontaneous outdoor activity by children. A study in California examined the amount of child play that occurred on the streets of neighbourhoods with different characteristics; grid pattern and cul-de-sacs. The findings indicate that cul-de-sacs showed substantial increase in play activity than

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1380-428: A disconnected network of cul-de-sac and looped streets is inconvenient and non-intuitive, particularly when combined with curvilinear geometry. Loss of orientation and sense of direction is also a common experience in older cities with cul-de-sac streets (Medina of Arab cities or Mediterranean hill towns ) as well as in cities with highly-irregular block geometries and sizes and corresponding street alignments that produce

1495-810: A grid but irregular. The western part of the excavated village, where the workers lived, shows fifteen narrow and short dead ends laid out perpendicularly on either side of a wider, straight street; all terminate at the enclosing walls. Dead end streets also appeared during the classical period of Athens and Rome . The 15th century architect and planner Leon Battista Alberti implies in his writings that dead end streets may have been used intentionally in antiquity for defense purposes. He writes: The Ancients in All Towns were for having some intricate Ways and turn again Streets [i.e., dead ends or loops], without any Passage through them, that if an Enemy comes into them, he may be at

1610-498: A grid by blocking through-traffic. Whole neighbourhood street reconfigurations emerged in several cities, mainly concentrated in North America and the UK, which include Berkeley, California ; Seattle, Washington ; and Vancouver, British Columbia . The transformation of grid plans since the 1970s limits access to an existing road that is newly designated as a major artery , enabling traffic to move smoothly on it, alleviating residents' concerns. This selective, sporadic transformation

1725-422: A hard time turning around, which means that children who live in a cul-de-sac must often walk to a bus stop on a main through-road. However, recent research on obesity and urban planning suggests that to be a possible advantage because it enables children to get daily physical activity. Longer walking distances, however, reduce interest to use buses especially when a car is available. This disincentive to walking to

1840-414: A labyrinthine effect. The long history of such cities implies that an irregular, complicated street network that appears entirely illegible to a visitor is well understood and used by the inhabitants. More convincing about its workability for their permanent residents are the case histories of cities such as Regensburg that show a gradual transformation of an imported or imposed orthogonal, "legible" grid to

1955-404: A legal race bike cannot weigh less than 6.8 kg (14.99 lbs). Being measured for a bike and taking it for a test ride are recommended before buying. The drivetrain components of the bike should also be considered. A middle grade dérailleur is sufficient for a beginner, although many utility bikes are equipped with hub gears . If the rider plans a significant amount of hillclimbing ,

2070-448: A loop, and 0% the grid. Only 13% of grid street residents preferred their own type and 54% would choose a cul-de-sac. Two other studies, reported in 1990 and 2009 respectively, confirmed the upward trend and determined the premium that cul-de-sac streets command. The first found a 29% premium over the streets in a grid. The second, focused on trails and greenbelts, found that other amenities including cul-de-sac streets add significantly to

2185-532: A modified, improved version of it, mentioned above, that enables pedestrian and bicycle through-movement. While this more permeable version can be applied in new developments easily, modifying existing impermeable cul-de-sac streets is problematic as it encounters property ownership issues. Efforts in that direction are, however, being made. Because of the complicated legal process and the sheer number of existing cul-de-sac streets, however, such efforts would be slow to produce results and may have little impact in changing

2300-421: A period of rapid economic and city expansion, when a detached house on a large lot meant an ideal form of habitation. The temporal coincidence of the wide adoption of a street type and an increasing demand for large lots and houses suggests a necessary relationship between street type and unit density. Historically, however, the earliest systematic application of the cul-de-sac street type by Raymond Unwin (1909) had

2415-455: A return to the 19th century gridiron is undesirable. The decrease in traffic, in turn, is thought to lower the incidence of crime and increase desirability, because in most cases the people who traverse the cul-de-sac either live there or are guests of those who do. CPTED planning principles suggest increased natural surveillance and sense of ownership as a means of fostering security in a neighbourhood. Both of these phenomena occur naturally on

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2530-402: A rider to ride against the clock. Time trials can be performed as a team or as a single rider. Bikes are changed for time trial races, using aero bars . In the past decade, mountain bike racing has also reached international popularity and is even an Olympic sport. Professional racing organizations place limitations on the bicycles that can be used in the races that they sanction. For example,

2645-411: A school bus-stop can be overcome in planned cul-de-sac streets by regulating their maximum length to about 500 ft (150 m), as was recommended and practiced by R. Unwin and others. Weighing available evidence has led a few US cities including Austin, Texas ; Charlotte, North Carolina ; and Portland, Oregon , to restrict and regulate the inclusion of cul-de-sac streets in new suburbs. However,

2760-407: A shipyard there in 1735. Strandgade was later extended through the area after it had been divided into Wilders Plads , Krøyers Plads and Grønlandske Handels Plads. The east side of the oldest section of the street is still completely dominated by the historic townhouses, although many have been altered, extended or replaced over the years. Dating from the 1620s, the house row at No. 28-32 has some of

2875-434: A significant role in traffic safety and should be considered in conjunction with the network pattern. While all intersection types in general increase the incidence of fatal crashes, four-way intersections, which rarely occur in a network with cul-de-sac or loop streets, increase total and injurious crashes significantly. The study recommends hybrid street networks with dense concentrations of T-intersections, and concludes that

2990-584: A similar incentive was provided to developers by CMHC . The incentives, which were discontinued in the 1970s, gave the initial impetus for the application of the hierarchical pattern. In other countries, such incentives do not exist, and adoption is motivated by customer preferences. American urban planning , in the 19th and the early 20th centuries, emphasized a grid plan , partly out of extensive reliance on foot, horse, ⁰and trams for transportation. In such earlier urban development, alleys were included to allow for deliveries of soiled supplies, such as coal, to

3105-598: A surge in popularity in the US, with some vendors reporting that they were sold out of bikes under US$ 1000. The Marching and Cycling Band HHK from Haarlem (the Netherlands) is one of the few marching bands around the world which also performs on bicycles. Shortly after the introduction of bicycles, competitions developed independently in many parts of the world. Early races involving boneshaker style bicycles were predictably fraught with injuries. Large races became popular during

3220-443: A triple-chainrings crankset gear system may be preferred. Otherwise, the relatively lighter, simpler, and less expensive double chainring is preferred, even on high-end race bikes. Much simpler fixed wheel bikes are also available. Many road bikes, along with mountain bikes, include clipless pedals to which special shoes attach, via a cleat , enabling the rider to pull on the pedals as well as push. Other possible accessories for

3335-487: A unit density between 8 and 12 units per acre (20 and 30 per hectare), considerably higher than mid-to-late 20th century. Even in the 21st century, developments rarely achieve densities above 5 to 7 units per acre (12 to 17 per hectare) in the suburbs. Conversely, early 1950s suburban developments that were laid out on a grid exhibit similar low densities. Evidently, street, network type and density are not linked causally; other factors, such as land scarcity and income, influence

3450-430: A word or phrase seeming to have a negative connotation is replaced in street signs with a new coinage ("no outlet" is another alternative name used on street signs). Cyclist Cycling , also known as bicycling or biking , is the activity of riding a bicycle or other type of cycle. It encompasses the use of human-powered vehicles such as balance bikes , unicycles , tricycles , and quadricycles . Cycling

3565-411: Is a recurring complaint by cyclists from cities with low modal share of cycling. Extensive cycling infrastructure may be found in some cities. Such dedicated paths in some cities often have to be shared with in-line skaters, scooters, skateboarders, and pedestrians. Dedicated cycling infrastructure is treated differently in the law of every jurisdiction, including the question of liability of users in

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3680-419: Is about advocating the bicycle as an alternative mode of transport, and another is about the creation of conditions to permit and/or encourage bicycle use, both for utility and recreational cycling. Although the first emphasizes the potential for energy and resource conservation and health benefits gained from cycling versus automobile use, is relatively undisputed, the second is the subject of much debate. It

3795-484: Is advisable to reduce the risk from motor vehicle users. Items legally required in some jurisdictions, or voluntarily adopted for safety reasons, include bicycle helmets , generator or battery operated lights, reflectors , and audible signalling devices such as a bell or horn. Extras include studded tires and a bicycle computer . Bikes can also be heavily customized, with different seat designs and handle bars, for example. Gears can also be customized to better suit

3910-571: Is an integral part of the Fused Grid . George Orwell wrote in his 1946 article " Politics and the English Language " that the term "cul de sac" is another foreign word used in English as pretentious diction and is unnecessary. The word "cul-de-sac" and its synonyms or near synonyms "dead end" and "no exit" have inspired metaphorical uses in literature and in culture, often with the result that

4025-464: Is continuing. As traffic volumes increase and as cities decide to remove or reduce traffic on specific streets of central areas, streets are closed off using bollards or landscaping thus making new, originally unplanned dead ends and producing a new, functional blend of the inherited grid with newer street types. A recent variation of limiting traffic is managed closure by using retractable bollards that are activated only by designated card-holders. Since

4140-440: Is generally agreed that improved local and inter-city rail services and other methods of mass transportation (including greater provision for cycle carriage on such services) create conditions to encourage bicycle use. However, there are different opinions on the role of various types of cycling infrastructure in building bicycle-friendly cities and roads. Some bicycle activists (including some traffic management advisers) seek

4255-418: Is necessary not only in the general interest of the population, but, above all, for the sake of the children, whose health (amongst the working classes ) is mainly dependent on the opportunity of moving about in close connection with their dwelling places, without the danger of being run over. In the earlier periods, traffic was excluded from residential streets simply by gates or by employing the cul-de-sac. It

4370-411: Is not a necessary outcome of street network design and can be improved. The practice of naming orthogonal networks by numbers and letters in the corresponding cardinal directions has been criticized by Camilo Sitte as lacking imagination. Nonetheless, police and fire departments now use advanced GPS systems that quickly locate the destination and the shortest path to follow. School buses can also have

4485-524: Is practised around the world for purposes including transport , recreation , exercise , and competitive sport . Cycling became popularized in Europe and North America in the latter part and especially the last decade of the 19th century. Today, over 50 percent of the human population knows how to ride a bike. The bicycle has been used as a method of reconnaissance as well as transporting soldiers and supplies to combat zones. In this it has taken over many of

4600-562: Is the Tour de France . This began in 1903, and continues to capture the attention of the sporting world. In 1899, Charles Minthorn Murphy became the first man to ride his bicycle a mile in under a minute (hence his nickname, Mile-a-Minute Murphy), which he did by drafting a locomotive at New York 's Long Island . As the bicycle evolved its various forms, different racing formats developed. Road races may involve both team and individual competition, and are contested in various ways. They range from

4715-620: Is the inequity in where safe bicycling infrastructure exists by neighbourhood, which is interpreted as a form of classism within cycling and urbanism . The bicycle has acted as a means for women's liberation and thus has links to feminism . Cyclists form associations, both for specific interests (trails development, road maintenance, bike maintenance, urban design, racing clubs, touring clubs, etc.) and for more global goals ( energy conservation , pollution reduction, promotion of fitness). Some bicycle clubs and national associations became prominent advocates for improvements to roads and highways. In

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4830-410: Is viewed as a dynamic social and cultural construct , especially in contemporary, open, multicultural cities. Residential area street configuration can assist its emergence only by reducing through-traffic and increasing local pedestrian movement – a design goal for which connected cul-de-sac and looped streets are suited. Issues of pedestrian trip length and isolation are very evident in

4945-740: The Foundation for the Built Environment in the UK for encouraging car transport for even short distances, as more direct connections are precluded by the geometry, which necessitates long travel distances even to physically-nearby locations. This increases fuel consumption and vehicle emissions and has negative effects on health by reducing walking and cycling rates. Related research in the United States by Richard Jackson has shown that people in car-based (cul-de-sac heavy) communities weigh on average 6 pounds (2.7 kg) more than those in traditional towns (with open grid networks). An extensive analysis of

5060-578: The League of American Bicyclists . Beyond simply riding, another skill is riding efficiently and safely in traffic. One popular approach to riding in motor vehicle traffic is vehicular cycling , occupying road space as car does. Alternately, in countries such as Denmark and the Netherlands, where cycling is popular, cyclists are often segregated into bike lanes at the side of, or more often separate from, main highways and roads. Many primary schools participate in

5175-562: The Radburn model in the late 1960s. In the 1960s the cul-de-sac attained systematic international application in planned new cities such as Doxiadis' Islamabad (1960). In the UK, new towns such as Harlow (1947) by Sir Frederick Gibberd and Milton Keynes (1967) incorporated cul-de-sacs and crescents in their layouts. Planning theorists have suggested the use of alternatives to cul-de-sacs. Most notably, Christopher Alexander et al., in his 1977 book " A Pattern Language " (pattern #49) suggests

5290-594: The United States (such as Radburn , New Jersey , and Village Homes , California ), England (such as Milton Keynes ), and Greece (such as Papagou , a suburb of Athens ). Acknowledging their use, Germany , under the 2009 amendment to the Road Traffic Act, introduced an additional sign for cul-de-sacs that are permeable to pedestrians and cyclists (see under signage below). A new system for organizing connected, permeable cul-de-sacs into complete neighbourhoods,

5405-415: The fused grid , has been developed by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation . In the development context and planning literature of North America , cul-de-sacs have been associated with low-density residential development. Sustainable development theorists and proponents claim that to be, in some undefined way, inefficient. The increased prevalence of cul-de-sac streets occurred in the 1960s and 1970s,

5520-419: The gluteus maximus ) and reducing air resistance at high speed. Road bikes are designed for speed and efficiency on paved roads. They are characterized by their lightweight frames, skinny tires, drop handlebars, and narrow saddles. Road bikes are ideal for racing, long-distance riding, and fitness training. Other common types of bikes include gravel bikes , designed for use on gravel roads or trails, but with

5635-575: The 1890s "Golden Age of Cycling", with events across Europe, and in the U.S. and Japan as well. At one point, almost every major city in the US had a velodrome or two for track racing events, however since the middle of the 20th century cycling has become a minority sport in the US whilst in Continental Europe it continues to be a major sport, particularly in the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Italy and Spain. The most famous of all bicycle races

5750-634: The 1920s, the garden city movement became more popular in the United States and, with it, came its design elements, such as the cul-de-sac. Clarence Stein , a main proponent of the movement, incorporated it in the Radburn, New Jersey (1929) subdivision, which was to become a model for subsequent neighborhood developments. The first modern cul-de-sac (1922) in America might be found in Buffalo, New York . The country's Federal Housing Authority (FHA) recommended and promoted their use through their 1936 guidelines and

5865-617: The 1960s, the pattern has been the dominant road network structure of suburbs and exurbs in the United States, Canada, and Australia. It is also increasingly popular in Latin America , Western Europe , and China . In this pattern, there are only a few roads (relative to the number of cul-de-sac streets) leading out of the subdivision and into other subdivisions or onto major roads. In the US, these changes can be attributed to real-estate developers' desire to meet FHA guidelines and make federal home loans available to their customers. In Canada,

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5980-616: The British employed airborne "Cycle-commandos" with folding bikes . In the Vietnam War , communist forces used bicycles extensively as cargo carriers along the Ho Chi Minh Trail . The last country known to maintain a regiment of bicycle troops was Switzerland, which disbanded its last unit in 2003. In many countries, the most commonly used vehicle for road transport is a utility bicycle . These have frames with relaxed geometry, protecting

6095-470: The UK and North America, as their first jobs, generations of teenagers have worked at delivering newspapers by bicycle. London has many delivery companies that use bicycles with trailers. Most cities in the West, and many outside it, support a sizeable and visible industry of cycle couriers who deliver documents and small packages. In India, many of Mumbai's Dabbawalas use bicycles to deliver home cooked lunches to

6210-501: The UK, their prior existence is implied by the Public Health Act 1875 , which banned their use in new developments. Inferential evidence of their earlier use can also be drawn from the text of a German architect, Rudolf Eberstadt, that explains their purpose and utility: We have, in our medieval towns, showing very commendable methods of cutting up the land. I ought to mention here that to keep traffic out of residential streets

6325-595: The Union Cycliste Internationale, the governing body of international cycle sport (which sanctions races such as the Tour de France), decided in the late 1990s to create additional rules which prohibit racing bicycles weighing less than 6.8 kilograms (14.96 pounds). The UCI rules also effectively ban some bicycle frame innovations (such as the recumbent bicycle ) by requiring a double triangle structure. Many broad and correlated themes run in bicycle activism: one

6440-564: The United States, the League of American Wheelmen lobbied for the improvement of roads in the last part of the 19th century, founding and leading the national Good Roads Movement . Their model for political organization, as well as the paved roads for which they argued, facilitated the growth of the automobile. In Europe, the European Cyclists' Federation represents around 70 local, regional and national civil society organisations across more than 40 countries that work to promote cycling as

6555-585: The ability to ride well on pavement; mountain bikes , which are designed for more rugged, undulating terrain; and e-bikes , which provide some level of motorized assist for the rider. There are additional variations of bikes and types of biking as well. The price of a new bicycle can range from US$ 50 to more than US$ 20,000 (the highest priced bike in the world is the custom Madone by Damien Hirst , sold at US$ 500,000 ), depending on quality, type and weight (the most exotic road bicycles can weigh as little as 3.2 kg (7 lb) ). However, UCI regulations stipulate

6670-466: The amount of through-traffic (vehicular or pedestrian) that might notice an accident or crime victim in need of help. Proponents of cul-de-sacs and gated communities have in turn countered that the reduction in through-traffic makes any "stranger" much more recognisable in the closed local environment and thus reduces crime danger. That view has in turn been characterized as unrealistic. It is argued that, since only very few of all non-locals passing through

6785-449: The area are potential criminals, increased traffic should increase rather than decrease safety. Research has expanded the discussion on the disputed issue. A 2008 study did extensive spatial analysis and correlated several building, site plan and social factors with crime frequencies and identified subtle nuances to the contrasting positions. The study looked at, among others, a) dwelling types, b) unit density (site density) c) movement on

6900-436: The back-to-front housing arrangement where the front of the house fronts onto the cul-de-sac street while the rear fronts onto the main roads. Some of the problems can be mitigated by the newer practice of connecting the neighbouring roads and cul-de-sacs with public pedestrian or cycle paths. In effect, this removes the discontinuity aspect for these modes of transport. Built examples of such connected cul-de-sacs can be found in

7015-439: The bicycle as a primary form of transport. In Europe, Denmark and the Netherlands have the most bicycles per capita and most often use bicycles for everyday transport. Road bikes tend to have a more upright shape and a shorter wheelbase, which make the bike more mobile but harder to ride slowly. The design, coupled with low or dropped handlebars, requires the rider to bend forward more, making use of stronger muscles (particularly

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7130-655: The bicycle include front and rear lights, bells or horns, child carrying seats, cycling computers with GPS, locks, bar tape, fenders (mud-guards), baggage racks, baggage carriers and pannier bags, water bottles and bottle cages. For basic maintenance and repairs cyclists can carry a pump (or a CO 2 cartridge ), a puncture repair kit, a spare inner tube, and tire levers and a set of allen keys . Cycling can be more efficient and comfortable with special shoes , gloves , and shorts . In wet weather, riding can be more tolerable with waterproof clothes, such as cape, jacket, trousers (pants) and overshoes and high-visibility clothing

7245-559: The city's workers. In Bogotá , Colombia the city's largest bakery recently replaced most of its delivery trucks with bicycles. Even the car industry uses bicycles. At the huge Mercedes-Benz factory in Sindelfingen , Germany workers use bicycles, color-coded by department, to move around the factory. Bicycles are used for recreation at all ages. Bicycle touring , also known as cyclotourism, involves touring and exploration or sightseeing by bicycle for leisure. Bicycle tourism has been one of

7360-436: The city. Typically these feature utilitarian city bikes which lock into docking stations, released on payment for set time periods. Costs vary from city to city. In London, initial hire access costs £2 per day. The first 30 minutes of each trip is free, with £2 for each additional 30 minutes until the bicycle is returned. In the Netherlands, many roads have one or two separate cycleways alongside them, or cycle lanes marked on

7475-451: The construction of bike paths , cycle tracks and bike lanes for journeys of all lengths and point to their success in promoting safety and encouraging more people to cycle. Some activists, especially those from the vehicular cycling tradition, view the safety, practicality, and intent of such facilities with suspicion. They favor a more holistic approach based on the 4 'E's : education (of everyone involved), encouragement (to apply

7590-433: The corresponding number of entries and exits that need to be controlled. Dead ends are traditionally considered safer traffic environments for children than normal streets, but research shows that areas with many dead ends in fact have higher rates of traffic accidents involving young children. This increased risk of death is due to multiple factors, including: Cul-de-sacs are criticised by urban designers like those of

7705-517: The cul-de-sac and crescent (loop) street types not intended to network with each other. It has been suggested that such street layouts can cause increased traffic on the collector streets. It is recognized that cul-de-sacs and looped streets inherently remove car traffic through them and restrict access to residents only. Resident traffic is naturally channelled to minor residential collectors and to arterials that provide inter-neighbourhood and inter-district connectivity. A study, reported in 1990, compared

7820-551: The cul-de-sac street type among home buyers is implied by the evidence that they often pay up to a 20% premium for a home on such a street, according to one study. That could be because there is considerably less passing traffic, resulting in less noise and reduced actual or perceived risk, increasing the sense of tranquility. A survey of residents on three types of streets: cul-de-sac, loop, and through (grid) recorded their preferences among these types. It found that 82% of cul-de-sac residents preferred their own street type, 18% preferred

7935-478: The edges of rivers and property lines. They also choose these discontinuous network patterns of cul-de-sac and loop streets because of the often significant economies in infrastructure costs compared to the grid plan . From an environmental perspective, cul-de-sacs allow greater flexibility than the common grid in adapting to the natural grades of a site and to its ecologically sensitive features, such as streams, creeks, and mature forest growth. The desirability of

8050-417: The education), enforcement (to protect the rights of others), and engineering (to facilitate travel while respecting every person's equal right to do so). Some groups offer training courses to help cyclists integrate themselves with other traffic. Critical Mass is an event typically held on the last Friday of every month in cities around the world where bicyclists take to the streets en masse . While

8165-493: The end of World War II , new subdivisions in the United States and Canada, as well as New Towns in England and other countries have made extensive use of the cul-de-sac and crescent (loops) street types. Typically, there is one or several central roads in the subdivision with many cul-de-sac streets of varying length, branching out from the main roads, to fill the land in the subdivision, a dendrite or hierarchical pattern. Since

8280-626: The end of the road. In Australia, Canada, and some parts of the United States, a street is usually referred to as a court when it has a bulbous end. Dead ends are added to road layouts in urban planning to limit through-traffic in residential areas. While some dead ends provide no possible passage except in and out of their road entry, others allow cyclists , pedestrians or other non-automotive traffic to pass through connecting easements or paths, an example of filtered permeability . The International Federation of Pedestrians proposed to call such streets "living end streets" and to provide signage at

8395-554: The entry of the streets that make this permeability for pedestrians and cyclists clear. Its application retains the dead end's primary function as a non-through road, but establishes complete pedestrian and bicycle network connectivity. The earliest examples of dead ends were unearthed in the El Lahun workers' village in Egypt , which was built in c. 1885 BC. The village is laid out with straight streets that intersect at right angles, akin to

8510-630: The functions of horses in warfare . In the Second Boer War , both sides used bicycles for scouting. In World War I, France, Germany, Australia and New Zealand used bicycles to move troops. In its 1937 invasion of China, Japan employed some 50,000 bicycle troops, and similar forces were instrumental in Japan's march or "roll" through Malaya in World War II . Germany used bicycles again in World War II, while

8625-490: The hierarchical but more conducive to short trips. Local trips in it are shorter in distance but about equivalent in time with the hierarchical layout. A later similar comparative traffic study of about 830 acres (3.4 km ; 340 ha) concluded that all types of layouts perform adequately in most land-use scenarios and that a refined hierarchical, dendrite network can improve traffic performance. Anecdotal and research evidence suggests that navigation (especially on foot) in

8740-520: The home value. The positive feelings that a cul-de-sac street could evoke, that residents value, are expressed vividly by Allan Jacobs in describing Roslyn Place , a short (250 ft [76 m]), narrow (60 ft [18 m]), densely built (14 du per acre [35 per hectare]), and wood-paved cul-de-sac in the Shadyside neighborhood of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania: "Step into Roslyn Place and you are likely to sense, immediately, that you are in

8855-552: The impact of motorized transport, and by building bike lanes , bike paths and cycle tracks . The provision of cycling infrastructure varies widely between cities and countries, particularly since cycling for transportation almost entirely occurs in public streets. And, the development of computer vision and street view imagery has provided significant potential to assess infrastructure for cyclists. In jurisdictions where motor vehicles were given priority, cycling has tended to decline while in jurisdictions where cycling infrastructure

8970-460: The landscape of existing districts. Conversely, transforming existing streets that are part of a grid plan into permeable, linked cul-de-sacs, as was done in Berkeley, California , and Vancouver, British Columbia , is physically and administratively easy due to the public ownership of the street right-of-way. However, residents on adjacent through roads may resent the potential traffic increase and delay

9085-402: The length of car trips by the circuitous geometry of the dendrite network structure of which it is a part. Research studies examined the influence of several variables on the amount of car travel that residents of several types of districts recorded. Results vary considerably among them, but there is general agreement on a number of key correlations: a) the wealthier and the larger the family is,

9200-699: The local environment. Paris–Brest–Paris (PBP), which began in 1891, is the oldest bicycling event still run on a regular basis on the open road, covers over 1,200 km (746 mi) and imposes a 90-hour time limit. Similar if smaller institutions exist in many countries. A study conducted in Taiwan improved the environmental quality for bicyclist tourists which demonstrated greater health benefits in tourists and even in natives. The number of bicyclists in Taiwan increased from 700,000 in 2008 to 5.1 million in 2017. Thus, this resulted in more and safer bicycle routes to be established. When cycling, cyclists take into account

9315-515: The lot owners, who could easily transfer goods from ships to their warehouses and storage cellars. This solution was repeated along both sides of Christianshavn Canal . The lots along the street did not sell well and in the end the king gave them away to wealthy citizens from Copenhagen on condition that they built "good commerce houses" on them. Danish East India Company and Danish West India Company established their headquarters north and south of Torvegade / Knippels Bridge respectively. In 1730,

9430-533: The more cars they own, and the more they drive, b) the farther away a family lives from the city centre, and the fewer the jobs in the vicinity, plus a slow bus service, the more they drive, and c) street patterns may add a 10% length to local trips, but the total VKTs are affected more by the "macro" urban than the "micro" neighbourhood structure. Cul-de-sacs, especially those that also limit pedestrian routes instead of only road-traffic routes, have also been criticised for negative effects on safety because they decrease

9545-523: The most popular sports for recreational benefit. A brevet or randonnée is an organized long-distance ride. One popular Dutch pleasure is the enjoyment of relaxed cycling in the countryside of the Netherlands. The land is very flat and full of public bicycle trails and cycle tracks where cyclists are not bothered by cars and other traffic, which makes it ideal for cycling recreation. Many Dutch people subscribe every year to an event called fietsvierdaagse  — four days of organised cycling through

9660-540: The national road test in which children individually complete a circuit on roads near the school while being observed by testers. Cyclists, pedestrians and motorists make different demands on road design which may lead to conflicts. Some jurisdictions give priority to motorized traffic, for example setting up one-way street systems, free-right turns, high capacity roundabouts, and slip roads . Others share priority with cyclists so as to encourage more cycling by applying varying combinations of traffic calming measures to limit

9775-599: The oldest houses in Christianshavn. The Mikkel Vibe House at No. 32 was built by Mikkel Vibe who was mayor of Copenhagen. Other notable houses along this stretch of the street are the Lehn House at No. 6, Rhode House at No. 14, Behagen House at No. 26, Sigvert Grubbe House at No. 28-30 and Andreas Bjørn House at No. 46. The most notable visitor attractions in the street are Danish Architecture Centre , North Atlantic House and Christian's Church. Other institutions in

9890-721: The one-day road race, criterium , and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour de France and its sister events which make up cycling's Grand Tours . Recumbent bicycles were banned from bike races in 1934 after Marcel Berthet set a new hour record in his Velodyne streamliner (49.992 km on 18 November 1933). Track bicycles are used for track cycling in Velodromes , while cyclo-cross races are held on outdoor terrain, including pavement, grass, and mud. Cyclocross races feature human-made features such as small barriers which riders either bunny hop over or dismount and walk over. Time trial races, another form of road racing require

10005-545: The open grid street pattern. Cul-de-sacs reduce perceived danger from traffic, thereby encouraging more outdoor play. Similar studies in Europe and Australia found that children's outdoor play is significantly reduced on through roads where traffic is, or perceived by parents to be, a risk. In addition, they confirmed the results of the seminal Donald Appleyard 1982 study, which showed the negative correlation between amount of traffic and social networks. The inverse correlation between amounts of traffic and sociability of streets

10120-416: The outcome as, for example, in cities that are landlocked or that have low average incomes. Another concern is often voiced by emergency services, which can have difficulty locating streets when a community consists of a large number of similarly named cul-de-sacs; also, large fire response vehicles, in particular, can have great difficulty with turning around in a cul-de-sac. However, confusing street naming

10235-402: The outcome of an energy imbalance. Many contemporary lifestyle trends, some inevitable (sedentary work) and some avoidable (frequent energy-rich food consumption or the watching of television [four hours per day]), contribute to the imbalance and must be considered in understanding and combating obesity . The impermeability deficiency of the typical cul-de-sac street can be addressed by applying

10350-694: The power of lending development funds. In Canada , a variation of Stein's Radburn 1929 plan that used crescents (loops) instead of cul-de-sacs was built in 1947: Wildwood Park, Winnipeg , designed by Hubert Bird. In 1954, the Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation published its own guidelines in which the cul-de-sac was strongly recommended for local streets and, as the FHA in the US, used its lending power to see its inclusion in development plans. Varsity Village and Braeside, subdivisions in Calgary , Alberta , also used

10465-401: The prime minister goes to work by bicycle, when weather permits. This saves the lives of 6,000 citizens per year, prolongs life expectancy by 6 months, saves the country 20 million dollars per year, and prevents 150 grams of CO 2 from being emitted per kilometer of cycling. Utility cycling refers both to cycling as a mode of daily commuting transport as well as the use of a bicycle in

10580-455: The process. In Berkeley, the barriers used were permeable to both pedestrian and bicycle traffic and became the backbone of the bicycle boulevard system in that region. Increases in pedestrian and bicycle permeability may result in a displacement of local car trips for short-distance destinations and consequently a reduction in neighbourhood vehicle emissions. The impermeable cul-de-sac not only discourages walking and biking but also increases

10695-474: The rear of houses that are now heated by electricity, piped natural gas or oil. The use of cul-de-sacs reduces the amount of car traffic on residential streets within the subdivision, thus reducing noise, air pollution, and the probability of accidents. Ben-Joseph (1995), and Lovegrove and Sayed (2006), indicate a substantially lower collision rate for street networks based on the cul-de-sac street type. Dumbaugh and Rae (2009) suggest that land-use patterns play

10810-469: The recent years and is performed at places such as Whistler Mountain Bike Park. Slopestyle, a form of downhill, is when riders do tricks such as tailwhips, 360s, backflips and front flips. There are several disciplines of mountain biking besides downhill, including: cross country (often referred to as XC), all mountain, trail, free ride, and newly popular enduro . In 2020, due to COVID-19 , mountain bikes saw

10925-399: The research evidence by TRB, however, shows only an association between the built environment and physical activity levels, not causal connections. The evidence also does not identify with certainty which characteristics of the built environment are most closely associated with physical activity behaviour. The study also warns against confusing inadequate physical activity with obesity which is

11040-470: The ride was founded with the idea of drawing attention to how unfriendly the city was to bicyclists, the leaderless structure of Critical Mass makes it impossible to assign it any one specific goal. In fact, the purpose of Critical Mass is not formalized beyond the direct action of meeting at a set location and time and traveling as a group through city streets. There is a long-running cycle helmet debate among activists. The most heated controversy surrounds

11155-470: The rider from shocks of the road and easing steering at low speeds. Utility bicycles tend to be equipped with accessories such as mudguards, pannier racks and lights, which extends their usefulness on a daily basis. Since the bicycle is so effective as a means of transportation, various companies have developed methods of carrying anything from the weekly shop to children on bicycles. Certain countries rely heavily on bicycles and their culture has developed around

11270-426: The rider's strength in relation to the terrain. Many schools and police departments run educational programs to instruct children in bicycle handling skills, especially to introduce them to the rules of the road as they apply to cyclists. In some countries these may be known as bicycle rodeos , or operated as schemes such as Bikeability in the UK. Education for adult cyclists is available from organizations such as

11385-455: The road network. This design feature reflects the predominance of pedestrian movement for local trips at the turn of the 20th century, and presages the current planning priority for increased pedestrian accessibility. The 1906 Act defined the nature of the cul-de-sac as a non-through road and restricted its length to 500 feet (150 m). Garden cities in the UK that followed Hampstead, such as Welwyn Garden City , all included cul-de-sacs. In

11500-421: The road. On roads where adjacent bike paths or cycle tracks exist, the use of these facilities is compulsory, and cycling on the main carriageway is not permitted. Some 35,000 km of cycle-track has been physically segregated from motor traffic, equal to a quarter of the country's entire 140,000 km road network. A quarter of all trips in the country are made on bicycles, one quarter of them to work. Even

11615-413: The safety on the road, bicycle lanes, smooth roads, diverse scenery, and ride length. Thus, the environment plays a huge role in people's decision factor to use bicycle touring more. This study used many questionnaires and conducted statistical analysis to come up with the conclusion of cyclists' top 5 factors that they consider before making a decision to bike are: safety, lighting facility, design of lanes,

11730-522: The same distance and among people from the same city with the same income level, those with higher education cycle more. As a result, there are various forms of activism focused on diversifying the cycling community. Inspired by the Black Lives Matter movement are organizations such as Street Riders NYC that seek to protest while on bicycles about systemic racism and police brutality. An incidental experience for Street Riders NYC protest participants

11845-408: The same skill level to take advantage of drafting . Most organized rides, for example cyclosportives (or gran fondos), Challenge Rides or reliability trials , and hill climbs include registration requirements and will provide information either through the mail or online concerning start times and other requirements. Rides usually consist of several different routes, sorted by mileage, and with

11960-502: The scene of an incident in Central London more quickly than a motorized ambulance. The use of bicycles by police has been increasing, since they provide greater accessibility to bicycle and pedestrian zones and allow access when roads are congested. In some cases, bicycle officers have been used as a supplement or a replacement for horseback officers. Bicycles enjoy substantial use as general delivery vehicles in many countries. In

12075-428: The site on the north side of Torvegade was taken over by Danish Asia Company, a reconstruction of Danish East India Company. They completed a new head office on the site in 1738. Denmark's first dry dock, later known as Old Dock , opened just north of there in 1739. Originally Strandstræde only reached as far north as Bådsmandsstræde . The area north of Wilder's Bridge was not reclaimed until Andreas Bjørn established

12190-622: The street include the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the Environmental Agency and Architects' Association of Denmark . Nordea 's Danish headquarters occupy the entire waterfront south of Torvegade. 55°40′29″N 12°35′27″E  /  55.6747°N 12.5908°E  / 55.6747; 12.5908 Cul-de-sac A dead end , also known as a cul-de-sac ( / ˈ k ʌ l d ə s æ k , ˈ k ʊ l -/ ; French: [kydsak] , lit.   ' bag bottom ' ), or

12305-429: The street, d) cul-de-sacs or grids, and e) the permeability of a residential area. Among its conclusions are, respectively, that a) flats are always safer than houses and the wealth of inhabitants matters, b) density is generally beneficial but more so at ground level, c) local movement is beneficial but larger-scale movement not so, d) relative affluence and the number of neighbours has a greater effect than either being on

12420-457: The surrounding landscape, and how clean the environment is. Thus, after improving these 5 factors, they found much more recreational benefits to bicycle tourism. Many cycling clubs hold organized rides in which bicyclists of all levels participate. The typical organized ride starts with a large group of riders, called the mass, bunch or even peloton . This will thin out over the course of the ride. Many riders choose to ride together in groups of

12535-725: The topic of compulsory helmet use . It is paradoxical that in many developing countries cycling is in decline as bicycles are replaced by motorbikes and cars, while in many developed countries cycling is on the rise. Within western societies the demographic of those who cycle is often not representative of broader society. Research by TfL in London, UK, suggests that cyclists in London are typically 'white, under 40, male, with medium to high household income.' Studies from large-scale representative data from Germany show that people with higher levels of education cycle substantially more often than those with lower levels of education. Even for trips of

12650-504: The traditional "confusing" street networks. Cul-de-sac and loop streets can reduce the size of any given neighbourhood to a single street. Neighbourhoods can be defined by geographic boundaries but more often it is shared ethnic, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics that produce social cohesion irrespective of apparent physical "boundaries". Mehaffy et al. (2010), who propose a model for structuring an urban network, suggest that neighbourhoods cannot be designed into being. "Community"

12765-412: The traffic performance in a 700-acre (2.8 km ; 280 ha) development that was laid out using two approaches, one with and the other without hierarchy or cul-de-sac streets. It concluded that the non-hierarchical, traditional layout generally shows lower peak speed and shorter, more frequent intersection delays than the hierarchical pattern. The traditional pattern is not as conducive to long trips as

12880-481: The use of looped local roads which do not abruptly stop. Although dead end streets would fit his definition of looped local roads, Alexander suggestions that "cul-de-sacs [sic] are very bad from a social standpoint—they force interaction and they feel claustrophobic, because there is only one entrance". Doxiadis has additionally argued their important role in separating man from machine. Originally-unplanned dead ends have been added in city centers that are laid out on

12995-711: Was built, cycling rates have remained steady or increased. Occasionally, extreme measures against cycling may occur. In Shanghai, where bicycles were once the dominant mode of transport , bicycle travel on a few city roads was banned temporarily in December 2003. In areas in which cycling is popular and encouraged, cycle-parking facilities using bicycle stands , lockable mini-garages, and patrolled cycle parks are used to reduce theft. Local governments promote cycling by permitting bicycles to be carried on public transport or by providing external attachment devices on public transport vehicles. Conversely, an absence of secure cycle-parking

13110-626: Was in the United Kingdom that the cul-de-sac street type was first legislated into use, with the Hampstead Garden Suburb Act 1906. The proponents of the Act, Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker, thus gained permission to introduce cul-de-sacs in their subsequent site plans, and they promoted it as a suitable street type for garden suburbs. Unwin's applications of the cul-de-sac and the related crescent always included pedestrian paths independent of

13225-819: Was reconfirmed by a newer study that repeated Appleyard's San Francisco analysis in Bristol, UK. It showed that the cul-de-sac street with the lowest traffic of the three streets had the highest level of social interaction. The studies recommend the use of the cul-de-sac or strong traffic calming measures. When cul-de-sacs are interconnected with foot and bike paths, as for example in Vauban, Freiburg and Village Homes in Davis, California , they can increase active modes of mobility among their residents. Real estate developers prefer cul-de-sacs because they allow builders to fit more houses into oddly-shaped tracts of land and facilitate building to

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