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124-457: Originally, Stung Treng was named "Tonle Ropov (Khmer: ទន្លេរពៅ), which is now an area in Stung Treng called "Tonle Ropov Area" (Khmer: តំបន់ទន្លេរពៅ). The name “Satung Teng (Khmer: សាទឹងទែង)" was founded by a monk named "Seang Peng (Khmer: សៀង ប៉េង) from Vientiane. The words “Satung Teng" have changed to "Xiang Taeng (Khmer: សៀងទែង). In Lao, the word "Xiang" means "goddess" who has resigned, while

248-637: A Cakravartin whereas the inscription from Pak Mun in Ubon/Thailand informs us that the name of the father of Vīravarman was called Sārvabhauma. All these inscriptions refer to a large territory ruled by these kings. It is recorded in the inscription from Robaṅ Romãs at Īśānapura (the archaeological site of Sambor Prei Kuk ) that a certain Narasiṃhagupta, who was vassal ( samāntanṛpa ) of the successive kings Bhavavarman, Mahendravarman (the ruling name of Citrasena) and Īśānavarman erected on 13 April 598 during

372-525: A Cham army in 790, then moved to north of the Tonle Sap, established the city of Hariharalaya, 15 kilometers south of Angkor. Individually, historians reject a classical decline scenario, arguing there was no Chenla to begin with, rather a geographic region had been subject to prolonged periods of contested rule, with turbulent successions and an obvious incapability to establish a lasting centre of gravity. Historiography ends this era of nameless upheaval only in

496-460: A Hindu God or Buddha as the central focus of the building. Sandstone was the prominent material utilized for more important temples and was derived from the Kulen Mountains. Because of its heavy weight, it required a lot of manpower, which usually involved slaves. Cremation burials lined with bricks were also discovered. These structures are supposed to be devoted to the veneration of members of

620-446: A certain king Candravarman, known from the undated inscription K. 1142 of unknown origin who hailed from the family of Īśānavarman. The son of Candravarman was the famous king Jayavarman I whose earliest inscriptions are from Tûol Kôk Práḥ, province Prei Vêṅ (K. 493) and from Bàsêt, province Bằttaṃbaṅ (K. 447), both dated 14 June 657. Some 19 or 20 inscriptions dating from his reign have been found in an area extending from Vat Phu'u in

744-515: A diverse community in Chenla. According to the Indian historian Himanchu Prabha Ray, Buddhism was an effective motivating factor in the expansion of maritime trading networks from India to eastern lands while Brahmanic Hinduism revolved more around an agrarian economy. Despite Hinduism and Buddhism apparently playing an important role in royal cults, textual evidence suggests they were only widely practiced by

868-467: A grandiose consecration ritual on the sacred Mount Mahendraparvata, now known as Phnom Kulen . At the ritual, which was taken from the Hindu tradition, Jayavarman II proclaimed himself as chakravartin (from Sanskrit, commonly translated as "universal ruler"; Old Khmer: Kamraten jagad ta Raja ) and devaraja (from Sanskrit, lit.   ' god king ' ). He also declared Kambuja's independence from

992-457: A hierarchy reflecting the Hindu caste system , where the commoners   – rice farmers and fishermen – formed the large majority of the population. The kshatriyas   – royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers, and warriors   – formed a governing elite and authorities. Other social classes included brahmins (priests), traders, artisans such as carpenters and stonemasons, potters, metalworkers , goldsmiths , and textile weavers, while on

1116-567: A king's rule. The cult enabled the Khmer kings to embark on massive architectural projects, constructing majestic monuments such as Angkor Wat and the Bayon to celebrate the king's divine rule on earth. The King was surrounded by ministers, state officials, nobles, royalties, palace women, and servants, all protected by guards and troops. The capital city of Angkor and the Khmer royal court are famous for grand ceremonies, with many festivals and rituals held in

1240-595: A large following; however, as rulers gained more power moving away from the commoners horizon, a shift from measure of capability towards patrilineal descent occurred. Adoption of the idea of the Hindu state with its consecrated military leader, the "Varman"—protector king was the ideological basis for control and supremacy. All essential elements of Bhavavarman's life and most of his descendants are known only through epigraphy. Interpreted as to be Vīravarman's successor and after gaining independence ("he has conquered his throne at

1364-885: A later variant form Zhanla (占臘); according to author Peter Harris: "It very likely means 'Defeated Chams ' since Zhan is the word in Chinese for Cham." He also noted the explanation given in Mingshi : "During the qingyuan reign period (1195–1200) of the Song dynasty, Cambodia wiped out Champa and took over its land. Because of this, the country changed its name to Zhanla. But during the Yuan dynasty it went on being called Zhenla." Chen La may have been known through several other names such as Wen Dan (文單 reconstructed as Muntal , maybe mandala ) or according to Tatsuo Hoshino Po-Lou, Wen Dan being its capital. Following Hindu god king ( devaraja ) tradition

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1488-457: A loss of royal authority and thereby to a lack of workers. The water-management apparatus also degenerated, meaning that harvests were reduced by floods or drought. While previously three rice harvests per year were possible   – a substantial contribution to the prosperity and power of Kambuja   – the declining harvests further weakened the empire. Looking at the archaeological record, however, archaeologists noticed that not only were

1612-426: A means to increase their power, in reality, these structures might have been taking away valuable land and citizens from the empire; the taxes collected by the temples could have meant more wealth for the leader. However, these structures may also be factor that stabilized the kingdom and allowed the king to expand and attract more civilians who followed Hindu beliefs as Hinduism served as a reason for people to follow

1736-661: A patriarchal society, thus some aspects of the earlier society were retained. Many commoners were assigned to serve as workers that cleaned, cooked, and built temples and shrines without any compensation. From analyzing ancient inscriptions, Judith Jacob has discovered that there were fourteen categories of slaves in Chenla distinguished by different origins and kinds of duties. These groups of people could be bought, sold, and given away, having no freedom to escape because their parents were in need of money or they had to pay off debts that they contracted or were passed on in their family. The wealth of Chenla and its surrounding territories

1860-474: A period of strong monsoon rains was followed by a severe drought in the region, which caused damage to the empire's hydraulic infrastructure. Variability between droughts and flooding was also a problem, which may have caused residents to migrate southward and away from the empire's major cities. The site of Angkor is perhaps the empire's most notable legacy, as it was the capital during the empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor Wat and

1984-571: A place inscriptions call "Java". Historians debate whether "Java" means the Indonesian island of Java , Champa or a different location. According to an older established interpretation, Jayavarman II was a prince who lived at the court of Sailendra in Java and brought back to Cambodia the art and culture of the Javanese Sailendran court (such as the concept of a devaraja ). This classical theory

2108-562: A process of Indianization to consolidate and magnify their rule. A sculpture called Harihara, a combined form of Vishnu and Shiva, is also frequently depicted in religious establishments. This could portray a Chenla belief that there is an equal balance between creation and destruction in the universe and that when one substance is terminated, another is produced to replace it. Other Hindu gods Brahma and Indra along with deities such as Krishna Govardhana, Lakshmi, etc. were also worshipped. An epigraph from Siem Reap Province testified that during

2232-406: A ruler Vīravarman , who as his name suggests (his father's name was Sārvabhauma) had adopted the idea of divine kingship and deployed the concept of Harihara , a Hindu "god that embodied multiple conceptions of power". His successors continued this tradition, thus conveying the idea of a correlation between political and religious authority. The New Book of Tang asserts that shortly after 706,

2356-516: A second moved to Phnom Penh to establish a parallel kingdom. The final fall of Angkor would then be due to the transfer of economic   – and therewith political   – significance, as Phnom Penh became an important trade center on the Mekong . Severe droughts and ensuing floods were considered one of the contributing factors to its fall. The empire focused more on regional trade after the first drought. Ecological failure and infrastructural breakdown

2480-621: A severe epidemic outbreak may have hit the heavily populated Angkor and contributed to the fall of the empire, has been reconsidered. By the 14th century, the Black Death had affected Asia, as the plague first appeared in China around 1330 and reached Europe around 1345. Most seaports along the line of travel from China to Europe felt the impact of the disease, which might have had a severe impact on life throughout Southeast Asia. Possible diseases include bubonic plague , smallpox , and malaria . There

2604-447: A temple was constructed on its summit. Vat Phou is an enormously impressive Khmer Hindu temple located at the base of Mount Phu Kao in Laos, which leads theorists to speculate that Phu Kao is the mountain that is referenced in the passage and that Wat Phou could be the temple mentioned; however this view is not accepted by modern scholarship. Authors Claude Jacques and Michael Vickery question

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2728-482: A tribe, a nation or a people is at odds with the Cambodian legends of origin. Folklore follows an unflinching narrative like that of a single ruler such as King Devanika - the reconsecrated maharajadhiraja (king of kings) of Mount Phu Kao where "the people that lived in the region along with the people who came with Devanika, became the forerunners of the prosperous Khmer people". The Tang histories mentioned that after

2852-431: A troupe. Even in broad daylight, the candles are lighted. Then come other palace women, bearing royal paraphernalia made of gold and silver... Then come the palace women carrying lances and shields, with the king's private guards. Carts drawn by goats and horses, all in gold, come next. Ministers and princes are mounted on elephants, and in front of them one can see, from afar, their innumerable red umbrellas. After them come

2976-491: A warrior he was less successful. In 1220, under mounting pressure from the increasingly powerful Đại Việt and its ally Champa, the Khmer withdrew from many of the provinces previously conquered from the Chams. Indravarman II was succeeded by Jayavarman VIII (reigned 1243–1295). In contrast to his predecessors, Jayavarman VIII was a follower of Hindu Shaivism and an aggressive opponent of Buddhism, destroying many Buddha statues in

3100-543: Is an alternative theory regarding the end of Kambuja. Scientists working on the Greater Angkor Project believe that the Khmers had an elaborate system of reservoirs and canals used for trade, transportation, and irrigation. The canals were used for harvesting rice. As the population grew there was more strain on the water system. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, there were also severe climatic changes impacting

3224-421: Is dated 1327 and describes the succession of Indrajayavarman by Jayavarmadiparamesvara. Historians suspect a connection with the kings' adoption of Theravada Buddhism: the kings were no longer considered devarajas (god kings) and there was therefore no need to erect huge temples to them, or rather to the gods under whose protection they stood. The retreat from the concept of the devaraja may also have led to

3348-481: Is doubtful. Land Zhēnlà sent an embassy to China in 717, aided Mai Thúc Loan 's rebellion against the Chinese (722–723). Another embassy visiting China in 750 came probably from Water Zhēnlà. According to the Chinese Annals a son of the king of Wèndān had visited Chinas in 753 and joined a Chinese army during a campaign against Nanzhao ( Chinese : 南詔 ; pinyin : Nánzhāo ) in the following year. After

3472-424: Is evidence for a further period of use of Angkor after the 15th century. Under the rule of Khmer king Barom Reachea I (reigned 1566–1576), who temporarily succeeded in driving back Ayutthaya, the royal court was briefly returned to Angkor. Inscriptions from the 17th century testify to Japanese settlements alongside those of the remaining Khmer. The best-known inscription tells of Ukondayu Kazufusa , who celebrated

3596-747: Is identical with Jayavarman II, the founding father of the Angkorian kingdom, as Vickery has pointed out: "Not only was Jayavarman II from the South; more than any other known king, he had particularly close links with Vyādhapura. This place is recorded in only one pre-Angkor inscription, K. 109/655 [exactly: 10th February 656], but in 16 Angkor-period texts, the last dated 1069 [K. 449 from Pàlhàl, dated Sunday, 3rd May 1069] ... Two of them, K. 425/968 and K. 449/1069, are explicit records of Jayavarman II taking people from Vyādhapura to settle in Battambang ." According to

3720-584: Is muggy and partly cloudy, and it is hot year-round. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 20 °C (67 °F) to 38 °C (100 °F) and is rarely below 16 °C (61 °F) or above 40 °C (105 °F). On average, much rain (rainy season) falls in May, June, July, August, and September—the wettest season, with precipitation of 304.3 mm—and October. Stung Treng has dry periods in January, February and December—with January being

3844-466: Is similar in sound to the Cambodian town Siem Reap whose name is often taken to mean "Flattened Siam". However, it has been pointed out that this derivation is problematic as conflicts between Siam and Cambodia occurred centuries after the name was first used. Therefore, although the names Chenla and Siem Reap could perhaps be related, Michael Vickery argued that the original meanings of both names are unknown. Similar explanation however may apply to

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3968-470: Is some indication that, before or after the war, Suryavarman I gifted a chariot to Rajendra I to possibly facilitate trade or an alliance. Suryavarman I's wife was Viralakshmi , and following his death in 1050, he was succeeded by Udayadityavarman II , who built the Baphuon and West Baray . In 1074, conflict arose between Harshavarman III , the younger brother and successor of Udayadityavarman II, and

4092-550: Is that of his first embassy to the court of Suí China in 616–17. This king is also known from his own inscriptions, one incised at Īśānapura, dated 13 September 627 AD (K. 604), the other one at Khău Nôy (Thailand), dated 7 May 637 (K. 506). After Īśānavarman, who ceased to reign around 637, the inscriptions tell us of a king named Bhavavarman (II). The only dated inscriptions we have from him, are that of Tà Kev (K. 79), dated 5 January 644 and of Poñā Hòr south of Tà Kev (K. 21). dated Wednesday, 25 March 655. Then seemingly follows

4216-562: Is the Chinese designation for the vessel of the kingdom of Funan preceding the Khmer Empire that existed from around the late 6th to the early 9th century in Indochina . The name was still used in the 13th century by the Chinese envoy Zhou Daguan , author of The Customs of Cambodia . It appears on the Mao Kun map . However, modern historiography applies the name exclusively to the period from

4340-696: Is the founder of a new capital - Isanapura north of the Tonlé Sap (the archaeological site of Sambor Prei Kuk ). His son Bhavavarman II - is mentioned only once in an inscription in the year 644. Jayavarman I is the last ruler of a united Chenla. He is the son and successor of the obscure Candravarman. During the reign of the Funan empire, residents were still burying their dead with grave goods , but also practicing cremation , according to archaeological finds. Both Hinduism and Buddhism arrived in Southeast Asia through

4464-510: The Bayon , bear testimony to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture, architectural technique, aesthetic achievements, and variety of belief systems that it patronized over time. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak in the 11th to the 13th centuries, was the most extensive pre-industrial urban complex in the world. Modern scholars often refer to

4588-447: The Bayon , describe everyday life in the ancient Khmer kingdom, including scenes of palace life, naval battles on the river and lakes, and common scenes of the marketplace. The ancient Khmers were a traditional agricultural community, relying heavily on rice farming . The farmers, who formed the majority of the kingdom's population, planted rice near the banks of the lake or river, in the irrigated plains surrounding their villages, or in

4712-471: The Champa king Harivarman IV . The Greater Angkor Region was had a population of approximately 700,000 to 900,000 at its peak in the 13th century CE. This population, which made Angkor one of the most populous cities of the medieval world. The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Under Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–1150) the empire united internally and Angkor Wat , dedicated to

4836-595: The Khmer Empire was established in the early 9th century. By the close of the century, the Chenla region was dotted with temples and shrines to the Hindu Gods. Many commoners were involved in the upkeep of these religious complexes and citizens of Chenla were expected to donate land, goods, and slaves to them. The great temple foundations consisted of their own holdings of land and people, functioning as powerful corporations; even minor temples had establishments and collected taxes. While kings had established these temples as

4960-673: The Khmer New Year in Angkor in 1632. However, in the following decades the Japanese community was absorbed into the local Khmer community, owing to a lack of new Japanese arrivals and thus little possibility of renewing their community. Much of what is known about Kambuja comes from the bas-reliefs of Angkor's temples and the first-hand accounts of Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan ( The Customs of Cambodia ), which provide information on 13th-century Cambodia and earlier. The bas-reliefs, such as those in

5084-602: The Brahmin caste since the burials had been carried out according to Hindu practice. Social status was determined based on one's knowledge of language, primarily Khmer or Sanskrit. Sanskrit was the language of the Gods, thus it was considered more valuable; the division between who worked the fields and who completed more worthy tasks was based on how well they knew Sanskrit. People who succeeded in educating themselves earned higher ranks such as being an official or even royal servant. However

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5208-407: The Chenla elite. Farmers outside the urban centres generally had Khmer names rather than Sanskrit names, and paid tribute to regional landowners carrying the Khmer title poñ , who constructed temples dedicated to both Hindu and local deities. Wealth and power in these outlying agricultural regions was transmitted through the female line of inheritance, indicating matrilineal succession was probably

5332-692: The Chinese Sui dynasty contains entries of a state called Chenla, a vassal of the Kingdom of Funan, which had sent an embassy to China in 616 or 617, yet under its ruler, Citrasena Mahendravarman, conquered Funan after Chenla had gained independence. Like its superior Funan, Chenla occupied a strategic position where the maritime trade routes of the Indosphere and the East Asian cultural sphere converged, resulting in prolonged socio-economic and cultural influence and

5456-412: The Chinese annals, for its reconstruction. Michael Vickery suggests that ancient authors allocated the name "Chenla" to numerous small principalities and bundled them up as one singular entity in order to classify a larger number of people under the same characteristics, omitting distinctions between individual states. This approach explains why there was a noticeable increase in stone inscriptions during

5580-513: The Chinese are misleading and meaningless because the best evidence shows that until 802 AD, there was no single, great state in the land of ancient Cambodia, but a number of smaller ones. In the view of the historian Sujit Wongthes , Land Chenla is located in Isan (northeast Thailand), while Water Chenla is situated on the Tonlé Sap area in Cambodia. The number of inscriptions declined sharply during

5704-479: The Empire as the "Khmer Empire" ( Khmer : ចក្រភពខ្មែរ ) or the "Angkorian Empire" (Khmer: ចក្រភពអង្គរ ), the latter after the capital Angkor. The Empire referred to itself as Kambuja ( Sanskrit : កម្ពុជ ; Old Khmer : កម្វុជ ; Khmer: កម្ពុជ ) or Kambujadeśa (Sanskrit: កម្ពុជទេស , lit.   'country of Kambuja'; Old Khmer: កម្វុជទេឝ ; Khmer: កម្ពុជទេស ), names which were pre-modern predecessors to

5828-666: The Funan trade networks. A few surviving inscriptions with verses in Sanskrit and some small statuary and other relics are physical indications of both Buddhist and Hindu belief systems present in Funan culture. The transition from Funan to Chenla is not clearly understood, but by the 6th century CE, the Kingdom of Chenla was established, with Chinese sources suggesting a people speaking the Khmer language conquered Funan and founded Chenla. Archaeological evidence indicates Sambor Prei Kuk ( Isanapura )

5952-527: The Kambujas, with the celestial nymph Mera, who was given to him by Siva." The king Srutavarman was born of this couple, who was followed by his son, king Sreshthavarman. This king gave his name to Sreshthapura - believed to be Vat Phou. At the end of the sixth century, Bhavavarman and Chitrasena (royal title: Mahendravarman ) attacked Funan together and subdued it around 627–649. The obvious fact that Funan and Chenla are "vague concepts" that do not apply to

6076-592: The Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802, when Khmer prince Jayavarman II declared himself chakravartin ( lit.   ' universal ruler ' , a title equivalent to 'emperor') in the Phnom Kulen mountains. Although the end of the Khmer Empire has traditionally been marked with the fall of Angkor to the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1431, the reasons for the empire's collapse are still debated amongst scholars. Researchers have determined that

6200-557: The Lower Chao Phraya basin (Ayutthaya-Suphanburi-Lopburi). From the fourteenth century onward, Ayutthaya became Kambuja's rival. Angkor was besieged by the Ayutthayan king Uthong in 1352, and following its capture the next year, the Khmer king was replaced with successive Siamese princes. Then in 1357, the Khmer king Suryavamsa Rajadhiraja retook the throne. In 1393, the Ayutthayan king Ramesuan besieged Angkor again, capturing it

6324-468: The Wèndān embassy in the year 771 the heir-apparent Pómí ( Chinese : 婆彌 ) came to the imperial court and, on 13 December 771, he received there the title "Kaifu Yitong Sansi" ( Chinese : 開府儀同三司 ; pinyin : Kāifǔ Yítóng Sānsī ), one of the highest honorific titles. In 799 an envoy from Wèndān called Lītóují ( Chinese : 李頭及 ) received a Chinese title, too. As rulers of Śambhupura are attested by

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6448-637: The adoption of the epigraphic system of the south Indian Pallava dynasty and Chalukya dynasty . The origins of Chenla's aristocracy , whom author Michael Vickery called the "Dângrêk Chieftains", are obscure. These were local principalities north and south of the Dângrêk Mountains , who left behind the oldest known stone epigraphs in the region, bearing genealogical records that suggest increasing political dominance. The first known princes are mentioned in some early inscriptions. The Sanskrit inscription of Vãl Kantél, Stung Treng province names

6572-465: The capital was raided and looted in a naval battle on the Tonlé Sap lake by a Cham fleet under Jaya Indravarman IV , and Khmer king Tribhuvanadityavarman was killed. King Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181–1219) was generally considered Cambodia's greatest king. He had already been a military leader as a prince under the previous kings. After Champa had conquered Angkor, he gathered an army and retook

6696-467: The capital. He consequently ascended to the throne and continued to wage war against Champa for another 22 years, until the Khmer defeated the Chams in 1203 and conquered large parts of their territory. According to Chinese sources, Jayavarman VII added Pegu to the territory of the Khmer Empire in 1195. Jayavarman VII stands as the last of the great kings of Angkor, not only because of his successful military campaign against Champa, but also because he

6820-556: The city. Even when travelling, the King and his entourages created quite a spectacle, as described in Zhou Daguan's accounts. Zhou Daguan's description of a royal procession of Indravarman III is as follows: When the king goes out, troops are at the head of [his] escort; then come flags, banners and music. Palace women, numbering from three to five hundred, wearing flowered cloth, with flowers in their hair, hold candles in their hands, and form

6944-514: The country was split into Land Chenla  [ km ] and Water Chenla  [ km ] . The names signify a northern and a southern half, which may conveniently be referred to as Upper (northern) and Lower (southern) Chenla. By the late 8th century Water Chenla had become dependent on the thalassocratic Shailendra dynasty on Java and the Srivijaya city-state on Sumatra . The last of Water Chenla's kings seems to have been killed and

7068-403: The death of Jayavarman I (his last known inscription K. 561 is dated 681/82), turmoil came upon the kingdom and at the start of the 8th century, the kingdom broke up into many principalities. The region of Angkor was ruled by his daughter, Queen Jayadevī who complained in her Western Bàrày inscription K. 904, dated Wednesday, 5 April 713, of "bad times". The Táng histories tell us that after

7192-467: The decline of Kambuja. The relationship between the rulers and their elites was unstable   – among the 27 rulers of Kambuja, eleven lacked a legitimate claim to power, and violent power struggles were frequent. Kambuja focused more on its domestic economy and did not take advantage of the international maritime trade network. The input of Buddhist ideas also conflicted with and disturbed the state order built under Hinduism. The last Sanskrit inscription

7316-519: The driest month. The warmest month is April with an average temperature of 35 °C (95 °F). The coldest month is January with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F). Stung Treng's economy is solely based on agriculture. Various plantations such as timber, rubber and cash nuts are built all over the province. 85% of the population lives in rural parts of the province and depend on agriculture for their source of income. Animal breeding, fishing and silk weaving are also important industries in

7440-523: The eighth century. However, some theorists, who have examined the Chinese transcripts, claim that Chenla started falling during the 700s as a result of both internal divisions and external attacks by the Shailendra dynasty of Java , who eventually took over and joined under the Angkor kingdom of Jayavarman II . According to the Sdok Kak Thom inscription (1053), Jayavarman II and his son Indrayudha defeated

7564-555: The empire and converting Buddhist temples to Hindu temples. Kambuja was threatened externally in 1283 by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty . Jayavarman VIII avoided war with general Sogetu (sometimes known as Sagatu or Sodu), the governor of Guangzhou, China , by paying annual tribute to the Mongols, starting in 1285. Jayavarman VIII's rule ended in 1295 when he was deposed by his son-in-law Srindravarman (reigned 1295–1309). The new king

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7688-473: The end of the shénlóng (神龍) era (after 6 February 707) Zhēnlà came to be divided in two realms, Lùzhēnlà (陸真臘) ("Land Zhēnlà", also called Wèndān (文單) or Pólòu (婆鏤)) and Shuīzhēnlà (水真臘) ("Water Zhēnlà") and returned to the anarchic state that had existed before it was unified under the kings of Funan and the first kings of Zhēnlà. Kings like Śrutavarman and Śreṣṭhavarman or Puṣkarākṣa are only attested very much later in Angkorian inscriptions; their historicity

7812-426: The end of the reign of shénlóng ( 神龍 ) (i.e. after 6 February 707) Zhēnlà came to be divided in two realms, Lùzhēnlà ( 陸真臘 ) (" Land Chenla  [ km ] ", also called Wèndān (文單) or Pólòu (婆鏤)) and Shuīzhēnlà ( 水真臘 ) (" Water Chenla  [ km ] ") returned to the anarchic state that had existed before it was unified under the kings of Funan and the first kings of Chenla. On the other hand, Water Chenla

7936-436: The exact geographic origin, the extent, dynamic and chronology of territorial expansion and in particular, the religious and political center of Chenla and whether or not it consisted of a unified people under a single leader. Late 20th century scholars "began cautiously to move away from the established historiographical framework" which had been laid out mainly by George Cœdès , who relies on external sources, specifically

8060-446: The farmers' houses, which were elevated on stilts to protect them from flooding. The marketplace of Angkor contained no permanent buildings; it was an open square where the traders sat on the ground on woven straw mats and sold their wares. There were no tables or chairs. Some traders might be protected from the sun with a simple thatched parasol. A certain type of tax or rent was levied by officials for each space occupied by traders in

8184-487: The first nor the last Chinese representative to visit Kambuja. His stay is notable, however, because Zhou later wrote a detailed report on life in Angkor. His portrayal of the empire is today one of the most important sources of understanding historical Angkor. Alongside the descriptions within several great temples (the Bayon, the Baphuon, Angkor Wat), his account informs us that the towers of the Bayon were once covered in gold ;

8308-503: The former kingdom of Chenla , he quickly built up his influence and defeated a series of competing kings. In 790 he became king of an empire called Kambuja by the Khmer. He then moved his court northwest to Mahendraparvata , far inland north from the great lake of Tonlé Sap . Jayavarman II (reigned 802–835) is widely regarded as the king who set the foundations of the Angkor period. Historians generally agree that this period of Cambodian history began in 802, when Jayavarman II conducted

8432-599: The god Vishnu , was built over a period of 37 years. In the east, Suryavarman II's campaigns against Champa and Dai Viet were unsuccessful, though he sacked Vijaya in 1145 and deposed Jaya Indravarman III. The Khmers occupied Vijaya until 1149, when they were driven out by Jaya Harivarman I . In 1114, Suryavarman II sent a mission to Chola and presented a precious stone to the Chola emperor Kulottunga I . Another period followed in which kings reigned briefly and were violently overthrown by their successors. Finally, in 1177

8556-525: The hills when the lowlands were flooded. The rice paddies were irrigated by a massive and complex hydraulics system, including networks of canals and barays , or giant water reservoirs. This system enabled the formation of large-scale rice farming communities surrounding Khmer cities. Sugar palm trees, fruit trees, and vegetables were grown in the orchards by the villages, providing other sources of agricultural produce such as palm sugar , palm wine , coconut, various tropical fruits, and vegetables. Located by

8680-502: The identification of Phu Kao as Lingjiabopo /Lingaparvata because there are a number of hills in Cambodia that apply to the vague descriptions. Thus, the debate remains and the existence of Chenla as a unitary state or a capital at Vat Phou is questionable. Since there is not much evidence or writings from the time period, not much can be said about the region. The Chinese annals are one of the very few sources scholars can analyze and derive information from. The people of Chenla, whose base

8804-429: The inscription K. 124, dated 803/04 a king Indraloka and three successive queens, Nṛpatendradevī , Jayendrabhā and Jyeṣṭhāryā . Two inscriptions refer to a ruler named Jayavarman: the first one, K. 103, hails from Práḥ Thãt Práḥ Srĕi south of Kompoṅ Čàṃ, dated 20 April 770, the second one from Lobŏ'k Srót in the vicinity of Kračèḥ near Śambhupura (K. 134), dated 781. Cœdès called him Jayavarman Ibis, but probably he

8928-510: The inscription from Čăn Năk'ôn in Basăk/Laos (K. 363) Vīravarman was the father of Citrasena (royal title Mahendravarman ) who was the younger brother of Bhavavarman . Obviously both princes had the same mother, but different fathers, which was corroborated by the Si Tep inscription (in present-day Thailand ) giving the information that Bhavavarman was the son of a Prathivīndravarman and grandson of

9052-524: The king chose the Sanskrit name of a patron deity or an avatar , followed by the suffix –varman, meaning 'protected by', obeying the code of conduct Manusmṛti , the Laws of Manu for the Kshatriya warrior caste. Most of the Chinese recordings on Chenla, including that of Chenla conquering Funan have been contested since the 1970s as they are generally based on single remarks in the Chinese annals. The History of

9176-399: The king's rule. Also, incorporation of these establishments could appeal to foreigners who would bring their trade, business, and goods to the area, making it more economically efficient. The design of the temples and shrines was greatly influenced by the prosperous Gupta state of northern and central India. The temple complexes were brick and stone based with a protruding statue representing

9300-417: The kingdom of Champa to the east (in what is now central Vietnam ). The son of Rajendravarman II, Jayavarman V , reigned from 968 to 1001, after establishing himself as the new king over the other princes. His rule was a largely peaceful period, marked by prosperity and a cultural flowering. He established a new capital slightly west of his father's and named it Jayendranagari; its state temple, Ta Keo ,

9424-461: The kingdom without wars and initiated extensive building projects, which were enabled by the wealth gained through trade and agriculture. Foremost were the temple of Preah Ko and irrigation works. Indravarman I developed Hariharalaya further by constructing Bakong circa 881. Bakong in particular bears striking similarities to the Borobudur temple in Java, which suggests that it may have served as

9548-650: The kingdom. But by the time of early 7th century, Cambodian society was in an economic shift from trading orientation to more an agrarian focusing. Trading centers near the coast of Funan period were collapsing, while inland agrarian centers emerged. In the remains of the main port, Oc Eo, (now in Vietnam) materials from Rome, Greece and Persia have been found, as well as artifacts from India and neighboring states. Indian influences might have been so alluring because Indian merchants who traded with early Cambodians had wealth and were prosperous, qualities to strive for, therefore there

9672-473: The late 6th to the early 9th century. This period of Cambodian history is known by historians as the Pre-Angkor period . It is doubted whether Chenla ever existed as a unitary kingdom, or if this is a misconception by Chinese chroniclers. Most modern historians assert that "Chenla" was in fact just a series of loose and temporary confederations of principalities in the pre-Angkor period. "Chenla" or "Zhenla"

9796-456: The late 8th century, it was evidently that Buddhists in Cambodia worshipped bodhisattvas. Also originating from India, Buddhism, although not as preeminent as Hinduism, peacefully coexisted with Hinduism in Chenla; two schools of Buddhism were identified from a sculpture found that depicted twelve images of Buddha. This shows that the kings did not seem to enforce their religious views on their people and that influences of all kinds were creating

9920-503: The linga) in Champasak Province , Laos once belonging to the Khmer civilization. The local Vat Phou stele mentions the name of King Devanika (Fan Chen-ch'eng), king of kings - yet researchers do not relate the monarch to the "Dangrek Chieftains" . Contrary to the academic conclusions, Cambodian legend tells that "the origin of the kings of Cambodia goes back to the union of the hermit Kambu Svayambhuva , an eponymic ancestor of

10044-446: The local goddesses and gods and their ancestors in their own villages, while acknowledging the public Hindu and Buddhist cults, such as with occasional sacrifices and attending public ceremonies in Hindu temples in the cities. It's also possible that some local deities were absorbed into the Hindu pantheon . The Chenla kings maintained a liberal religious policy, allowing their subjects to practice their traditional local religions, until

10168-417: The lowest social level were slaves . The extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could support a large population. The state religion was Hinduism but influenced by the cult of Devaraja , elevating the Khmer kings as possessing the divine quality of living gods on earth, attributed to the incarnation of Vishnu or Shiva . In politics, this status was viewed as the divine justification of

10292-473: The majority of residents who lacked the ability to gain Sanskrit names spent their lives producing a surplus for the benefit of temples and ancestral Gods. This depicts the impact Hinduism had on early Cambodian societies. Sanskrit, the language associated with Hinduism, was considered more valuable than the native Khmer language. This may show that the society before Indianization occurred in early South East Asia

10416-565: The marketplace. The trade and economy in the Angkor marketplace were mainly run by women. Zhou Daguan's description of the women of Angkor: The local people who know how to trade are all women. So when a Chinese man goes to this country, the first thing he must do is take in a woman, partly with a view of profiting from her trading abilities. The women age very quickly, no doubt because they marry and give birth when they are too young. When they are twenty or thirty-years-old, they look like Chinese women who are forty or fifty. The role of women in

10540-428: The massive Tonlé Sap lake, and also near numerous rivers and ponds, many Khmer people relied on fresh water fisheries for their living. Fishing gave the population their main source of protein, which was turned into prahok   – dried or roasted or steamed fish paste wrapped in banana leaves. Rice was the main staple along with fish. Other sources of protein included pigs, cattle, and poultry, which were kept under

10664-572: The modern Kampuchea . No written records of the Angkor period have survived other than stone inscriptions. Current knowledge of the historical Khmer civilization is derived primarily from: According to an inscription in the Sdok Kok Thom temple , around 781 the Khmer prince Jayavarman II established Indrapura as the capital of his domain. It was located in Banteay Prey Nokor , near today's Kampong Cham . After returning to his home in

10788-434: The modern-day ruins of Banteay Prey Nokor ) in eastern Cambodia. Moreover, many early temples on Phnom Kulen show Cham (e.g. Prasat Damrei Krap) as well as Javanese influences (e.g. the primitive " temple-mountain " of Aram Rong Cen and Prasat Thmar Dap), even if their asymmetric distribution seems typically Khmer. In the following years, Jayavarman II extended his territory and established a new capital, Hariharalaya , near

10912-416: The modern-day town of Roluos . He thereby laid the foundation of Angkor, which was to arise some 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) to the northwest. Jayavarman II died in 835 and was succeeded by his son Jayavarman III . Jayavarman III died in 877 and was succeeded by Indravarman I . The successors of Jayavarman II kept extending the territory of Kambuja. Indravarman I (reigned 877–889) managed to expand

11036-530: The next year. Ramesuan's son ruled Kambuja for a short time before being assassinated. Finally, in 1431, the Khmer king Ponhea Yat abandoned Angkor as indefensible, and moved to the Phnom Penh area. The new center of the Kambuja was in the southwest, at Oudong near present-day Phnom Penh. However, there are indications that Angkor was not completely abandoned. One line of Khmer kings may have remained there, while

11160-611: The north to the Gulf of Siam in the south. According to the Xīn Táng shū the kingdom of Zhēnlà had conquered different principalities in Northwestern Cambodia after the end of the Chinese era name yǒnghuī (永徽) (i. e. after 31 January 656), which previously (in 638/39) paid tribute to China. The reign of Jayavarman I lasted about thirty years and ended perhaps after 690. It seems that after

11284-597: The north, Ratanakiri to the east, Preah Vihear to the west and Kratié and Kampong Thom to the south. Extensive forests, intersecting rivers and streams characterize it. Stung Treng includes also the western chunk of the massive Virachey National Park , accessible from Siem Pang . The province also features three big rivers—the Sekong River, the Sesan River and the Mekong—with its hundreds of small islands scattered on

11408-408: The one at Phimai, which in turn sent their goods to large cities like Angkor in return for other goods, such as pottery and foreign trade items from China. The king and his officials were in charge of irrigation management and water distribution, which consisted of an intricate series of hydraulics infrastructure, such as canals, moats, and massive reservoirs called barays . Society was arranged in

11532-413: The original norm in Southeast Asia. The local deities worshipped were usually female, and there is also evidence of ancestor worship . Although most of these local temples were built out of wood, and were thus lost, written documents make clear they were the norm in the Kingdom of Chenla. No doubt some locals converted to the new Indian religions, but the vast majority of the population probably venerated

11656-510: The polity incorporated into the Javanese monarchy around the year 790. Land Chenla maintained its integrity under Jayavarman II , who proclaimed the Khmer Empire in 802. Originally one of the regional centers of Funan with an unknown degree of sovereignty, Chenla was recognized by a foreign power as a separate political entity at the end of the sixth century, Bhavavarman I its independent ruler. Considerable scholarly discord prevails regarding

11780-518: The powerful Chola emperor Rajendra I against Tambralinga. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Chola, Tambralinga requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. This eventually led to Chola coming into conflict with Srivijaya. The war ended with a victory for Chola and Kambuja, and major losses for Srivijaya and Tambralinga. The two alliances had religious nuance, as Chola and Kambuja were Hindu Shaivite , while Tambralinga and Srivijaya were Mahayana Buddhist . There

11904-472: The prototype for Bakong. There were at the time exchanges of travellers and missions between Kambuja and the Sailendras in Java, which brought to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details. Indravarman I was followed by his son Yasovarman I (reigned 889–915), who established a new capital, Yasodharapura   – the first city of the larger Angkor area. The city's central temple

12028-626: The province to the French Protectorate of Cambodia in exchange for Champassak, leaving a small Laotian minority in Cambodia. Owing to its border location and the forested mountains in the northeast of the province, it was a hotbed of communist insurgent activity—and a target for U.S. bombs in the 1960s and 70s. The insurgency lasted from the Vietnamese infiltration in the 1950s until the late Khmer Rouge years. Stung Treng province, which covers an area of 11,092 square kilometers borders Laos to

12152-495: The province. The Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation found a mineralized belt of copper and zinc in the province in 2019, and plans to step up further exploration with a Japanese partner to extract the minerals. The exploration site is about 260 kilometres north of Phnom Penh. The province is divided into 5 districts, 1 municipality, 34 communes, and 128 villages. 2 districts Siem Bouk and Thala Barivat in west Mekong River Khmer Empire The Khmer Empire

12276-424: The reservoir of Srah Srang . An extensive network of roads was laid down connecting every town of the empire, with rest-houses built for travelers and a total of 102 hospitals established across his realm. After the death of Jayavarman VII, his son Indravarman II (reigned 1219–1243) ascended to the throne. Like his father, he was a Buddhist, and he completed a series of temples begun under his father's rule. As

12400-459: The river stretch in Stung Treng . Until February 2022, it was one of the few provinces where you could see the rare and endangered Irrawaddy dolphin in the wild near the Laos border, Borei O’Svay Sen Chey District and Anlong Cheuteal in Stung Treng. The population has likely vanished due to illegal fishing in the area. In Stung Treng, the wet season is oppressive and overcast, the dry season

12524-428: The seventh century. Multiple independent territories would produce their own recordings and written regulations, whereas in one polity only a tiny elite would be allowed access to such tasks. Before historians had begun to analyse and use epigraphic sources in great numbers, all available evidence supported the idea that the center of the Chenla principality must be located at Mount Phu Kao - Lingaparvata (the mountain of

12648-429: The structures ceasing to be built, but the Khmer's historical inscription was also lacking from the 14th to 17th centuries. With this lack of historical content, there is very limited archaeological evidence to work with. However, archaeologists have been able to determine that the sites were abandoned and then reoccupied later by different people. The Ayutthaya Kingdom arose from a confederation of three city-states on

12772-560: The text also offers valuable information on the everyday life and habits of the inhabitants of Angkor. By the 14th century, Kambuja had suffered a long, arduous, and steady decline. Historians have proposed different causes for the decline: the religious conversion from Vishnuite-Shivaite Hinduism to Theravada Buddhism that affected social and political systems, incessant internal power struggles among Khmer princes, vassal revolt, foreign invasion, plague, and ecological breakdown. For social and religious reasons, many aspects contributed to

12896-544: The throne (reigned 944–968) was the royal palace returned to Yasodharapura. He once again took up the extensive building schemes of the earlier kings and established a series of Hindu temples in the Angkor area, such as Pre Rup and the East Mebon , a temple located on an artificial island in the center of the East Baray. Several Buddhist temples and monasteries were also built. In 950, the first war took place between Kambuja and

13020-595: The throne by taking the capital Angkor. His rule was marked by repeated attempts by his opponents to overthrow him and military conflicts with neighboring kingdoms. Suryavarman I established diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India early in his rule. In the first decade of the 11th century, Kambuja came into conflict with the kingdom of Tambralinga in the Malay Peninsula . After surviving several invasions from his enemies, Suryavarman requested aid from

13144-534: The tip of his sword") ruler of the eastern portions of his father's realm, he "built a temple in 598 during his reign in [...] the center of the kingdom of Bhavapura". Mahendravarman is, according to epigraphy, also Vīravarman's son and attributed as to be the conqueror of Funan. Succession is unclear, because "this at the same time eliminates his son Bhavavarman I of the royal function" Historian Michael Vickery resolves: "Bhavavarman and...Citrasena [Mahendravarman's given name] attacked Funan" [together]. Isanavarman

13268-421: The trade and economy of Kambuja suggests that they enjoyed significant rights and freedom. Their practice of marrying early may have contributed to the high fertility rate and huge population of the kingdom. Kambuja was founded upon extensive networks of agricultural rice farming communities. A distinct settlement hierarchy is present in the region. Small villages were clustered around regional centres, such as

13392-521: The water management system. Periods of drought led to decreases in agricultural productivity, and violent floods due to monsoons damaged the infrastructure during this vulnerable time. To adapt to the growing population, trees were cut down from the Kulen hills and cleared out for more rice fields. That created rain runoff carrying sediment to the canal network. Any damage to the water system would have enormous consequences. The plague theory, which suggests

13516-542: The wives and concubines of the king, in palanquins, carriages, on horseback and on elephants. They have more than one hundred parasols, flecked with gold. Behind them comes the sovereign, standing on an elephant, holding his sacred sword in his hand. The elephant's tusks are encased in gold. Chenla Chenla or Zhenla ( Chinese : 真臘 ; pinyin : Zhēnlà ; Wade–Giles : Chen-la ; Khmer : ចេនឡា , romanized :  Chénla , Khmer pronunciation: [ceːnlaː] ; Vietnamese : Chân Lạp )

13640-547: The word “Taeng” means "built". Due to advancement in the Khmer language, it was later called "Stung Treng (Khmer: ស្ទឹងត្រែង)" which means a river of reeds. Stung Treng was first a part of the Khmer Empire , then the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang , and later the Lao kingdom of Champasak . After the Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893 , Chiang Taeng (Stung Treng) was administered by French Lower Laos from 1893 to 1904. In 1904 French Laos traded

13764-456: The year 802, when Jayavarman II established the appropriately named Khmer Empire . According to George Cœdès , Champasak was the origin of the ruling dynasty of Chenla and Vat Phou its spiritual center. Coedès and contemporary scholars refer to the historical annals of the Sui dynasty , which mention Chenla and identify its royal residence to be near a mountain named Ling-jia-bo-po or Lingaparvata,

13888-406: Was Champassak in about 550, established their capital city at Isanapura (Sambhupura) by about 600. According to Paul Pelliot , Sambhupura was the capital of Land Chenla  [ km ] ( Upper Chenla ) and Vyadhapura was the capital of Water Chenla  [ km ] ( Lower Chenla ). Traditionally leaders were chosen based on their merit in battle and their ability to attract

14012-657: Was a Hindu - Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia , centered around hydraulic cities in what is now northern Cambodia . Known as Kambuja ( Old Khmer : កម្វុជ ; Khmer : កម្ពុជ ) by its inhabitants, it grew out of the former civilization of Chenla and lasted from 802 to 1431. Historians call this period of Cambodian history the Angkor period , after the empire's most well-known capital, Angkor . The Khmer Empire ruled or vassalised most of Mainland Southeast Asia and stretched as far north as southern China . The beginning of

14136-453: Was a follower of Theravada Buddhism , a school of Buddhism that had arrived in Southeast Asia from Sri Lanka and subsequently spread through most of the region. In August 1296, the Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan arrived in Angkor and recorded, "In the recent war with the Siamese, the country was utterly devastated". He remained at the court of Srindravarman until July 1297. He was neither

14260-473: Was a major Chenla settlement and possibly the royal capital. The city was divided into three areas, each of which had a brick large sanctuary or temple, apparently centred around a lingus similar to Hindu phallic representations of Shiva . Kings of Chenla mentioned in inscriptions generally carry the name of a local Hindu deity with the affix -varman (Sanskrit for "protected by"), such as "Bhavavarman" and "Isanavarman". The kings seem to have undergone

14384-486: Was associated with the Mekong Delta and had access to the river and its benefits, but this advantage had its downfalls as it made Water Chenla more susceptible to attacks. Late in the 8th century AD, it faced war from Javanese pirates that ultimately took over the Mekong Delta and then later took over the entire Chenla Empire. However author Michael Vickery asserts that these categories of Water and Land Chenla created by

14508-481: Was built on Phnom Bakheng , a hill which rises around 60 m above the plain on which Angkor sits. The East Baray , a massive water reservoir measuring 7.1 by 1.7 kilometres (4.4 by 1.1 mi), was also created under the reign of Yasovarman I. At the beginning of the 10th century, the empire fractured. Jayavarman IV moved the capital to Lingapura (now known as Koh Ker ), some 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of Angkor. Only when Rajendravarman II ascended to

14632-594: Was criticized by modern scholars such as Claude Jacques and Michael Vickery, who noted that the Khmer used the term chvea to describe the Chams , their neighbors to the east. But in 2013 Arlo Griffiths refuted these theories and convincingly demonstrated that in almost all cases the inscriptions mention Java they refer to the island of Java in the Indonesian archipelago. Jayavarman's political career began in Vyadhapura (likely

14756-430: Was derived from wet-rice agriculture and from the mobilization of manpower rather than from subsistence farming such as in the past. Productive lands were donated to temples where slaves worked the fields and helped the temples generate revenue. The kingdom sustained an extensive irrigation system which manufactured rice surpluses that formed the bulk of their trade. International trade is believed to have been essential to

14880-452: Was little to no hesitance in adopting the religion of another culture. It was Īśānavarman I who managed to absorb the ancient territories of Funan which led the New Book of Tang compiled by Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi in 1060 to attribute the effective conquest of the country to him. The earliest known date of the reign of Īśānavarman, a date that must not have been long after his accession,

15004-621: Was not a tyrannical ruler in the manner of his immediate predecessors. He unified the empire and carried out noteworthy building projects. The new capital, now called Angkor Thom ( lit.   ' great city ' ), was built. In the center, the king (himself a follower of Mahayana Buddhism) had constructed as the state temple the Bayon, with towers bearing faces of the boddhisattva Avalokiteshvara , each several meters high, carved out of stone. Further important temples built under Jayavarman VII were Ta Prohm for his mother, Preah Khan for his father, Banteay Kdei , and Neak Pean , as well as

15128-600: Was the name given in Chinese accounts of an entity that sent tributes to Chinese emperors. The word "Chenla" or "Zhenla" and likewise Funan are unknown in the Old Khmer language. Folk etymology attempts to link Chenla (真臘) to a translation of its Chinese name as "Pure Beeswax", which was one of its regional commodities mentioned in Chinese annals. It has been suggested that the name means "Defeated Siam" as Zhenla has been reconstructed to Tsienliäp in Tang dynasty pronunciation , which

15252-487: Was to the south. At the court of Jayavarman V lived philosophers, scholars, and artists. New temples were also established; the most important of these were Banteay Srei , considered one of the most beautiful and artistic of Angkor, and Ta Keo, the first temple of Angkor built completely of sandstone . A decade of conflict followed the death of Jayavarman V. Three kings reigned simultaneously as antagonists to each other until Suryavarman I (reigned 1006–1050) ascended to

15376-471: Was unstable and that people latched onto teachings from foreigners because they had no permanent religious or social structures themselves. Although a social hierarchy existed, there was no discrimination between genders. Women were not considered second class citizens rather many women played central roles in rituals, specialized in crafts, and were given ranks as high officials. This may because until recently, families followed matrilineal heritages instead of

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