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130-534: The 50-member Stephens group left near present-day Council Bluffs, Iowa , on May 22, 1844. They departed with a larger group of Oregon -bound settlers in a train of 40 wagons. Fifty travelers left Iowa; 52 arrived in Sacramento with the Stephens party, as there were two births along the way. Elisha Stephens was elected captain of the wagon train because he had spent several years as a mountain man and beaver hunter in

260-521: A foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter , found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River . Rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan . Brannan strode through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold, shouting "Gold! Gold! Gold from

390-496: A mournful and funereal aspect, of all sizes and shapes, some supported by one pole, others having six, and with the covering stretched in all the different styles imaginable, and all scattered here and there in the greatest confusion, and you will have an Indian village. As more Native Americans were pushed into the Council Bluffs area by pressure of European-American settlement to the east, intertribal conflict increased, fueled by

520-657: A new path into California across the Sierra Nevada Mountains . Beginning in 1846 there was a large influx of Latter-day Saints into the area, although in the winter of 1847–1848 most Latter-day Saints crossed to the Nebraska side of the Missouri River. Initially, the area was called "Miller's Hollow", after Henry W. Miller , who would be the first member of the Iowa State Legislature from the area. Miller also

650-553: A portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices are Reno, Nevada ; Fresno, California ; and Las Vegas, Nevada , has been dubbed the " Nevada Triangle ", in reference to the Bermuda Triangle . Some counts put the number of crashes in the triangle at 2,000, including millionaire and record-breaking flyer Steve Fossett . Hypotheses that the crashes are related in some way to the United States Air Force 's Area 51 , or to

780-448: A powerful stream or jet of water at gold-bearing gravel beds. It is estimated that by the mid-1880s, 11 million troy ounces (340 metric tons) of gold (worth approximately US$ 16 billion in 2020 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking". A consequence of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel, silt , heavy metals , and other pollutants were washed into streams and rivers. As of 1999 , many areas still bear

910-473: A prominent community landmark. Old Town Council Bluffs was adjudged by Judge Frank Street in the 1850s to be the area between West Broadway and Glen Avenue and East Broadway and Frank Street from Harmony Street south to Pierce Street. Today the area encompasses Billy Caldwell 's settlement of Potawatomi on Indian Creek during the 1830s and Kanesville established by the Mormons as Miller's Hollow in 1848. Kanesville

1040-682: A publication of his photographs under the title Parmelian Prints of the High Sierras , commented, "The name Sierra is already a plural. To add an s is a linguistic, Californian, and mountaineering sin." The Sierra Nevada lies primarily in Central and Eastern California , with the Carson Range , a small but historically important spur, extending into Nevada. West-to-east, the Sierra Nevada's elevation increases gradually from 500 feet (150 m) in

1170-575: A shopping mall here first appeared in 1972 and construction finally began on the Mall of the Bluffs in 1985. Residential growth east of the railroad tracks towards State Orchard Road and the Council Bluffs Municipal Airport and north to U.S. Route 6 has included developments outside the Council Bluffs city limits. Huntington Avenue consists of early 20th century Craftsman homes which wind along

1300-501: A short period, and the lightning can start fires. Summer high temperatures average 42–90 °F (6–32 °C). Winters are comparatively mild, and the temperature is usually only just low enough to sustain a heavy snowpack. For example, Tuolumne Meadows , at 8,600 feet (2,600 m) elevation, has winter daily highs about 40 °F (4 °C) with daily lows about 10 °F (−12 °C). The growing season lasts 20 to 230 days, strongly dependent on elevation. The highest elevations of

1430-447: Is Mount Lyell (13,120 ft or 3,999 m). The Sierra rises to almost 14,000 feet (4,300 m) with Mount Humphreys near Bishop, California . Finally, near Lone Pine , Mount Whitney is at 14,505 feet (4,421 m), the highest point in the contiguous United States . South of Mount Whitney, the elevation of the range quickly dwindles. The crest elevation is almost 10,000 feet (3,000 m) near Lake Isabella , but south of

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1560-424: Is a good point at which to "take (a) stranger in," and it is done almost every day. Our stay at Council Bluffs was very short (two days) and I think no one was sorry to leave it. Council Bluffs (rather than Omaha) was designated by President Abraham Lincoln as the official starting point of the transcontinental railroad , which was completed in 1869. The official "Mile 0" start is at 21st Street and 9th Avenue which

1690-456: Is either protected from development or strictly managed. The mountain range is home to three National Parks  – Yosemite , Kings Canyon , and Sequoia  – and two national monuments  – Devils Postpile and Giant Sequoia . Ten national forests span much of the mountain range's remaining area. Within these national parks, monuments, and forests lie 26 wilderness areas , which together protect 15.4% of

1820-531: Is higher in the east. A list of biotic zones, and corresponding elevations, is presented below: Archaeological excavations placed Martis people of Paleo-Indians in northcentral Sierra Nevada during the period of 3,000 BCE to 500 CE. The earliest identified sustaining indigenous people in the Sierra Nevada were the Northern Paiute tribes on the east side, with the Mono tribe and Sierra Miwok tribe on

1950-503: Is located south of where Interstate 29 splits from Interstate 80, east of South Omaha , Nebraska, west of Indian Creek, and north of the South Omaha Bridge Road ( U.S. Route 275 and Iowa Highway 92 ). This neighborhood developed mostly during the 1960s for workers in nearby Omaha factories and at Offutt Air Force Base . The Interstate 80 Exit at 1-B at South 24th Street includes two large truck stops along with several motels,

2080-718: Is named for him. He and his wife, Elizabeth, treated the victims of the 1850 cholera epidemic in San Jose until they died of it in December 1850. Elizabeth's younger brother, Moses Schallenberger, settled in Santa Clara county and died in 1909. Schallenberger Elementary School in the San José Unified School District and Schallenberger Ridge just south of Donner Lake are named for him In 1846, Martin Murphy Sr. purchased

2210-675: Is now marked by a gold spike that was used for the promotion of the movie Union Pacific Council Bluffs physical connection to the Transcontinental Railroad was delayed until 1872 when the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge opened (railroad cars had to be ferried across the Missouri River from Council Bluffs to Omaha in the early days of the Transcontinental). The Chicago and North Western Transportation Company arrived in 1867. Other railroads operating in

2340-649: Is part of the American Cordillera , an almost continuous chain of mountain ranges that forms the western "backbone" of the Americas. The Sierra runs 400 mi (640 km) north-south, and its width ranges from 50 mi (80 km) to 80 mi (130 km) across east–west. Notable features include General Sherman , the largest tree in the world by volume; Lake Tahoe , the largest alpine lake in North America; Mount Whitney at 14,505 ft (4,421 m),

2470-516: Is singular) was on the Nebraska side of the river at Fort Atkinson , about 20 miles (32 km) northwest of the city of Council Bluffs. It was named by Lewis and Clark for a bluff where they met the Otoe tribe on August 2, 1804. The Iowa side of the river became an Indian Reservation in the 1830s for members of the Council of Three Fires of Chippewa , Ottawa , and Potawatomi who were forced to leave

2600-544: Is the area of Council Bluffs adjacent to Exit 5 of Interstate 80 along Madison and Bennett avenues, Valley View Drive, and the area between Iowa Highway 92 north to McPherson Avenue. Mosquito Creek flows through this area which was originally notable for the Potawatomi gristmill and now includes the usual roadside gas stations, fast food restaurants, motels, and the tracks of the Iowa Interstate Railroad . Plans for

2730-475: Is the portion of Council Bluffs from the combined Interstate 80 and Interstate 29 south to the city limits between Mosquito and Indian Creeks. The area was developed as a trolley park by the Omaha and Council Bluffs Streetcar Company after the former channel of the Missouri River was "cut-off" during an 1881 flood to become modern Lake Manawa State Park. Later development followed the establishment of U.S. Route 275 and

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2860-743: Is the source of much of the sedimentary rock in California. In the Cretaceous , a subduction zone formed at the edge of the continent. This means that an oceanic plate started to dive beneath the North American Plate . Magma, formed through the subduction of the ancient Farallon Plate , rose in plumes ( plutons ) deep underground, their combined mass forming what is called the Sierra Nevada batholith . These plutons formed at various times, from 115  Ma to 87 Ma. The earlier plutons formed in

2990-603: The Rancho Ojo del Agua de la Coche . Son Martin Murphy Jr. was the founder of the city of Sunnyvale . Sons John and Daniel struck gold in the Sierra, then made a fortune selling dry goods to local miners and Native Americans. The town they established in the Sierra foothills still bears the family name of Murphys . Helen Murphy, the youngest daughter of Martin Sr., married Charles Maria Weber ,

3120-458: The Basin and Range Province . As this andesitic volcanism began waning about five million years ago, the rivers were able to begin eroding away the 100s of meters of volcanic deposits and resume the incision that had been halted by the first period of volcanism. Some studies have argued that this recent incision is a sign of recent tectonic uplift. Other geologists claim that the elevations of many of

3250-634: The Carson River runs into Carson Sink , the Walker River into Walker Lake ; Rush , Lee Vining and Mill Creeks flow into Mono Lake ; and the Owens River into dry Owens Lake . Although none of the eastern rivers reach the sea, many of the streams from Mono Lake southwards are diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct which provides water to Southern California . The height of the mountains in

3380-537: The Central Valley to more than 14,000 feet (4,300 m) atop the highest peaks of its crest 50 to 75 miles (80 to 121 km) to the east. The east slope forms the steep Sierra Escarpment . Unlike its surroundings, the range receives a substantial amount of snowfall and precipitation due to orographic lift . The Sierra Nevada's irregular northern boundary stretches from the Susan River and Fredonyer Pass to

3510-703: The Chicago area under the Treaty of Chicago clearing the way for the city of Chicago to incorporate. The largest group of Native Americans who moved to the area were the Pottawatomi, who were led by their chief Sauganash ("one who speaks English"), the son of the British loyalist William Caldwell , who founded Canadian communities on the south side of the Detroit River , and a Pottawatomi woman. Seeking to avoid confrontation with

3640-570: The Chicago and North Western Transportation Company Railroad passenger depot at 11th Street. The downtown area developed as the economic rival of Old Town after the 1853 opening of the Pacific House Hotel by Samuel S. Bayliss and until the 1867 completion of the Chicago and Northwestern. In 1899, the Illinois Central passenger depot opened at 12th St. and West Broadway. Downtown declined as

3770-553: The Clean Water Act , because the plant's contaminated stormwater commingled with treated process wastewater and was pumped out to the storm sewer, which discharged into the Missouri River. Council Bluffs is the primary city of the Omaha-Council Bluffs Metropolitan Area . As of the 2020 census , there were 62,799 people, 25,271 households, and 15,302 families residing in the city. The population density

3900-784: The Interstate 480 bridge to downtown Omaha. Iowa Highway 192 follows North 16th St. from West Broadway to Interstate 29 . Neighborhood landmarks include the 1890s Illinois Central Railroad Missouri River bridge, Stan Bahnsen Park, the Golden Spike monument, the Narrows River Park, Big Lake Park, the site of Dodge Park Playland , the Dodge Christian Church (built with the N.P. Dodge Memorial funds and now known as Citylight West Council Bluffs), and many examples of late 19th and early 20th century residential architecture. The West End

4030-606: The Lewis and Clark Expedition with the members of the Otoe and Missouria Native American tribes. The town continued as a major outfitting point on the Missouri River for the Emigrant Trail and Pike's Peak Gold Rush , and entertained a lively steamboat trade. In 1863 an anonymous soldier on his way to fight the Dakota Uprising passed through Council Bluffs describing it as a hardscrabble town: At Council Bluffs our arrival

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4160-580: The Loess Hills with extensive wetlands and deciduous forest along the Missouri River . Excellent vistas can be had from KOIL Point at Fairmont Park, the Lincoln Monument, Kirn Park, and the Lewis and Clark Monument. Lake Manawa State Park is located at the southern edge of the city. Downtown Council Bluffs historically was the area along West Broadway and adjacent streets from Old Town west to

4290-718: The Mormon Exodus to Utah ; it is the recognized head end of the Mormon Trail . Edwin Carter , who would become a noted naturalist in Colorado , worked here from 1848 to 1859 in a dry goods store. He helped supply Mormon wagon trains. Settlers who departed west from Kanesville into the sparsely settled, unorganized parts of the Territory of Missouri traveled to the Oregon Country and

4420-590: The Nevadan orogeny , granite formed deep underground. The range started to uplift less than five million years ago, and erosion by glaciers exposed the granite and formed the light-colored mountains and cliffs that make up the range. The uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada, which are reflected by the presence of five life zones (areas with similar plant and animal communities). Uplift continues due to faulting caused by tectonic forces, creating spectacular fault block escarpments along

4550-587: The North Fork Feather River . It represents where the granitic bedrock of the Sierra Nevada dives below the southern extent of Cenozoic igneous surface rock from the Cascade Range . It is bounded on the west by California 's Central Valley , on the east by the Basin and Range Province , and on the southeast by the Mojave Desert . The southern boundary is at Tehachapi Pass . Physiographically,

4680-609: The Pacific Northwest . He also had skills as a blacksmith . He had worked at the Potawatomi Council Bluffs US Indian Subagency before resigning to go to California. Dr. John Townsend, his wife Elizabeth, and her younger brother Moses Schallenberger, were also going west. A man of vision, Townsend wanted a chance at grand adventure and opportunity in California. He would become the first licensed physician in California. The largest family group in

4810-585: The RailsWest Railroad Museum . Oakland-Fairview developed during the 1890s and features a wealth of 19th-century architecture, including the Judge Finley Burke mansion at 510 Oakland built in 1893 out of Minnesota granite . The neighborhood is also home to the Lincoln Monument. Located at the western end of Lafayette Avenue, the monument was erected in 1911 by the local chapter of the Daughters of

4940-516: The San Joaquin Valley to the rest of the state in the 1870s. This facilitated the nationwide distribution of lumber. In addition, technological advancements, such as the shay locomotive and the v-shaped log flume , made it easier to transport lumber across mountainous terrain. The tourism potential of the Sierra Nevada was recognized early in the European history of the range. Yosemite Valley

5070-561: The San Jose / Cupertino area, where Stevens Creek [sic] is named for him. In 1862, he left the area, heading to Kern County in central California. He was the first non-native settler in what is today the city of Bakersfield . A state historic plaque in that city marks the approximate site of his homestead. Stephens died in Bakersfield in 1887. He was buried in Union Cemetery. His gravesite

5200-605: The Sioux , who were natives of the Council Bluffs area, the 1,000 to 2,000 Pottawattamie initially had settled east of the Missouri River in Indian territory between Leavenworth, Kansas and St. Joseph, Missouri . When the area was bought from Ioway, Sac and Fox tribes in the Platte Purchase and part of Missouri in 1837, Sauganash and the Pottawatomi were forced to move to their assigned reservation in Council Bluffs. Sauganash's English name

5330-564: The Truckee River southward with the goal of reaching Sutter's Fort quickly and sending back help. They became the first European-Americans to set foot on the shore of Lake Tahoe on November 16 ( John C. Frémont had been the first European-American to only view it the previous February). They arrived at the fort on December 10. The rest of the party continued until reaching Truckey's (or Truckee) Lake (now Donner Lake ). Here, they left six of their eleven wagons because of difficulties getting

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5460-477: The United States started to move to California via Sonora and Walker Passes . In the winter of 1844, Lt. John C. Frémont , accompanied by Kit Carson , was the first European American to see Lake Tahoe . The Frémont party camped at 8,050 ft (2,450 m). The California Gold Rush began at Sutter's Mill , near Coloma , in the western foothills of the Sierra. On January 24, 1848, James W. Marshall,

5590-456: The endorheic basin of Tulare Lake , which rarely overflows into the San Joaquin during wet years. The eastern slope watershed of the Sierra is much narrower; its rivers flow out into the endorheic Great Basin of eastern California and western Nevada . From north to south, the Susan River flows into intermittent Honey Lake , the Truckee River flows from Lake Tahoe into Pyramid Lake ,

5720-423: The 1940s Meyer Lansky operated a greyhound racing track in Council Bluffs. Restructuring of the railroad industry caused the loss of many jobs after the mid-20th century, as did the restructuring of heavy industry. Many jobs moved offshore. By the late 20th century the city and region were suffering economic stagnation and a declining population, as they struggled to develop a new economy. Downtown urban renewal

5850-529: The 1968 First Federal Building. The 1947 State Savings Bank Building at 509 West Broadway and the seven-story 1924 Bennett Building at 405 West Broadway are both listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The 100 Block of West Broadway is a historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places and the 1892 Broadway United Methodist Church at West Broadway and 1st St. remains

5980-407: The American Revolution that, according to folklore , commemorates the spot where Abraham Lincoln decided on the location of the transcontinental railroad in 1859. The monument offers expansive views across the West End in the Missouri River Valley to Omaha , Nebraska. Nearby is the entrance to Fairview Cemetery, situated on the north side of Lafayette Avenue, which predates the establishment of

6110-496: The American River!" On August 19, 1848, the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold. On December 5, 1848, President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress . Soon, waves of immigrants from around the world, later called the "forty-niners", invaded the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode". Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships. Wherever gold

6240-442: The Broadway Viaduct, and north of 9th Ave. and the Union Pacific Transfer railyards. These neighborhoods of long, tree-shaded avenues are divided by the commercial corridor of West Broadway (U.S. Route 6), once part of the Lincoln Highway . This stretch of West Broadway has traditionally had several drive-in fast food restaurants and automobile dealerships with several grain elevators adjacent along 1st Avenue. West Broadway ends at

6370-416: The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. In the early 20th century much of the area was dubbed "Dane Town" or "Little Copenhagen" for the large number of Danish immigrants with several Croatian and Mexican families closer to the Union Pacific railyards at "Little Vienna". Neighborhood landmarks include Peterson Park, Longfellow School, and the 1899 Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific passenger depot, now

6500-517: The Council Bluffs Police" noted the "places of vice and corruption on Pierce" and Stella Long's above the Ogden House along with the "terrible den at the corner of Market and Vine" and Belle Clover's bagnio at 8th St. and West Broadway. In 2010, the Iowa Department of Natural Resources found that air in central Council Bluffs measured above the national air quality standard for lead, most likely due to lead emissions in this area by Griffin Pipe Products Company. In 2011, EPA found numerous violations of

6630-449: The Pacific Ocean at San Francisco . The northern third of the western Sierra is part of the Sacramento River watershed (including the Feather , Yuba , and American River tributaries), and the middle third is drained by the San Joaquin River (including the Mokelumne , Stanislaus , Tuolumne , and Merced River tributaries). The southern third of the range is drained by the Kings , Kaweah , Tule , and Kern rivers, which flow into

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6760-438: The Park in 1906. In the same year, Sequoia National Park was formed to protect the Giant Sequoia: all logging of the Sequoia ceased at that time. In 1903, the city of San Francisco proposed building a hydroelectric dam to flood Hetch Hetchy Valley . The city and the Sierra Club argued over the dam for 10 years, until the U.S. Congress passed the Raker Act in 1913 and allowed dam building to proceed. O'Shaughnessy Dam

6890-403: The Sierra Nevada increases gradually from north to south. Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the peaks range from 5,000 feet (1,500 m) to more than 9,000 feet (2,700 m). The crest near Lake Tahoe is roughly 9,000 feet (2,700 m) high, with several peaks approaching the height of Freel Peak (10,881 ft or 3,317 m). Farther south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park

7020-497: The Sierra Nevada is influenced by the Mediterranean climate of California. During the fall, winter and spring, precipitation in the Sierra ranges from 20 to 80 in (510 to 2,030 mm) where it occurs mostly as snow above 6,000 ft (1,800 m). Precipitation is highest on the central and northern portions of the western slope between 5,000 and 8,000 feet (1,500 and 2,400 m) elevation, due to orographic lift . Above 8,000 feet (2,400 m), precipitation diminishes on

7150-436: The Sierra Nevada started in the early 1800s, when settlers relied on hand tools and ox-teams. Before the California Gold Rush, the industry was relatively small, and most of the lumber used in the state was imported. However, as the demand for lumber to support the mining industry increased, logging became a major industry in the region. Initially, most of the lumber produced in California was used in mining. The Comstock Lode

7280-431: The Sierra have an alpine climate . The Sierra Nevada snowpack is the major source of water and a significant source of electric power generation in California. Many reservoirs were constructed in the canyons of the Sierra throughout the 20th century, Several major aqueducts serving both agriculture and urban areas distribute Sierra water throughout the state. However, the Sierra casts a rain shadow , which greatly affects

7410-424: The Sierra is a section of the Cascade–Sierra Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System physiographic division. The California Geological Survey states that "the northern Sierra boundary is marked where bedrock disappears under the Cenozoic volcanic cover of the Cascade Range." The range is drained on its western slope by the Central Valley watershed, which discharges into

7540-445: The Sierra's 63,118 km (24,370 sq mi) from logging and grazing. The United States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management currently control 52% of the land in the Sierra Nevada. Logging and grazing are generally allowed on land controlled by these agencies, under federal regulations that balance recreation and development on the land. The California Bighorn Sheep Zoological Area near Mount Williamson in

7670-424: The Sierra. The combination of river and glacier erosion exposed the uppermost portions of the plutons emplaced millions of years before, leaving only a remnant of metamorphic rock on top of some Sierra peaks. Extension of the Basin and Range continues today, leading to downdropping of crustal blocks just east of the Sierra Nevada during large earthquakes, such as the Lone Pine earthquake of 1872. The climate of

7800-425: The Tuolumne and Merced River drainage. The group may have been the first non-indigenous people to see Yosemite Valley . The Walker Party probably visited either the Tuolumne or Merced Groves of giant sequoia , becoming the first non-indigenous people to see the giant trees, but journals relating to the Walker party were destroyed in 1839, in a print shop fire in Philadelphia. Starting in 1841, emigrants from

7930-413: The Western Historic Trails Center, the Bluffs Acres manufactured home development, and The Marketplace shopping area. The Willows on the South Omaha Bridge Road is an example of mid-20th century roadside motel architecture and Bart's Motel further east at South 24th St featured prominent neon signage, was used as a location in the motion picture The Indian Runner , and has since been demolished. Manawa

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8060-444: The activities of extra-terrestrial aliens , have no evidence to support them. The Sierra Nevada is divided into a number of biotic zones , each of which is defined by its climate and supports a number of interdependent species. Life in the higher elevation zones adapted to colder weather, and to most of the precipitation falling as snow. The rain shadow of the Sierra causes the eastern slope to be warmer and drier: each life zone

8190-399: The area around Yosemite National Park and what would become Kings Canyon National Park . James S. Hutchinson , a noted mountaineer, climbed the Palisades (1904) and Mount Humphreys (1905). By 1912, the USGS published a set of maps of the Sierra Nevada, and the era of exploration was over. Logging in the Sierra Nevada has significantly impacted the landscape. The logging industry in

8320-455: The average family size was 3.03. Sierra Nevada (U.S.) The Sierra Nevada ( / s i ˌ ɛr ə n ɪ ˈ v æ d ə , - ˈ v ɑː d -/ see- ERR -ə nih- VA(H)D -ə ) is a mountain range in the Western United States , between the Central Valley of California and the Great Basin . The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California , although the Carson Range spur lies primarily in Nevada . The Sierra Nevada

8450-410: The city were the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad , Chicago Great Western Railway , Wabash Railroad , Illinois Central Railroad , and the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad as well as the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad . In 1926, the portion of Council Bluffs west of the Missouri River seceded to form Carter Lake, Iowa . Carter Lake had been cut off by a change in

8580-405: The city's primary retail center after the 1955 completion of the Broadway Viaduct, 1970s urban renewal, and the 1984 opening of the Kanesville Boulevard U.S. Route 6 bypass. Remaining buildings of note include the 1959 Council Bluffs Post Office and Federal Building at 6th Street, the 1986 "Red" Nelson Building, the 501 Main Building, the substantially altered 1909 City National Bank Building, and

8710-405: The city. The population density was 1,518.8 inhabitants per square mile (586.4/km ). There were 26,594 housing units at an average density of 649.1 inhabitants per square mile (250.6/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 90.9% White , 1.9% African American , 0.6% Native American , 0.7% Asian , 3.6% from other races , and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.5% of

8840-433: The city. The population density was 1,558.7 inhabitants per square mile (601.8/km ). There were 24,340 housing units at an average density of 651.1 inhabitants per square mile (251.4/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 94.76% White, 1.05% Black or African American, 0.45% Native American, 0.59% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 1.81% from other races, and 1.31% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.45% of

8970-405: The climate and ecology of the central Great Basin . This rain shadow is largely responsible for Nevada being the driest state in the United States. Precipitation varies substantially from year to year. It is not uncommon for some years to receive precipitation totals far above or below normal. The height of the range and the steepness of the Sierra Escarpment, particularly at the southern end of

9100-426: The common route by 85 miles (137 km) and seven days. This cutoff, later popularized in a guide book, was used heavily by miners heading to the California Gold Rush . In the Sierra Nevada they encountered snow and on November 14, 1844, the party split. Six of the party, Elizabeth Townsend, her servant Francis, Oliver Magnan, and the siblings, Ellen (or Helen), John, and Daniel Murphy, set off on horseback following

9230-466: The completion of Interstate 80 with additional growth during the 1990s. A variety of fast food restaurants, motels, big-box stores , automobile dealerships, a large truck stop and other businesses are located between Interstate 80 and Interstate 29 south to the state park. The Lake Manawa Inn hosts early examples of roadside cabin architecture. In February and March, bald eagles and red-tailed hawks can frequently be seen at Lake Manawa, particularly along

9360-489: The course of the Missouri River. By the 1930s, Council Bluffs had grown into the country's fifth largest rail center. The railroads helped the city become a center for grain storage, and massive grain elevators continue to mark the city's skyline. Other industries in the city included Blue Star Foods, Dwarfies Cereal, Frito-Lay , Georgie Porgie Cereal, Giant Manufacturing, Kimball Elevators, Mona Motor Oil, Monarch, Reliance Batteries, Woodward's Candy, and World Radio . During

9490-631: The crest and north of 37.2°N. In the Triassic and into the Jurassic , an island arc collided with the west coast of North America and raised a chain of volcanoes, in an event called the Nevadan orogeny . Nearly all subaerial Sierran Arc volcanoes have since disappeared; their remains were redeposited during the Great Valley Sequence and the subsequent Cenozoic filling of the Great Valley, which

9620-463: The eastern edge of the southern Sierra. The Sierra Nevada has played an important role in the history of California and the United States. The California gold rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855. Due to its inaccessibility, the range was not fully explored until 1912. Used in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo to describe a Pacific Coast Range ( Santa Cruz Mountains ),

9750-617: The era, his lands were bought by Leland Stanford in November, 1882. Dennis Martin died in June 1890 and was buried at the St. Denis Cemetery (Martin had built his own church) on his former property (then Stanford's). Woodside's Dennis Martin Creek is named for him. Council Bluffs, Iowa Council Bluffs is a city in and the county seat of Pottawattamie County , Iowa , United States. The population

9880-634: The founder of the city of Stockton . Dennis Martin also struck gold in the Sierra and purchased ranch properties from the grantees of Rancho Cañada de Raymundo and Rancho Corte de Madera which include much of the modern day back lands of Stanford University , including the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center , Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve , the Ladera subdivision and the Webb Ranch. After financial misfortune and land disputes typical of

10010-459: The highest peak in the range. In 1873, Mount Whitney was climbed for the first time by 3 men from Lone Pine, California, on a fishing trip. From 1892 to 1897 Theodore Solomons made the first attempt to map a route along the crest of the Sierra. Other people finished exploring and mapping the Sierra. Bolton Coit Brown explored the Kings River watershed in 1895–1899. Joseph N. LeConte mapped

10140-470: The highest point in the contiguous United States ; and Yosemite Valley sculpted by glaciers from one-hundred-million-year-old granite , containing high waterfalls . The Sierra is home to three national parks , twenty-six wilderness areas, ten national forests, and two national monuments. These areas include Yosemite , Sequoia , and Kings Canyon National Parks , as well as Devils Postpile National Monument . More than one hundred million years ago during

10270-481: The illegal whiskey trade. The US Army built Fort Croghan in 1842, to keep order and try to control liquor traffic on the Missouri River. However the fort was destroyed in a flood later in the same year. By 1846 the Pottawatomi were forced to move again to a new reservation at Osawatomie, Kansas . In 1844, the Stephens-Townsend-Murphy Party crossed the Missouri River here, on their way to blaze

10400-511: The lake, the peaks reach only a modest 8,000 feet (2,400 m). There are several notable geographical features in the Sierra Nevada: Communities in the Sierra Nevada include Paradise , South Lake Tahoe , Truckee , Grass Valley , Lee Vining , Mammoth Lakes , Sonora , Nevada City , Placerville , Pollock Pines , Portola , Auburn , Colfax and Kennedy Meadows . Much of the Sierra Nevada consists of federal lands and

10530-487: The late 1800s due to several factors. The Timber and Stone Act of 1878 allowed individuals to claim ownership of old-growth timber tracts, which were later consolidated under joint-stock companies , such as those founded by Midwestern lumber magnates. These companies had the financial resources to transport timber from remote locations and build sawmills near the tracks of the Southern Pacific railroad which connected

10660-455: The late 1800s, the logging industry moved westward due to the depletion of white pine forests in the upper Midwest. This shift was encouraged by the positive portrayal of the Sierra Nevada as a promising timber region. In 1859, Horace Greely marveled, "I never saw anything so much like good timber in the course of any seventy-five miles' travel as I saw in crossing the Sierra Nevada." The logging industry experienced significant growth in

10790-487: The miners, provoking counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out-gunned, were often slaughtered. The Gold Rush populated the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada, but even by 1860, most of the Sierra was unexplored. The state legislature authorized the California Geological Survey to officially explore the Sierra (and survey the rest of the state). Josiah Whitney was appointed to head

10920-450: The mock auctioneer, the jeweler with his pinchback jewelry of all kinds; horse and mule jockeys, gamblers, thieves, assassin—and the mischief knows what not, rather than what is—all congregated in this little 7×9 city, stuck in a great ravine, 3 miles from the Missouri River. When you understand that this is the great entrepot for emigration across the Plains, you will readily comprehend that this

11050-488: The modern rivers flowing down the range are only 100–300 meters (300–1,000 ft) lower than their ancient counterparts from 30–40 million years ago and the overall elevation and bedrock topography of the northern Sierra Nevada has changed little since at least 30–40 million years ago. About 2.5 Ma, the Earth's climate cooled, and ice ages started. Glaciers carved out characteristic U-shaped canyons throughout

11180-688: The mountains were amongst a group led by fur trapper Jedediah Smith , crossing north of the Yosemite area in May 1827, at Ebbetts Pass . In 1833, a subgroup of the Bonneville Expedition led by Joseph Reddeford Walker was sent westward to find an overland route to California . Eventually the party discovered a route along the Humboldt River across present-day Nevada , ascending the Sierra Nevada, starting near present-day Bridgeport and descending between

11310-409: The mountains. Washo and Maidu were also in this area prior to the era of European exploration and displacement. American exploration of the mountain range started in 1827. Although prior to the 1820s there were Spanish missions , pueblos (towns), presidios (forts), and ranchos along the coast of California, no Spanish explorers visited the Sierra Nevada. The first Americans to visit

11440-409: The newly conquered California Territory . They traversed the (eventual) Nebraska Territory traveling in wagon trains along the much-storied Oregon , Mormon , or California Trails into the newly expanded United States western lands. After the first large organized wagon trains left Missouri in 1841, the annual migration waves began in earnest by the spring of 1843. They built up thereafter, with

11570-515: The nineteenth century. The Mormon Battalion began its march from Kanesville to California during the Mexican–American War . The area was where plural marriage first began to be openly practiced. Orson Hyde began to publish The Frontier Guardian newspaper, and Brigham Young was named as the second president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS church). The community

11700-399: The northern Sierran valleys with volcanic deposits. These pyroclastic flows, which continued for about 10 million years, were followed by andesitic lahars which nearly completely buried the northern Sierran landscape such that only the tallest peaks emerged above a volcanic plain. This second period of volcanism appears to have been triggered by crustal extension associated with extension of

11830-666: The oldest being metasedimentary rocks from the Cambrian in the Mount Morrison region. These dark-colored hornfels , slates , marbles , and schists are found in the western foothills (notably around Coarsegold , west of the Tehachapi Pass ) and east of the Sierra Crest. The earliest granite of the Sierra started to form in the Triassic period. This granite is mostly found east of

11960-529: The opening of the Mormon Trail (1846) and peaked in the later 1860s, when news of the progress of railroads had a braking effect on the number of travelers. By the 1860s, virtually all migration wagon trains passed near the town now named Council Bluffs. The wagon train trails became less important with the advent of the first complete transcontinental railway in 1869, but while trail use diminished after that, their use continued on at lesser rates until late in

12090-575: The party was headed by Martin Murphy, Sr. His family had 23 members. As Irish Catholics , the Murphy family, along with the Martin and Sullivan families, were seeking religious, economic, and political freedoms in the West. The group included James Miller (1814–1890), an Irishman, who would marry Martin Murphy, Sr.'s third daughter and settle at Rancho San Pedro, Santa Margarita y Las Gallinas near San Rafael . The party

12220-587: The party, after crossing the pass, continued until snow made it impossible to travel with wagons on the upper Yuba River valley. They set up camp, and, on December 6, seventeen of the adult men pushed on to find help, while the women, children, and two adult men remained in camp. Most of the men in the advance party were then enticed or coerced to fight with Captain John Sutter for Mexican California Governor Manuel Micheltorena in exchange for promises of land grants. Instead of joining Sutter, Dennis Martin returned to

12350-512: The plural ( Smokies , Rockies , Cascades , etc.), since Sierra is already pluralized in its native language, some locals who live in "the Sierra" are not hesitant to admonish those who refer to the area as "the Sierras". However, there are historical and literary references that use the plural, such as the 1871 collection of Joaquin Miller poems, Songs of the Sierras . Ansel Adams , in response to

12480-408: The population. There were 22,889 households, out of which 31.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% were married couples living together, 14.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.1% were non-families. 27.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and

12610-443: The population. There were 24,793 households, of which 31.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.4% were married couples living together, 15.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 37.4% were non-families. 30.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size

12740-526: The present city and includes the Kinsman Monument and the burial place of many early settlers, including Amelia Bloomer . At the east end of Lafayette Avenue where it intersects with North Second Street stands the Ruth Anne Dodge Memorial, the "Black Angel" designed by Daniel Chester French , although the wife of Grenville Dodge is actually buried elsewhere in Council Bluffs. Madison Avenue

12870-420: The range, produces a wind phenomenon known as the "Sierra Rotor". This is a horizontal rotation of the atmosphere just east of the crest of the Sierra, set in motion as an effect of strong westerly winds. Because of the large number of airplanes that have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as downdrafts and microbursts caused by geography there,

13000-554: The scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life. It is estimated that by 1855, at least 300,000 gold-seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world. The huge numbers of newcomers brought by the Gold Rush drove Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food-gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking

13130-491: The snow melted. They quickly built a cabin (later used by the Donner Party), but soon realized that it would be very difficult for them to survive the winter. They set out after the party ahead of them on makeshift snowshoes, but after the first day, the youngest, eighteen-year-old Moses Schallenberger realized he could not press on and returned to the wagons. He survived only by trapping High Sierra foxes for food. The rest of

13260-454: The southern Sierra was established to protect the endangered Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep . Starting in 1981, hikers were unable to enter the Area from May 15 through December 15, in order to protect the sheep. As of 2010, the restriction has been lifted and access to the Area is open for the whole year. The earliest rocks in the Sierra Nevada are metamorphic roof pendants of Paleozoic age,

13390-559: The southwest shore. The South End is bordered by 12th Avenue on the north, South 16th St. and the Union Pacific Transfer railyards on the west, Interstate 80 and Interstate 29 on the south, and the South Expressway (Iowa Highway 192) on the east. This neighborhood developed during the late 19th century with the railroads, especially the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad, the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway , and

13520-425: The survey. Men of the survey, including William H. Brewer , Charles F. Hoffmann and Clarence King , explored the backcountry of what would become Yosemite National Park in 1863. In 1864, they explored the area around Kings Canyon . In 1869, John Muir started his wanderings in the Sierra Nevada range, and in 1871, King was the first to climb Mount Langley , mistakenly believing he had summited Mount Whitney ,

13650-490: The term "Sierra Nevada" was a general identification of less familiar ranges toward the interior. In 1776, Pedro Font 's map applied the name to the range currently known as the Sierra Nevada. The literal translation is "snowy mountains", from sierra "a range of mountains", 1610s, from Spanish sierra "jagged mountain range", lit. "saw", from Latin serra "a saw"; and from fem. of Spanish nevado "snowy". While many mountain ranges are unanimously referred to in

13780-554: The top of the Loess Hills past the 1925 studio of radio station KOIL ; the station is now apartments. The historic "Council Bluffs' Red-light district " was formed during the late 19th century, when at least 10 separate brothels were located on Pierce Street east of Park Avenue with another three brothels down the block on the south side of West Broadway east of Park. One 1890 newspaper article referenced in Lt. RL Miller's "Selected History of

13910-502: The upper Yuba with supplies for the women and children. Upon learning of the plight of Moses Schallenberger, twenty-three-year-old Martin set out to cross the snowbound Sierra Nevada in mid-winter (February, 1845) to rescue Schallenberger at Donner Lake. Upon reaching the lake, Martin showed Schallenberger how to construct proper snowshoes and then the two crossed the Sierra successfully to the Central Valley. Elisha Stephens settled in

14040-516: The upper midwest. De Smet produced the first European-recorded, detailed map of the Council Bluffs area; it detailed the Missouri River valley system, from below the Platte River to the Big Sioux River . De Smet wrote an early description of the Potawatomi settlement: Imagine a great number of cabins and tents, made of the bark of trees, buffalo skins, coarse cloth, rushes and sods , all of

14170-408: The wagons over the pass and carried on with the remaining five. At one point they had to unhitch the wagons and haul them up a cliff with makeshift pulleys while the oxen were led through a narrow slot. On November 25 they managed to reach the top of the pass. Three men, Joseph Foster, Allan Montgomery, and Moses Schallenberger, returned to the abandoned wagons with the intent of watching over them until

14300-424: The water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom. By 1853, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold-bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the gold fields. In hydraulic mining, a high-pressure hose directed

14430-523: The western half of the Sierra, while the later plutons formed in the eastern half of the Sierra. At this time, the Sierra Nevada formed the western ramp of a high plateau to the east, the Nevadaplano . During this period, rivers cut deep canyons into the range, generating topographic relief similar to the modern Sierra Nevada. This period of incision was halted approximately 30 million years ago by vast outpourings of pyroclastic flows from Nevada which filled

14560-500: The western side, and the Kawaiisu and Tübatulabal tribes in the southern Sierra. Today, some historic intertribal trade route trails over mountain passes are known artifact locations, such as Duck Pass with its obsidian arrowheads . The California and Sierra Native American tribes were predominantly peaceful, with occasional territorial disputes between the Paiute and Sierra Miwok tribes in

14690-501: The western slope up to the crest, since most of the precipitation has been wrung out at lower elevations. Most parts of the range east of the crest are in a rain shadow , and receive less than 25 inches of precipitation per year. While most summer days are dry, afternoon thunderstorms are common, particularly during the North American Monsoon in mid and late summer. Some of these summer thunderstorms drop over an inch of rain in

14820-454: Was 1,461.7 inhabitants per square mile (564.4/km ). There were 27,100 housing units. The racial makeup of the city was 83.7% White , 2.7% African American , 0.9% Native American , 1.0% Asian , 0.1% Pacific Islander , 4.7% from some other races and 6.9% from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.4% of the population. As of the 2010 census , there were 62,230 people, 24,793 households, and 15,528 families residing in

14950-438: Was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.01. The median age in the city was 35.9 years. 24.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.1% were from 25 to 44; 25.6% were from 45 to 64; and 13.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.7% male and 51.3% female. As of the 2000 census , there were 58,268 people, 22,889 households, and 15,083 families residing in

15080-463: Was 62,799 at the 2020 census , making it the state's tenth most populous city , and the most populous city in Southwest Iowa. The Omaha metropolitan region of which Council Bluffs is a part, is the 58th largest in the United States, with an estimated population of 983,969 (2023). It is located on the east bank of the Missouri River , across from Omaha, Nebraska . Until about 1853 Council Bluffs

15210-692: Was Billy Caldwell, and his village was called Caldwell's Camp. The tribe were sometimes called the Bluff Indians. U.S. Army Dragoons built a small fort nearby. In 1838–39, the missionary Pierre-Jean De Smet founded St. Joseph's Mission to minister to the Potawatomi. De Smet was appalled by the violence and brutality caused by the whiskey trade, and tried to protect the tribe from unscrupulous traders. However, he had little success in persuading tribal members to convert to Christianity and resorted to secret baptisms of Indian children. During this time, De Smet contributed to Joseph Nicollet 's work in mapping

15340-463: Was a major center for logging, with operations supplying lumber for the construction of mine structures, such as tunnels, shafts, and buildings, as well as fuel for the mines. Dan DeQuille observed in 1876, "the Comstock Lode may truthfully be said to be the tomb of the forests of the Sierra. Millions upon millions of feet of lumber are annually buried in the mines, nevermore to be resurrected.” In

15470-742: Was discovered in 2009 by members of the Kern County Genealogical Society. On May 1, 2010, the Oregon-California Trails Association (OCTA) California/Nevada Chapter in cooperation with the Kern County Historical Society (KCHS) installed a historical plaque at the gravesite of Elisha Stephens. John Townsend was California's first licensed physician and was, for a short time in 1848, alcade or mayor of San Francisco ; Townsend Street in San Francisco

15600-473: Was discovered, hundreds of miners would collaborate to put up a camp and stake their claims. Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams. However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and miners and groups of miners graduated to more complex placer mining. Groups of prospectors would divert

15730-440: Was first protected by the federal government in 1864. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were ceded to California in 1866 and turned into a state park. John Muir perceived overgrazing by sheep and logging of giant sequoia to be a problem in the Sierra. Muir successfully lobbied for the protection of the rest of Yosemite National Park: Congress created an Act to protect the park in 1890. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were added to

15860-607: Was followed in the mid-1990s by riverboat casinos operated by Ameristar and Harvey's Casino Hotel (now Harrah's Council Bluffs ). New development in this previously industrial area has included the Mid-America Center , several restaurants and hotels, and other businesses. The appearance of legalized gambling in Council Bluffs became a major issue in neighboring Omaha where Mayor Hal Daub had declared Iowa an "XXX state" in 1995 as horse-racing came to an end at Ak-Sar-Ben . Twin City

15990-503: Was greeted by a few rounds from the old six pounder, while the streets were lined with a curiosity-seeking class of humanity, among which could easily be traced the physiognomy of bipeds of almost every clime—all here to make money. The cute Yankee whittling out wooden hams to sell to Pikes' Peak emigrants, the Chatham Street peddler, with his stock of "oht clo's," ready to swear that he had them manufactured expressly for his western trade;

16120-579: Was guided by mountain men Caleb Greenwood and Isaac Hitchcock. In Wyoming , Hitchcock, who had been "trapping and trading" in California in 1832, led the party west from the Big Sandy River to the Green River on a bypass of Fort Bridger that came to be known as the Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff . This bypass covered a dangerous 40 miles (64 km) without water for livestock, but shortened

16250-448: Was known as Kanesville . Kanesville was the historic starting point of the Mormon Trail . Kanesville is also the northernmost anchor town of the other emigrant trails because there was a steam-powered boat which ferried the settlers' wagons and cattle across the Missouri River . In 1869, the first transcontinental railroad to California was connected to the existing U.S. rail network at Council Bluffs. The first Council Bluff (which

16380-619: Was the foreman for the construction of the Kanesville Tabernacle . By 1848, the town had become known as Kanesville, named for benefactor Thomas L. Kane who had helped negotiate federal permission in Washington, D.C. for the Mormons to use Indian land along the Missouri as their winter encampment of 1846–47. Built next to or at Caldwell's Camp, Kanesville became the main outfitting point for

16510-548: Was the home of Mormon leaders Orson Hyde, George A. Smith , and Ezra T. Benson and was a major outfitting point on the Mormon Trail during the California Gold Rush. The reconstructed Kanesville Tabernacle in the 300 block of East Broadway is operated as a museum by the LDS Church. The West End is a geographically large area on the flood plain east of the Missouri River and downtown Omaha , Nebraska, west of 10th St. and

16640-474: Was transformed by the California Gold Rush , and the majority of Mormons left for Utah by 1852. By 1852, the number of Mormons was declining due to their further westward movement, and the town was renamed Council Bluffs after a cliff called Council Bluff 20 miles to the north on which Fort Atkinson was built in 1820. The bluff itself was named after the so-called Otoe council, an August 1804 meeting of

16770-476: Was undertaken to create a new future while emphasizing the strengths of heritage. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 45.672 square miles (118.29 km ), of which 42.963 square miles (111.27 km ) is land and 2.709 square miles (7.02 km ) is water. Council Bluffs covers a unique topographic region originally composed of prairie and savanna in

16900-545: Was used as a location by film director Alexander Payne in the movies Citizen Ruth and About Schmidt . Casino Row is located on and near the Missouri River south of West Broadway and Interstate 480, west of South 35th St. and Interstate 29, and north of Interstate 80 along 23rd Avenue west of South 24th St. The opening of the Bluffs Run Greyhound Park in 1986, now the Horseshoe Council Bluffs ,

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