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74-437: The steenbok / ˈ s t eɪ n b ɒ k , ˈ s t iː n -/ ( Raphicerus campestris ) is a common small antelope of southern and eastern Africa . It is sometimes known as the steinbuck or steinbok . Steenbok resemble small oribi , standing 45–60 cm (16"–24") at the shoulder, and weigh 7-16 kg. Their coat is any shade from fawn to rufous, typically rather orange. The underside, including chin and throat,

148-491: A lion until it is closer than 200 m (650 ft)—lions hunt as a pride or by surprise, usually by stalking; one that can be seen clearly is unlikely to attack. However, sprint-dependent cheetahs will cause gazelles to flee at a range of over 800 metres ( 1 ⁄ 2 mile). If escape is not an option, antelope are capable of fighting back. Oryxes in particular have been known to stand sideways like many unrelated bovids to appear larger than they are, and may charge at

222-400: A proxy for climate. Dung middens are useful as they often contain pollen which means fossilized dung middens can be used in paleobotany to learn about past climates . The common hippopotamus has been known to use dung middens as a social tool. The middens are created and maintained by bulls to mark territorial boundaries . To mark their scent upon a midden, the bull will approach

296-599: A better understanding of what historical environmental changes may have occurred leading up to the biodiversity and present day environment of various places. Fossilized hyrax (small herbivorous mammals resembling rodents but more closely associated with elephants and manatees) dung has been found in a rock shelter on the Brandberg Mountain in Namibia, has been found to possess fossilized pollen. Radiocarbon dating places it between 30,000 years ago to modern times, making it

370-441: A black color and a primarily grass composition whereas black rhino middens tend to be brown and contain more twigs and branches, a product of the distinct diets. Midden formation in insects was first observed in black garden ants , Lasius niger . The middens created by the ants are called "kitchen middens" and are composed of food scraps, ant corpses, and other detritus. A reason for the behavior has yet to be determined though it

444-456: A communication center for white rhino groups since the species practices communal defecation, allowing for these signals to easily reach potential mates. Dung with high parasite loads are a significant source of fecal-oral transmitted parasites, which impose a high cost on individual fitness in wild ungulates. Quantifying studies of parasite loads in dung midden piles of free ranging dik-dik found that nematode concentrations were elevated in

518-402: A distinct preference for forbs , and then woody plants (especially Flueggea virosa ) when few forbs are available. They will also take fruits and only very rarely graze on grass . They are almost entirely independent of drinking water, gaining the moisture they need from their food. Steenbok are active during the day and the night; however, during hotter periods, they rest under shade during

592-575: A fear response to perceived predators, such as humans, making them very difficult to herd or handle. Although antelope have diets and rapid growth rates highly suitable for domestication, this tendency to panic and their non hierarchical social structure explains why farm-raised antelope are uncommon. Ancient Egyptians kept herds of gazelles and addax for meat, and occasionally pets. It is unknown whether they were truly domesticated, but it seems unlikely, as no domesticated gazelles exist today. However, humans have had success taming certain species, such as

666-535: A forest environment with patchy resources, and a male is unable to monopolize more than one female due to this sparse distribution. Larger forest species often form very small herds of two to four females and one male. Some species, such as lechwes , pursue a lek breeding system, where the males gather on a lekking ground and compete for a small territory, while the females appraise males and choose one with which to mate. Large grazing antelope, such as impala or wildebeest , form large herds made up of many females and

740-445: A predator as a last resort. About 25 species are rated by the IUCN as endangered , such as the dama gazelle and mountain nyala . A number of subspecies are also endangered, including the giant sable antelope and the mhorr gazelle . The main causes for concern for these species are habitat loss, competition with cattle for grazing, and trophy hunting. The chiru or Tibetan antelope

814-622: A single breeding male, which excludes all other males, often by combat. Antelope pursue a number of defense strategies, often dictated by their morphology. Large antelope that gather in large herds, such as wildebeest, rely on numbers and running speed for protection. In some species, adults will encircle the offspring, protecting them from predators when threatened. Many forest antelope rely on cryptic coloring and good hearing to avoid predators. Forest antelope often have very large ears and dark or striped colorations. Small antelope, especially duikers , evade predation by jumping into dense bush where

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888-438: A thick, persistent sheath of horny material , both of which distinguish them from antlers. Antelope horns are efficient weapons, and tend to be better developed in those species where males fight over females (large herd antelope) than in solitary or lekking species. With male-male competition for mates, horns are clashed in combat. Males more commonly use their horns against each other than against another species. The boss of

962-504: A variety of purposes, including finding food and locating mates. Some species, such as the dung beetle genus Dicranocara of the Richtersveld in South western Africa spend their whole lifecycle in close association with dung middens. Dung middens are also used in the field of paleobotany , which relies on the fact that each ecosystem is characterized by certain plants, which in turn act as

1036-505: A wide range of habitats. Most live in the African savannahs . However, many species are more secluded, such as the forest antelope, as well as the extreme cold-living saiga , the desert-adapted Arabian oryx , the rocky koppie -living klipspringer , and semiaquatic sitatunga . Species living in forests, woodland, or bush tend to be sedentary, but many of the plains species undertake long migrations. These enable grass-eating species to follow

1110-497: Is alternated with prostration during extended pursuit. They are known to take refuge in the burrows of aardvarks . Known predators include Southern African wildcat , caracal , jackals , leopard , martial eagle and pythons . Steenbok are typically solitary, except for when a pair come together to mate . However, it has been suggested that pairs occupy consistent territories while living independently, staying in contact through scent markings , so that they know where their mate

1184-745: Is derived from the Old French antelop , itself derived from Medieval Latin ant(h)alopus , which in turn comes from the Byzantine Greek word ἀνθόλοψ, anthólops , first attested in Eustathius of Antioch ( c.  336 ), according to whom it was a fabulous animal "haunting the banks of the Euphrates, very savage, hard to catch and having long, saw-like horns capable of cutting down trees". It perhaps derives from Greek ἀνθος, anthos (flower) and ώψ, ops (eye), perhaps meaning "beautiful eye" or alluding to

1258-606: Is found on the continent—the Barbary red deer of Northern Africa. By comparison, numerous deer species are usually found in regions of the world with fewer or no antelope species present, such as throughout Southeast Asia , Europe and all of the Americas . This is likely due to competition over shared resources, as deer and antelope fill a virtually identical ecological niche in their respective habitats. Countries like India, however, have large populations of endemic deer and antelope, with

1332-425: Is hunted for its pelt, which is used in making shahtoosh wool, used in shawls. Since the fur can only be removed from dead animals, and each animal yields very little of the downy fur, several antelope must be killed to make a single shawl. This unsustainable demand has led to enormous declines in the chiru population. The saiga is hunted for its horns, which are considered an aphrodisiac by some cultures. Only

1406-425: Is most of the time. Scent marking is primarily through dung middens . Territories range from 4 hectares to 1 square kilometre. The male is aggressive during the female's oestrus , engaging in "bluff-and-bluster" type displays with rival males—prolonged contests invariably involve well-matched individuals, usually in their prime. Breeding occurs throughout the year, although more fawns are born November to December in

1480-594: Is prized for supposed medicinal and magical powers in many places. The horn of the male saiga, in Eastern practice, is ground as an aphrodisiac, for which it has been hunted nearly to extinction. In the Congo , it is thought to confine spirits. The antelope's ability to run swiftly has also led to their association with the wind , such as in the Rig Veda , as the steeds of the Maruts and

1554-417: Is some variation of a brown colour (or several shades of brown), often with white or pale underbodies. Exceptions include the zebra-marked zebra duiker , the grey, black, and white Jentink's duiker , and the black lechwe . Most of the "spiral-horned" antelope have pale, vertical stripes on their backs. Many desert and semidesert species are particularly pale, some almost silvery or whitish (e.g. Arabian oryx);

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1628-453: Is still a matter of debate, with several alternative systems proposed. Antelope are not a cladistic or taxonomically defined group. The term is used to describe all members of the family Bovidae that do not fall under the category of sheep , cattle , or goats . Usually, all species of the Antilopinae , Hippotraginae , Reduncinae , Cephalophinae , many Bovinae , the grey rhebok , and

1702-1012: Is thought to serve as a feeding ground for larvae. The dry bush weasel lemur and southern gentle lemur are known to construct middens. It is thought that these act primarily as communal latrines and communication tools, signaling dominance and other social cues, for families spread over large tracts of land. Hyrax , or Procavia, are small herbivorous mammals from across the African continent and normally inhabit in rock shelters, not typically wandering more than 500 meters from their shelter for fear of predation. These organisms use fixed dung middens for urinating and defecation, often under overhanging rocks in protected areas. Layers of dung are quickly hardened and sealed by Hyraceum , creating mainly horizontal middens. Middens created by antelopes, as well as other herbivores, play an important role by providing nutrients to certain areas of land. It has been described that duiker and steenbok antelopes defecate in exposed sites, generally on sandy soil, thus enriching

1776-532: Is white, as is the ring around the eye. Ears are large with "finger-marks" on the inside. Males have straight, smooth, parallel horns 7–19 cm long (see image left). There is a black crescent-shape between the ears, a long black bridge to the glossy black nose, and a black circular scent-gland in front of the eye. The tail is not usually visible, being only 4–6 cm long. There are two distinct clusters in steenbok distribution. In East Africa , it occurs in central and southern Kenya and northern Tanzania . It

1850-566: The Americas , though the nominate saiga subspecies occurred in North America during the Pleistocene. North America is currently home to the native pronghorn , which taxonomists do not consider a member of the antelope group, but which is often locally referred to as such (e.g., "American antelope"). In Europe , several extinct species occur in the fossil record, and the saiga was found widely during

1924-518: The Günther's dik-dik , both of which use dung middens as peripheral territory markers instead. Olfactory communication through dung middens can also indicate sexual availability to conspecifics. In white rhino dung, a mixture of volatile organic compounds present signal the defecator's sex and age class, and depending on whether they are a male or female, also indicate the male territorial status or female oestrous state. Furthermore, dung middens act as

1998-828: The Pleistocene but did not persist into the later Holocene , except in Russian Kalmykia and Astrakhan Oblast . Many species of antelope have been imported to other parts of the world, especially the United States, for exotic game hunting. With some species possessing spectacular leaping and evasive skills, individuals may escape. Texas in particular has many game ranches, as well as habitats and climates that are very hospitable to African and Asian plains antelope species. Accordingly, wild populations of blackbuck antelope, gemsbok , and nilgai may be found in Texas. Antelope live in

2072-399: The beisa and southern oryxes have gray and black pelages with vivid black-and-white faces. Common features of various gazelles are white rumps, which flash a warning to others when they run from danger, and dark stripes midbody (the latter feature is also shared by the springbok and beira). The springbok also has a pouch of white, brushlike hairs running along its back, which opens up when

2146-428: The elands . These antelope sometimes jump over each other's backs when alarmed, but this incongruous talent seems to be exploited only by wild members of the species; tame elands do not take advantage of it and can be enclosed within a very low fence. Their meat, milk, and hides are all of excellent quality, and experimental eland husbandry has been going on for some years in both Ukraine and Zimbabwe. In both locations,

2220-499: The impala are called antelope. More species of antelope are native to Africa than to any other continent, almost exclusively in savannahs , with 25-40 species co-occurring over much of East Africa. Because savannah habitat in Africa has expanded and contracted five times over the last three million years, and the fossil record indicates this is when most extant species evolved, it is believed that isolation in refugia during contractions

2294-680: The "true antelopes", includes only the genera Gazella , Nanger , Eudorcas , and Antilope . One North American mammal, the pronghorn or "pronghorn antelope", is colloquially referred to as the "American antelope", despite the fact that it belongs to a completely different family ( Antilocapridae ) than the true Old-World antelopes; pronghorn are the sole extant member of an extinct prehistoric lineage that once included many unique species. Although antelope are sometimes referred to, and easily misidentified as, "deer" ( cervids ), true deer are only distantly related to antelope. While antelope are found in abundance in Africa, only one deer species

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2368-424: The age, sex, and reproductive health of the producer. Some of the middens can be 65 feet across. Dung beetles are frequently found in these middens and lay their eggs within the mounds. Their presence and activity in the middens also aid in pest and parasite control. Unlike the hippopotamus, rhino dung middens are shared between individuals that are not necessarily related. White rhino middens are distinguished by

2442-471: The animal has proved wholly amenable to domestication. Similarly, European visitors to Arabia reported "tame gazelles are very common in the Asiatic countries of which the species is a native; and the poetry of these countries abounds in allusions both to the beauty and the gentleness of the gazelle." Other antelope that have been tamed successfully include the gemsbok , the kudu , and the springbok . Nor are

2516-503: The animal senses danger, causing the dorsal hairs to stand on end. Many antelope are sexually dimorphic. In most species, both sexes have horns, but those of males tend to be larger. Males tend to be larger than the females, but exceptions in which the females tend to be heavier than the males include the bush duiker , dwarf antelope , Cape grysbok , and oribi , all rather small species. A number of species have hornless females (e.g., sitatunga , red lechwe , and suni ). In some species,

2590-421: The animal that antelope do not typically display. Most species are difficult to contain in any density, due to the territoriality of the males, or in the case of oryxes (which have a relatively hierarchical social structure), an aggressive disposition; they can easily kill a human. Because many have extremely good jumping abilities, providing adequate fencing is a challenge. Also, antelope will consistently display

2664-496: The animals' long eyelashes. This, however, may be a folk etymology in Greek based on some earlier root. The word talopus and calopus , from Latin, came to be used in heraldry . In 1607, it was first used for living, cervine animals . There are 91 antelope species, most of which are native to Africa, occur in about 30 genera. The classification of tribes or subfamilies within Bovoidea

2738-458: The attention of hunters and provide the hunters with information about the location and activity of their prey. A group of researchers examined midden selection and use by mountain gazelles ( Gazella gazelle ) in central Saudi Arabia and hypothesized that if middens are used for territorial or communication purposes, then they would tend to be placed at the largest trees in the immediate area. Additionally, if mountain gazelle midden selection and use

2812-627: The central part of Kruger National Park , South Africa, Steenbok show a distinct preference for Acacia tortilis savannah throughout the year, with no tendency to migrate to moister areas during the dry season (unlike many larger African savannah ungulates, including species sympatric with Steenbok in the wet season). Population density is typically 0.3–1.0 individuals per square kilometre, reaching 4 per km in optimal habitats. Steenbok typically browse on low-level vegetation (they cannot reach above 0.9 m), but are also adept at scraping up roots and tubers. In central Kruger National Park, Steenbok show

2886-540: The characteristics described above necessarily barriers to domestication; for further information, see animal domestication . A wide variety of antelope hybrids have been recorded in zoos, game parks, and wildlife ranches, due to either a lack of more appropriate mates in enclosures shared with other species or a misidentification of species. The ease of hybridization shows how closely related some antelope species are. With few exceptions, most hybrid antelope occur only in captivity. Most hybrids occur between species within

2960-430: The climate through the presence of certain pollen and the attributed rainfall necessary for those plants to be present and flowering. However, the changing presence of some plants can also be due to erratic conditions such as grazing and human interference by Nomadic people . Although, this is not thought to explain all of the aridity and variation of the area at certain times. The presence of certain flowering plants during

3034-421: The different species generally keeping to their own "niches" with minimal overlap. Unlike deer, in which the males sport elaborate head antlers that are shed and regrown annually, antelope horns are bone and grow steadily, never falling off. If a horn is broken, it will either remain broken or take years to partially regenerate, depending on the species. The English word "antelope" first appeared in 1417 and

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3108-448: The duikers and dwarf antelope tend to be simple "spikes", but differ in the angle to the head from backward curved and backward pointing (e.g. yellow-backed duiker ) to straight and upright (e.g. steenbok ). Other groups have twisted (e.g. common eland ), spiral (e.g. greater kudu ), "recurved" (e.g. the reedbucks ), lyrate (e.g. impala ), or long, curved (e.g. the oryxes ) horns. Horns are not shed and their bony cores are covered with

3182-510: The ecosystem, with interspecies interactions between the creators and users of dung midden piles. In some cases, it has been found that midden piles are the focal points of grazing lawns, not the other way around, as demonstrated by high frequency of grazing when old middens are present. Territory or home-range maintenance is found in many species of animals as a way to divide resources, including food and mates. Often markers are employed to define such territories, and dung middens are one form of

3256-513: The end of its snout. This bizarre and inaccurate form was invented by European heralds in the Middle Ages, who knew little of foreign animals and made up the rest. The antelope was mistakenly imagined to be a monstrous beast of prey; the 16th century poet Edmund Spenser referred to it as being "as fierce and fell as a wolf ." Antelope can all also occur in their natural form, in which case they are termed "natural antelope" to distinguish them from

3330-467: The era that the dung is from. In a town in South Africa, researchers found conflicting data about the time period the dung midden they were studying was from. The initial researchers failed to consider the impact of local radiocarbon concentrations that were higher than usual due to the testing of nuclear arms. Through pollen analysis, radiocarbon dating, and considering the history of radiocarbon levels in

3404-466: The first evidence of pollen from the Late Pleistocene in south-western Africa. The pollen is preserved by layers of dung that are piled upon each other and sealed by urine. The dung found from this time is that of the family Asteraceae , a family not known to be found in Namibia or deserts. This suggests that climate in this area may have been tropical during this time, but it is also hypothesized that

3478-439: The heat of the day. The time spent feeding at night increases in the dry season. While resting, they may be busy grooming, ruminating or taking brief spells of sleep. At the first sign of trouble, steenbok typically lie low in the vegetation. If a predator or perceived threat comes closer, a steenbok will leap away and follow a zigzag route to try to shake off the pursuer. Escaping steenbok frequently stop to look back, and flight

3552-574: The history of the biodiversity. Common artifacts typically used to study environmental conditions such as lake or swamp deposits, caves, river systems, or dune-fields do not exist. Thus it has been difficult to understand the history of the Namib desert . Through the use of dung middens found in various parts of the desert, researchers are able to reconstruct the paleoenvironmental conditions. Specifically, fossilized hyrax dung in shallow cave shelters contains fossilized pollen and dust which contains information on

3626-465: The horns is typically arranged in such a way that two antelope striking at each other's horns cannot crack each other's skulls, making a fight via horn more ritualized than dangerous. Many species have ridges in their horns for at least two-thirds the length of their horns, but these ridges are not a direct indicator of age. Antelope are often classified by their reproductive behavior. Small antelope, such as dik-diks , tend to be monogamous. They live in

3700-403: The link between mammalian consumers and the microbial decomposers that perform the final breaking down of organic matter within the local cycle of nutrients. A case of this relationship between termites and mammalian dung middens is observed in South Africa, between the endemic blesbok and harvester termites . The blesbok have been observed to deliberately place dung middens when they are in

3774-486: The males and females have differently coloured pelages (e.g. blackbuck and nyala ). Antelope are ruminants , so they have well-developed molar teeth , which grind cud (food balls stored in the stomach) into a pulp for further digestion. They have no upper incisors, but rather a hard upper gum pad, against which their lower incisors bite to tear grass stems and leaves. Like many other herbivores , antelope rely on keen senses to avoid predators. Their eyes are placed on

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3848-542: The males have horns, and have been so heavily hunted that some herds contain up to 800 females to one male. The species has shown a steep decline and is critically endangered. It is difficult to determine how long antelope live in the wild. With the preference of predators towards old and infirm individuals, which can no longer sustain peak speeds, few wild prey-animals live as long as their biological potential. In captivity, wildebeest have lived beyond 20 years old, and impalas have reached their late teens. The antelope's horn

3922-452: The markers employed. An example of dung midden use for territorial marking is found in the mountain gazelle , in which latrines/dung middens are found in the home-range cores and serve as a concentrated area to repel intruders while facilitating communication amongst the members of the female group. This method of dung midden use is distinct from other species such as the Thornson's gazelle and

3996-454: The mid- Holocene that require more moisture leads to a conclusion of increased summer rainfall. This also accounts for the seasonal variability as many of plants found in the dung do not rely upon winter rain. Much is unknown about the origins of the unique biodiversity in the Namib desert . It has an arid climate and granitic substrate, which does not favor the preservation of organic material that would typically help provide insight into

4070-446: The midden in reverse and simultaneously defecate and urinate on the mound, using its tail to disperse, or paddle, the excrement. This action is called dung showering and thought to assert dominance . The middens, usually several feet across, are constantly maintained during the bulls' travels in the night and day. Dung-midden production is also observed in the white and black rhinoceroses . The middens are shown to provide cues as to

4144-520: The more usual heraldic antelope. The arms previously used by the Republic of South Africa featured a natural antelope, along with an oryx . Dung midden Dung middens , also known as dung hills , are piles of dung that mammals periodically return to and build up. They are used as a form of territorial marker . A range of animals are known to use them including steenbok , hyrax , and rhinoceros . Other animals are attracted to middens for

4218-447: The mountain gazelles, and they are used by both sexes and by gazelles of various ages. The widespread presence of dung midden use throughout the animal kingdom is coupled with a distinct variation in how dung middens are used from species to species. Dung midden use has been implicated in the context of both intraspecific markers of territory , sexual availability, and a part of anti-parasite behavior, but also as an essential part of

4292-469: The nutrient-deficient areas, as well as depositing plant seed there. Many gazelle species use middens (see also Animal latrine ) for activities related to territory maintenance, advertisement and olfactory communication. Due to the investment required to maintain a midden, it is likely that middens would not be randomly placed throughout the environment, but rather would be distributed on different landmarks. Placing middens on conspicuous sites could attract

4366-476: The predator cannot pursue. Springboks use a behavior known as stotting to confuse predators. Open grassland species have nowhere to hide from predators, so they tend to be fast runners. They are agile and have good endurance —these are advantages when pursued by sprint-dependent predators such as cheetahs , which are the fastest of land animals, but tire quickly. Reaction distances vary with predator species and behaviour. For example, gazelles may not flee from

4440-405: The quality of the surrounding vegetation for foraging, this suggests that there is a positive evolutionary feedback within this interaction, with both participants in this interaction providing resources for the other. Pollen that becomes fossilized in dung midden can provide information about the climate and environment during the time period when it was fossilized. This provides researchers with

4514-431: The rains and thereby their food supply. The gnus and gazelles of East Africa perform some of the most impressive mass migratory circuits of all mammals. Antelope vary greatly in size. For example, a male common eland can measure 178 cm (5 ft 10 in) at the shoulder and weigh almost 950 kg (2,100 lb), whereas an adult royal antelope may stand only 24 cm ( 9 + 1 ⁄ 2  in) at

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4588-403: The same genus. All reported examples occur within the same subfamily. As with most mammal hybrids, the less closely related the parents, the more likely the offspring will be sterile. Antelope are a common symbol in heraldry , though they occur in a highly distorted form from nature. The heraldic antelope has the body of a stag and the tail of a lion , with serrated horns, and a small tusk at

4662-415: The shadows rapidly. Gazelle and springbok are known for their speed and leaping abilities. Even larger antelope, such as nilgai, elands , and kudus , are capable of jumping 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) or greater, although their running speed is restricted by their greater mass. Antelope have a wide variety of coverings, though most have a dense coat of short fur. In most species, the coat (pelage)

4736-552: The shoulder and weigh a mere 1.5 kg ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 4  lb). Not surprisingly for animals with long, slender yet powerful legs, many antelope have long strides and can run fast. Some (e.g. klipspringer) are also adapted to inhabiting rock koppies and crags. Both dibatags and gerenuks habitually stand on their two hind legs to reach acacia and other tree foliage. Different antelope have different body types, which can affect movement. Duikers are short, bush-dwelling antelope that can pick through dense foliage and dive into

4810-806: The sides of their heads, giving them a broad radius of vision with minimal binocular vision. Their horizontally elongated pupils also help in this respect. Acute senses of smell and hearing give antelope the ability to perceive danger at night out in the open (when predators are often on the prowl). These same senses play an important role in contact between individuals of the same species; markings on their heads, ears, legs, and rumps are used in such communication. Many species "flash" such markings, as well as their tails; vocal communications include loud barks, whistles, "moos", and trumpeting; many species also use scent marking to define their territories or simply to maintain contact with their relatives and neighbors. The size and shape of antelope horns varies greatly. Those of

4884-742: The southern spring–summer; some females may breed twice a year. Gestation period is about 170 days, and usually a single precocial fawn is produced. The fawn is kept hidden in vegetation for 2 weeks, but suckles for 3 months. Females become sexually mature at 6–8 months and males at 9 months. Steenbok are known to live for 7 years or more. Two subspecies are recognized: R. c. campestris in Southern Africa and R. c. neumanni of East Africa; although MSW3 also recognizes capricornis and kelleni . Up to 24 subspecies have been described from Southern Africa, distinguished on such features as coat colour. Antelope A better definition, also known as

4958-432: The spores were spread either aromatically or aquatically from another location. In an earlier Brandberg Mountain sample from 17,000 years ago, Stoebe pollen was found in dung. There is also the presence of fern-spores indicating a moist climate during that time. This moisture would most likely be from melting and evaporating glaciers and not heavy rain. Sources of midden as old as 6,000 years ago can also be used to view

5032-437: The vegetation that was consumed by the hyrax. Pollen data can provide information on the vegetation during different time periods, and using this data the changes in moisture levels in desert areas such as the desert northwest of Namibia can be determined. While the pollen and dust in the dung provides information on the types of vegetation that previously existed, it is also important to use radiocarbon dating for information on

5106-477: The vicinity of middens in comparison to single fecal-pellet groups or dung-free areas. Further feeding experiments found that the dik-diks tend to avoid the areas around dung middens when feeding, implying selective defecation and selective foraging where fecal avoidance could play a part in anti-parasite behavior in this species. Termites are usually viewed as both herbivores and decomposers when present within an ecological community . In some cases, they are

5180-424: The vicinity of the harvester termite mounds. It has been suggested that this could be due to the fact that termite mounds are built on ground where the surrounding is cleared. This allows the blesboks greater ability to detect predators if foraging in the area, and termite presence in the vicinity could be an indicator of richer resources available from recycling of nutrients. Since decomposers such as termites increase

5254-413: The wind god Vayu . There is, however, no scientific evidence that the horns of any antelope have any change on a human's physiology or characteristics. In Mali, antelope were believed to have brought the skills of agriculture to mankind. Humans have also used the term "Antelope" to refer to a tradition usually found in the sport of track and field. Domestication of animals requires certain traits in

5328-633: Was a major driver of this diversification. Other species occur in Asia: the Arabian Peninsula is home to the Arabian oryx and Dorcas gazelle . South Asia is home to the nilgai , chinkara , blackbuck , Tibetan antelope , and four-horned antelope , while Russia and Central Asia have the Tibetan antelope and saiga . No antelope species is native to Australasia or Antarctica , nor do any extant species occur in

5402-703: Was formerly widespread in Uganda , but is now almost certainly extinct there. In Southern Africa , it occurs in Angola , Namibia , South Africa , Eswatini , Botswana , Mozambique , Zambia , Zimbabwe and probably Lesotho . Steenbok live in a variety of habitats from semi-desert , such as the edge of the Kalahari Desert and Etosha National Park , to open woodland and thickets, including open plains , stony savannah , and Acacia – grassland mosaics . They are said to favour unstable or transitional habitats. At least in

5476-401: Was predictable, then this would corroborate poachers' claims that gazelles are easy to hunt because of their predictable behavior. Ultimately it was found that midden size and the freshness of newly deposited feces could inform poachers about the gazelles' rates of midden use and potentially which middens are used more often. It was also found that middens are important communication centers for

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