132-681: The Spokan or Spokane people are a Native American Plateau tribe who inhabit the eastern portion of present-day Washington state and parts of northern Idaho in the United States of America. The current Spokane Indian Reservation is located in northeastern Washington state, centered at Wellpinit (Sčecuwe). The reservation is located almost entirely in Stevens County , but also includes two small parcels of land (totaling about 1.52 acres [0.62 ha]) in Lincoln County , including part of
264-418: A Ilmixʷm or chief and a sub chief, who were both selected to lead based on their leadership qualities. Decisions were made by consensus of the group. The Spokane had a matrilocal custom, in which the husband of a Spokane woman, after marriage, would join her and her people as the site of their home together. Occasionally, the wife would move to the husband's people. There was mobility between bands, by which
396-410: A marker gene . This gene, called GFP , or green fluorescent protein, would cause live samples of the virus to glow green under fluorescent light. The insertion of this gene, which would not influence the virulence of the virus, would be the only allowed modification of the genome. The committee stated the proposed modification would aid in research of treatments by making it easier to assess whether
528-403: A skin rash . Over a number of days, the skin rash turned into the characteristic fluid-filled blisters with a dent in the center. The bumps then scabbed over and fell off, leaving scars. The disease was transmitted from one person to another primarily through prolonged face-to-face contact with an infected person or rarely via contaminated objects . Prevention was achieved mainly through
660-578: A weir , stopping the salmon from swimming any further, and then the fish were pulled out of the water with a scoop. Suckers were caught in fish traps as they descended peripheral streams. Most salmon was smoked on a fire, and some of it was stored underground in pits. Other salmon was boiled in hot water to get oil. Birds were often hunted with nets. Men used several methods to capture big game. Groups of men would surround and drive deer or elk towards other hunters or into traps. Trapping pits and snares were also used. Reliance on big game depended greatly on
792-400: A 90% reduction in population at this time. The 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic devastated the coast as well as some parts of the interior. While there was some minor violence, serious armed conflicts did not begin until the mass migration of European Americans to the southern portion of the plateau region, starting in the 1840s. Through a series of treaties and conflicts, including
924-443: A clinical case was observed, smallpox was confirmed using laboratory tests. Microscopically , poxviruses produce characteristic cytoplasmic inclusion bodies , the most important of which are known as Guarnieri bodies , and are the sites of viral replication . Guarnieri bodies are readily identified in skin biopsies stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and appear as pink blobs. They are found in virtually all poxvirus infections but
1056-641: A complex of Winter dances, personal vision quests, and seasonal feasts tied to the annual subsistence cycle and the acquisition of guardian spirit powers"(Fisher). A few examples of spiritual dances include the Prophet Dance and the Spirit Dance , which took place in mid-January. Dancers sought to identify with the Prophet's spirit. In the Spirit Dance a shaman would call upon the spirit to visit an individual. It
1188-513: A doctor in Berkeley, Gloucestershire , rural England, discovered that immunity to smallpox could be produced by inoculating a person with material from a cowpox lesion. Cowpox is a poxvirus in the same family as variola. Jenner called the material used for inoculation vaccine from the root word vacca , which is Latin for cow. The procedure was much safer than variolation and did not involve a risk of smallpox transmission. Vaccination to prevent smallpox
1320-451: A fatality rate of around 30%, while variola minor’s mortality rate was about 1%. Throughout the 18th century, variola major was responsible for around 400,000 deaths annually in Europe alone. Survivors of the disease often faced lifelong consequences, such as blindness and severe scarring, which were nearly universal among those who recovered. In the first half of the 20th century, variola major
1452-505: A few years later by Alexander Ross and David Thompson . All commented on the dress, diet and generally peaceful nature of the inhabitants. In the following decades, several trading posts were established in the area, including the long-lived Fort Nez Perce , Fort Colville , Fort Okanogan , and Fort Kamloops . Several more epidemics hit the area with the Lower Columbia area being the hardest hit. Some Chinook and Kalapuya groups saw
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#17329056078171584-614: A host cell varies across the poxviridae . Recombination of the genome occurs within actively infected cells. Following the onset of viral DNA replication, an intermediate set of genes codes for transcription factors of late gene expression. The products of the later genes include transcription factors necessary for transcribing the early genes for new virions, as well as viral RNA polymerase and other essential enzymes for new viral particles. These proteins are then packaged into new infectious virions capable of infecting other cells. Two live samples of variola major virus remain, one in
1716-577: A less common presentation, causing less severe disease, typically discrete smallpox, with historical death rates of 1% or less. Subclinical ( asymptomatic ) infections with variola virus were noted but were not common. In addition, a form called variola sine eruptione (smallpox without rash) was seen generally in vaccinated persons. This form was marked by a fever that occurred after the usual incubation period and could be confirmed only by antibody studies or, rarely, by viral culture . In addition, there were two very rare and fulminating types of smallpox,
1848-439: A peak above. They covered this with tule mats or tree bark. Earth was piled up around and partially over the structure to provide insulation to the semi-subterranean shelter. The large winter lodges were shared by several families; they were rectangular at the base and triangular above. They were built with several layers of tule; as the top layers of tule absorbed moisture, they swelled to keep moisture from reaching lower layers and
1980-410: A person or family could spend one winter with a band and the next winter with another. The Spokane diet consisted of fish, local game, and plants, including nuts and roots. The men hunted whitetail deer and mule deer, which provided essential protein and other nutrients in the winter. Individual hunters would track the deer and kill them using a bow and arrow. Fish, especially salmon, were a huge part of
2112-587: A potential treatment was effective in killing viral samples. The recommendation could only take effect if approved by the WHA . When the WHA discussed the proposal in 2005, it refrained from taking a formal vote on the proposal, stating that it would review individual research proposals one at a time. Addition of the GFP gene to the Vaccinia genome is routinely performed during research on
2244-423: A region of roughly 100 base pairs necessary for resolving concatomeric DNA (a stretch of DNA containing multiple copies of the same sequence), a few open reading frames , and short tandemly repeating sequences of varying number and length. The ITRs of poxviridae vary in length across strains and species. The coding sequence for most of the viral proteins in variola major virus have at least 90% similarity with
2376-421: A source of infection”; noted that “Current recommendations for control of secondary smallpox infections emphasize transmission ‘by expelled droplets to close contacts (those within 6–7 feet)’”; but warned that the “emphasis on spread via large droplets may reduce the vigilance with which more difficult airborne precautions [i.e. against finer droplets capable of traveling longer distances and penetrating deeply into
2508-772: A trade post. The Pacific Fur Company established Fort Spokane (Čˈłyaqˈ) in 1811. Much later, the structure was used as an Indian boarding school for the Spokane children, from 1898 to 1906. The Spokane took prominent part in the so called Coeur d'Alene War (Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Pend d'oreille-Paloos War) of 1858, a series of encounters between the allied Native American tribes of the Skitswish ("Coeur d'Alene"), Kalispell ("Pend'Oreille"), Spokane, Palouse and Northern Paiute against United States Army forces in Washington and Idaho which centered in ancestral Spokane territories. By treaty between
2640-418: Is a plant in the lily family with blue flowers, whose bulbs were dug for food. The white flowering death camas, zygadenus venenosus, is a different but related species also in the lily family, and can be deadly poisonous. For safety reasons, Plateau peoples gathered these bulbs while aerial parts were still growing in order to correctly identify the edible species. They dug these bulbs with deer antlers. Women in
2772-582: Is a severe form accompanied by extensive bleeding into the skin, mucous membranes, gastrointestinal tract, and viscera . This form develops in approximately 2% of infections and occurs mostly in adults. Pustules do not typically form in hemorrhagic smallpox. Instead, bleeding occurs under the skin, making it look charred and black, hence this form of the disease is also referred to as variola nigra or "black pox". Hemorrhagic smallpox has very rarely been caused by variola minor virus. While bleeding may occur in mild cases and not affect outcomes, hemorrhagic smallpox
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#17329056078172904-420: Is also a later form of hemorrhagic smallpox (referred to late hemorrhagic smallpox, or variolosa pustula hemorrhagica ). The prodrome is severe and similar to that observed in early hemorrhagic smallpox, and the fever persists throughout the course of the disease. Bleeding appears in the early eruptive period (but later than that seen in purpura variolosa ), and the rash is often flat and does not progress beyond
3036-486: Is also under research as a viral vector for vaccines for unrelated diseases. The genome of variola major virus was first sequenced in its entirety in the 1990s. The complete coding sequence is publicly available online. The current reference sequence for variola major virus was sequenced from a strain that circulated in India in 1967. In addition, there are sequences for samples of other strains that were collected during
3168-599: Is believed the prophet Smohalla in a vision "foresaw the disappearance of the whites, the resurrection of the Indian dead, and the restoration of the world to a pristine state. This millennial transformation required no acts of violence — indeed, most Dreamers counseled pacifism — but to achieve it, the Indians had to obey the instructions of the Creator as conveyed through the prophets" (Fisher). The Dreamer Cult remained prominent within
3300-541: Is believed to have had a mortality rate of less than 1%, as compared to variola major's 30%. Like variola major, variola minor was spread through inhalation of the virus in the air, which could occur through face-to-face contact or through fomites. Infection with variola minor virus conferred immunity against the more dangerous variola major virus. Because variola minor was a less debilitating disease than smallpox, people were more frequently ambulant and thus able to infect others more rapidly. As such, variola minor swept through
3432-411: Is caused by infection with variola virus, which belongs to the family Poxviridae , subfamily Chordopoxvirinae , genus Orthopoxvirus . The date of the appearance of smallpox is not settled. It most probably evolved from a terrestrial African rodent virus between 68,000 and 16,000 years ago. The wide range of dates is due to the different records used to calibrate the molecular clock . One clade
3564-488: Is complicated by having multiple infectious forms, with differing mechanisms of cell entry. Poxviruses are unique among human DNA viruses in that they replicate in the cytoplasm of the cell rather than in the nucleus . To replicate, poxviruses produce a variety of specialized proteins not produced by other DNA viruses , the most important of which is a viral-associated DNA-dependent RNA polymerase . Both enveloped and unenveloped virions are infectious. The viral envelope
3696-447: Is consistent with the other published estimates, it suggests that the archaeological and historical evidence is very incomplete. Better estimates of mutation rates in these viruses are needed. Examination of a strain that dates from c. 1650 found that this strain was basal to the other presently sequenced strains. The mutation rate of this virus is well modeled by a molecular clock. Diversification of strains only occurred in
3828-415: Is made of modified Golgi membranes containing viral-specific polypeptides, including hemagglutinin . Infection with either variola major virus or variola minor virus confers immunity against the other. The more common, infectious form of the disease was caused by the variola major virus strain, known for its significantly higher mortality rate compared to its counterpart, variola minor. Variola major had
3960-451: Is one of several tribal governments in the northwestern United States to offer free bus service on its reservation. The Spokane tribe was divided into three geographic divisions, upper, lower, and middle. Each area was divided into bands, which were composed of groups of related families or kin groups. The Upper Spokane or Sntʔtʔúlixʷ (Sntu't'ulixi) ("People of the Falls") resided along
4092-493: Is rapidly followed by the development of petechiae and bleeding in the skin, conjunctiva and mucous membranes. Death often occurs suddenly between the fifth and seventh days of illness, when only a few insignificant skin lesions are present. Some people survive a few days longer, during which time the skin detaches and fluid accumulates under it, rupturing at the slightest injury. People are usually conscious until death or shortly before. Autopsy reveals petechiae and bleeding in
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4224-453: Is typically fatal. Vaccination does not appear to provide any immunity to either form of hemorrhagic smallpox and some cases even occurred among people that were revaccinated shortly before. It has two forms. The early or fulminant form of hemorrhagic smallpox (referred to as purpura variolosa ) begins with a prodromal phase characterized by a high fever, severe headache, and abdominal pain. The skin becomes dusky and erythematous, and this
4356-538: The Cascade Range lies within the territory of the Plateau peoples. There are several distinguishing features that differentiate plateau culture from the surrounding native cultures. These include a high reliance on roots, such as biscuitroot and camas , as a food source, a high reliance on short duration salmon and eel runs , and long-term habitation of winter villages at fixed locations along rivers or lakes. There
4488-461: The Cascades Rapids women wore grass skirts. Women on the southern plateau wore basketry hats. Over time, plateau people generally adopted clothes inspired by plains culture, including buckskin dresses and feathered headgear. Today, Native people still make traditional clothing, bags, baskets, and other items. Although some knowledge of traditional arts have been lost as times change, practicing
4620-657: The Cayuse War , Yakima War , Coeur d'Alene War , Modoc War , and Nez Perce War , natives on the southern plateau were confined on reservations and their traditional lifestyle was largely disrupted. Plateau peoples generally self-identified by their wintering village or band, as opposed to a tribe. Intermarrying between groups was common and in many cases encouraged. Different groups shared hunting and foraging ranges. After European contact, natives were classified into tribes led by chiefs, in order to facilitate negotiation and land settlements. Commonly recognized plateau tribes include
4752-694: The Chilcotin and Carrier , occupy the northernmost part of the Plateau region. The First Nations of the Plateau were influenced by the First Nations of the Pacific Coast. The Plateau First Nations traded many goods with the Pacific Coast First Nations. The Pacific tribes believed in clan ancestors which were adopted by the Interior Salish groups, but they did not adopt the social system. In
4884-476: The Columbia Plateau tribes and emerged from the pressures of colonization during the second half of the nineteenth century. The Dreamer Cult developed as a mix of traditional spirituality and aspects of Christianity. The Dreamer prophets rejected non-Native culture and belief systems. The prophets advocated returning to traditional ways of life. "[P]rior to contact, Plateau Indian spirituality revolved around
5016-722: The East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers . Lady Mary Wortley Montagu observed smallpox inoculation during her stay in the Ottoman Empire , writing detailed accounts of the practice in her letters, and enthusiastically promoted the procedure in England upon her return in 1718. According to Voltaire (1742), the Turks derived their use of inoculation from neighbouring Circassia . Voltaire does not speculate on where
5148-560: The Nez Perce language . Traditional Plateau cuisine include wild plants, fish, especially salmon , and game. Plateau peoples often had seasonal villages or encampment in different areas to take full advantage of the wild foods. Women gathered a large variety of edible vegetables and fruits, including camassia , bitterroot , kouse root , serviceberry , chokecherry , huckleberry , and wild strawberry . Camas lily bulbs were an important but dangerous staple. Common camas, camassia quamash,
5280-659: The Spokane River . In total, the reservation is about 615 square kilometres (237 sq mi). The city of Spokane, Washington (Sʎˈetkʷ) is named after the tribe. It developed along the Spokane River, within the historic ancestral land of the tribe, but not within the reservation (see map). The Spokane language (Npoqínišcn) belongs to the Interior Salishan language family , being a dialect of Montana Salish . Therefore they are close kin both by language and culture to
5412-470: The horsepox virus using publicly available sequence data for horsepox. The researchers argued that their work would be beneficial to creating a safer and more effective vaccine for smallpox, although an effective vaccine is already available. The horsepox virus had previously seemed to have gone extinct, raising concern about potential revival of variola major and causing other scientists to question their motives. Critics found it especially concerning that
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5544-468: The replication of viral DNA. The first set of expressed genes are transcribed by pre-existing viral machinery packaged within the infecting virion. These genes encode the factors necessary for viral DNA synthesis and for transcription of the next set of expressed genes. Unlike most DNA viruses, DNA replication in variola virus and other poxviruses takes place within the cytoplasm of the infected cell. The exact timing of DNA replication after infection of
5676-559: The smallpox vaccine . Once the disease had developed, certain antiviral medications could potentially have helped, but such medications did not become available until after the disease was eradicated. The risk of death was about 30%, with higher rates among babies. Often, those who survived had extensive scarring of their skin, and some were left blind. The earliest evidence of the disease dates to around 1500 BC in Egyptian mummies . The disease historically occurred in outbreaks . It
5808-624: The 18th and 19th centuries. Variola virus is large and brick-shaped and is approximately 302 to 350 nanometers by 244 to 270 nm, with a single linear double stranded DNA genome 186 kilobase pairs (kbp) in size and containing a hairpin loop at each end. Four orthopoxviruses cause infection in humans: variola, vaccinia , cowpox , and monkeypox . Variola virus infects only humans in nature, although primates and other animals have been infected in an experimental setting. Vaccinia, cowpox, and monkeypox viruses can infect both humans and other animals in nature. The life cycle of poxviruses
5940-456: The 18th century. In 1796, Edward Jenner introduced the modern smallpox vaccine. In 1967, the WHO intensified efforts to eliminate the disease. Smallpox is one of two infectious diseases to have been eradicated, the other being rinderpest (a disease of even-toed ungulates ) in 2011. The term "smallpox" was first used in England in the 16th century to distinguish the disease from syphilis , which
6072-752: The Circassians derived their technique from, though he reports that the Chinese have practiced it "these hundred years". In 1721, Cotton Mather and colleagues provoked controversy in Boston by inoculating hundreds. After publishing The present method of inoculating for the small-pox in 1767, Dr Thomas Dimsdale was invited to Russia to variolate the Empress Catherine the Great of Russia and her son, Grand Duke Paul , which he successfully did in 1768. In 1796, Edward Jenner ,
6204-707: The Columbia Plateau peoples until the early 1890s, when the major prophets died and their followers began to lose faith in the promise of a world free of white people. The closest contemporary religion to the Washani is the Seven Drums Religion . Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau , also referred to by the phrase Indigenous peoples of
6336-692: The Colville people (Sxʷyelpetkʷ). Not all the Spokane people moved from their traditional territory, which caused some conflict with white settlers. In the Coeur d'Alene War of 1858, the Spokane had allied with the Coeur d'Alene (Sčicwˈi), Yakima (Yiʔaqmeʔ), Palouse , and Paiute peoples against the European Americans. In the Nez Perce War of 1877, they remained neutral despite pleas from Nez Perce (Saʕaptni) chief Chief Joseph to join him in trying to expel
6468-746: The Fraser River Valley from Lillooet to Alexandria, the upper parts of the Thompson River basin, and areas further east; the Okanagan of the Okanagan River Valley and its vicinity; also the Lakes people of the Arrow Lakes. The Kutenai tribe, who live in the southeastern parts of British Columbia and formerly extended to southwestern Alberta , speak an isolate language. Athapaskan -speaking people,
6600-668: The Little Spokane River and all the country east of the Lower Spokane to within the borders of the Coeur d'Alene and Kalispel, sometimes their name is given as Sineka'lt ("[People] at the Rapids"). The Middle Spokane or Snxʷme̓nʔey (Snx'w'meney) ("People of the steelhead river, i.e. Little Spokane River") occupied the area near Spokane Falls to Hangman (Latah) Creek and Deep Creek to Tum Tum, Middle Spokane territory includes Spokane House,
6732-832: The Plateau , and historically called the Plateau Indians (though comprising many groups) are Indigenous peoples of the Interior of British Columbia , Canada, and the non-coastal regions of the Northwestern United States. Their territories are located in the inland portions of the basins of the Columbia and Fraser Rivers . These tribes mainly live in parts of the Central and Southern Interior of British Columbia , northern Idaho , western Montana , eastern Washington , eastern Oregon , and northeastern California . The eastern flank of
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#17329056078176864-449: The Rao classification: ordinary, modified, malignant (or flat), and hemorrhagic smallpox. Historically, ordinary smallpox had an overall fatality rate of about 30%, and the malignant and hemorrhagic forms were usually fatal. The modified form was almost never fatal. In early hemorrhagic cases, hemorrhages occurred before any skin lesions developed. The incubation period between contraction and
6996-673: The Snake river through Hells Canyon. The Cayuse homeland is the Blue Mountains and the valleys of the rivers that flow from them. The Molala inhabited the eastern side of the cascade mountains in Oregon. The Klamath people inhabited the upper Klamath River basin and had close contact with people from the California cultural area , though their lifestyle and language were more characteristic of plateau culture. The Columbia River below Celilo Falls
7128-544: The Spokane and related waterways, to generate hydroelectric power and provide water for irrigation in the arid eastern part of the state, has also affected the Spokane people. Construction of the Little Falls dam resulted in the end of most of the salmon run at Spokane Falls . The Grand Coulee Dam , on the Columbia River, blocked salmon from migrating upriver and ended all salmon runs on the Spokane River. The Spokane Tribe
7260-402: The Spokane diet and also a large part of the trade economy. The Spokane people also ate trout and whitefish. They would smoke or dry the fish for trade or for storage in winter. Fish eyes were considered delicacies. Plants gathered by women provided nearly half of the caloric intake for the Spokane tribe. Men of the Spokane tribe created tools, fished, and hunted. After the tribe acquired horses,
7392-542: The Spokane people is estimated to be about 1,400 to 2,500 people. The populations of the tribe began to diminish after contact with settlers and traders due to mortality from new infectious diseases endemic among the Europeans, and to which the Spokane had no acquired immunity. By 1829 a Hudson's Bay Company trader estimated there were about 700 Spokane people in the area. Since the early 20th century, their population has been steadily increasing: in 1985 tribal enrolled membership
7524-636: The Spokane people were dwindling in population from introduced Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox , which were endemic among Europeans. Shortly after the encounter with the Lewis and Clark Expedition, fur traders and settlers arrived. In 1810, the North West Company opened the Spokane House near the confluence of the Spokane and Little Spokane (Nxweme'a'tkxy - "river where the Steelhead trout run") rivers as
7656-471: The Sun", or "Muddy people". According to Pritzker (2011), these interpretations are most probably popular etymologies (or "faulty translations") derived from an actual self-designation of Spoqe'ind , meaning "round head." The interpretation of "children of the Sun" was reported by Thomas Symons (1882), who attributed it to Ross Cox (1831), who mentioned the name of a chief in the region as Illim-Spokanée "Son of
7788-567: The Sun". The word for "Sun" is recorded as spukani for Bitterroot Salish , but as sokemm in Okanagan , and as ałdarench in Coeur d'Alene, all members of the Interior Salish branch of Salish. The word sqeliz , meaning "people", is also recorded as an autonym. For thousands of years the Spokane people lived near the Spokane River in the territory of present-day eastern Washington and northern Idaho , surviving by hunting and gathering. Spokane territory once sprawled over three million acres (12,000 km²) of land. The Spokanes lived along
7920-737: The United States at the CDC in Atlanta, and one at the Vector Institute in Koltsovo, Russia. Research with the remaining virus samples is tightly controlled, and each research proposal must be approved by the WHO and the World Health Assembly (WHA). Most research on poxviruses is performed using the closely related Vaccinia virus as a model organism. Vaccinia virus, which is used to vaccinate for smallpox,
8052-557: The United States, Great Britain, and South Africa in the early 20th century, becoming the dominant form of the disease in those areas and thus rapidly decreasing mortality rates. Along with variola major, the minor form has now been totally eradicated from the globe. The last case of indigenous variola minor was reported in a Somali cook, Ali Maow Maalin, in October 1977, and smallpox was officially declared eradicated worldwide in May 1980. Variola minor
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#17329056078178184-565: The United States, Interior Salish people inhabited the Columbia River and its tributaries above Priest Rapids , near present-day Mattawa . Sahaptin people inhabited the Columbia River and its tributaries between Priest Rapids and Celilo Falls near the Dalles, Oregon and up the Snake River to near the Washington - Idaho border. The Nez Perce inhabited the Clearwater and Salmon River basins and
8316-517: The WHO eradication campaign. A genome browser for a complete database of annotated sequences of variola virus and other poxviruses is publicly available through the Viral Bioinformatics Resource Center . The WHO currently bans genetic engineering of the variola virus. However, in 2004, a committee advisory to the WHO voted in favor of allowing editing of the genome of the two remaining samples of variola major virus to add
8448-507: The absence of Guarnieri bodies could not be used to rule out smallpox. The diagnosis of an orthopoxvirus infection can also be made rapidly by electron microscopic examination of pustular fluid or scabs. All orthopoxviruses exhibit identical brick-shaped virions by electron microscopy. If particles with the characteristic morphology of herpesviruses are seen this will eliminate smallpox and other orthopoxvirus infections. Definitive laboratory identification of variola virus involved growing
8580-404: The amount of salmon available. Hunting provided less than ten percent of food for some Chinook and Sahaptin groups on the Columbia River. Further upstream there was greater reliance on hunting. Plateau tribes excelled in the art of basketry. They most commonly used hemp dogbane , tule, sagebrush , or willow bark. These materials were also used to make hats, bedding, nets, and cordage. Basketry
8712-552: The area. They were semi-subterranean pit-houses , with well insulated roofs. Logs were carved into steps at the entrances. Dried food was stored outside these winter houses. In the summer, the Salishan people lived in tule mat houses. Other tribes made their homes out of pieces of cedar or spruce bark. The slanted roofs of cedar homes extended near to the ground, while the spruce-bark houses resembles to adjacent tents. Plateau people wore many types of clothing which changed over time. In
8844-448: The bloodstream in large numbers, a condition known as viremia . This resulted in the second wave of multiplication in the spleen , bone marrow , and lymph nodes. The clinical definition of ordinary smallpox is an illness with acute onset of fever equal to or greater than 38.3 °C (101 °F) followed by a rash characterized by firm, deep-seated vesicles or pustules in the same stage of development without other apparent cause. When
8976-424: The case-fatality rate in confluent smallpox was 62%. Referring to the character of the eruption and the rapidity of its development, modified smallpox occurred mostly in previously vaccinated people. It was rare in unvaccinated people, with one case study showing 1–2% of modified cases compared to around 25% in vaccinated people. In this form, the prodromal illness still occurred but may have been less severe than in
9108-477: The central region of the genome is highly consistent across orthopoxviruses , and the arrangement of genes is consistent across chordopoxviruses. The center of the variola virus genome contains the majority of the essential viral genes, including the genes for structural proteins , DNA replication , transcription , and mRNA synthesis. The ends of the genome vary more across strains and species of orthopoxviruses . These regions contain proteins that modulate
9240-503: The closely related Vaccinia virus . The public availability of the variola virus complete sequence has raised concerns about the possibility of illicit synthesis of infectious virus. Vaccinia , a cousin of the variola virus, was artificially synthesized in 2002 by NIH scientists. They used a previously established method that involved using a recombinant viral genome to create a self-replicating bacterial plasmid that produced viral particles. In 2016, another group synthesized
9372-621: The course of the illness, but this happened most frequently during the first week of the rash when most of the skin lesions were intact. Infectivity waned in 7 to 10 days when scabs formed over the lesions, but the infected person was contagious until the last smallpox scab fell off. Concern about possible use of smallpox for biological warfare led in 2002 to Donald K. Milton's detailed review of existing research on its transmission and of then-current recommendations for controlling its spread. He agreed, citing Rao, Fenner and others, that “careful epidemiologic investigation rarely implicated fomites as
9504-403: The diagnosis of infection. Chickenpox was commonly confused with smallpox in the immediate post-eradication era. Chickenpox and smallpox could be distinguished by several methods. Unlike smallpox, chickenpox does not usually affect the palms and soles. Additionally, chickenpox pustules are of varying size due to variations in the timing of pustule eruption: smallpox pustules are all very nearly
9636-400: The distal parts of the extremities than on the proximal. The palms of the hands and soles of the feet were involved in most cases. Sometimes, the blisters merged into sheets, forming a confluent rash, which began to detach the outer layers of skin from the underlying flesh. Patients with confluent smallpox often remained ill even after scabs had formed over all the lesions. In one case series,
9768-459: The east, and moved onto the plateau in late pre-historic times. Outside influences began changing life on the plateau decades before the first direct contact with Europeans. There is strong evidence the smallpox epidemic of the 1770s spread across the plateau region, greatly reducing the population. Members of the Lewis and Clark Expedition were the first Europeans to encounter plateau natives, followed
9900-686: The federal government and the tribe, the people ceded most of their territory, accepting removal to the Spokane Reservation , which was established in 1881. In 1877, the Lower Spokane people (Scqesciłni) agreed to move to the Spokane Reservation. In 1887 the Upper (Sntʔtʔúlixʷ) and Middle Spokane people (Snxʷme̓nʔey) agreed to move to the Colville Reservation predominately inhabited by
10032-492: The fine skills are still an important part of their way of life. Mothers and grandmothers decorate their children's outfits for celebration and dancing. Beaded items, such as drums, woven bags and other crafts are used in traditional celebrations and special occasions. Such regalia is used for days during the Spirit Dance , which occurred once a year. Smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus), which belongs to
10164-435: The first obvious symptoms of the disease was 7–14 days. At least 90% of smallpox cases among unvaccinated persons were of the ordinary type. In this form of the disease, by the second day of the rash the macules had become raised papules . By the third or fourth day, the papules had filled with an opalescent fluid to become vesicles . This fluid became opaque and turbid within 24–48 hours, resulting in pustules . By
10296-423: The first visible lesions – small reddish spots called enanthem – appeared on mucous membranes of the mouth, tongue, palate , and throat, and the temperature fell to near-normal. These lesions rapidly enlarged and ruptured, releasing large amounts of virus into the saliva. Variola virus tended to attack skin cells, causing the characteristic pimples, or macules , associated with the disease. A rash developed on
10428-609: The following: Plateau tribes primarily spoke Interior Salish languages in the north and Plateau Penutian languages in the south. Chinookan languages were spoken on the lower Columbia and Kalapuyan languages were spoken in the Willamette valley. These are often classified as Penutian languages , but this classification is not universally agreed upon. In the northernmost portion of the plateau Athabaskan languages were spoken. Each of these language families consisted of multiple languages that were not mutually intelligible . Many of
10560-408: The genome of vaccinia , a related virus used for vaccination against smallpox. Gene expression of variola virus occurs entirely within the cytoplasm of the host cell , and follows a distinct progression during infection. After entry of an infectious virion into a host cell, synthesis of viral mRNA can be detected within 20 minutes. About half of the viral genome is transcribed prior to
10692-467: The genus Orthopoxvirus . The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) certified the global eradication of the disease in 1980, making smallpox the only human disease to have been eradicated to date. The initial symptoms of the disease included fever and vomiting. This was followed by formation of ulcers in the mouth and
10824-429: The group was able to recreate viable virus in a short time frame with relatively little cost or effort. Although the WHO bans individual laboratories from synthesizing more than 20% of the genome at a time, and purchases of smallpox genome fragments are monitored and regulated, a group with malicious intentions could compile, from multiple sources, the full synthetic genome necessary to produce viable virus. Smallpox
10956-495: The hosts' immune systems, and are primarily responsible for the variability in virulence across the orthopoxvirus family. These terminal regions in poxviruses are inverted terminal repetitions (ITR) sequences. These sequences are identical but oppositely oriented on either end of the genome, leading to the genome being a continuous loop of DNA. Components of the ITR sequences include an incompletely base paired A/T rich hairpin loop ,
11088-525: The individual languages had several dialects with significant differences. The Ktunaxa speak the Kutenai language , which is a language isolate . The Cayuse language died out shortly after European contact and is poorly documented. It is sometimes called an isolate, and sometimes classified as Penutian, most closely related to the Molala language . Even before relocation onto reservations, many Cayuse had adopted
11220-512: The inside of the lodge. In later years, the people used canvas instead of tule mats. Beginning in the 18th century, Plateau peoples adopted tipis from the Plains Indians. They were made of a pole framework, covered with animal skins or mats woven from reeds. Each month, women would stay temporary in round menstrual huts, measuring about 20 feet (6.1 m) in diameter. Interior Salish winter homes are distinct from those of First Nations in
11352-457: The last 100 years of its existence. Earlier deaths included six European monarchs , including Louis XV of France in 1774. As recently as 1967, 15 million cases occurred a year. The final known fatal case occurred in the United Kingdom in 1978 . Inoculation for smallpox appears to have started in China around the 1500s. Europe adopted this practice from Asia in the first half of
11484-436: The lesions remained almost flush with the skin at the time when raised vesicles would have formed in the ordinary type. It is unknown why some people developed this type. Historically, it accounted for 5–10% of cases, and most (72%) were children. Malignant smallpox was accompanied by a severe prodromal phase that lasted 3–4 days, prolonged high fever, and severe symptoms of viremia . The prodromal symptoms continued even after
11616-406: The lower respiratory tract] are maintained”. Once inhaled, the variola virus invaded the mucous membranes of the mouth, throat, and respiratory tract. From there, it migrated to regional lymph nodes and began to multiply. In the initial growth phase, the virus seemed to move from cell to cell, but by around the 12th day, widespread lysis of infected cells occurred and the virus could be found in
11748-452: The malignant (flat) and hemorrhagic forms, which were usually fatal. The initial symptoms were similar to other viral diseases that are still extant, such as influenza and the common cold : fever of at least 38.3 °C (101 °F), muscle pain , malaise , headache and fatigue. As the digestive tract was commonly involved, nausea, vomiting, and backache often occurred. The early prodromal stage usually lasted 2–4 days. By days 12–15,
11880-743: The men cared for and trained these animals, and horses became a measure of wealth. The animals allowed the people to travel wider territories, and were used also to carry or pull their supplies. The men rode the horses during hunting and warfare. Horses were introduced to the Spokane tribe from either the Nez Perce , Kalispel , or Flathead tribe. By about 1800, the Spokane tribe was acquiring herds, showing that they had fully embraced use of these animals. Spokane women made coiled baskets out of birch bark (or from cedar roots). They wove wallets and bags from strips of processed animal hide. They would also sew mats and other items which were sometimes traded with other Native peoples and white traders and settlers. Some of
12012-433: The neighboring Bitterroot Salish (Flathead) (Tˈatˈʔayaqn) and Pend d'Oreilles . They were in loose alliance with other Plateau tribes - and sometimes the Kutenai (Sqlˈse), Crow Nation (Stemčiʔ) and Cree-Assiniboine (Iron Confederacy) (Ncoʕʷaqs) joined in - against their common enemy (Sˈmen), the mighty Blackfoot Confederacy (Sčqˈʷišni) and later Lakota people (Hułnʔixʷtˈusm) on the east. The precontact population of
12144-453: The northern region, the women wore buckskin shirts, breech cloths, leggings, and moccasins, and the men wore longer shirts. Winter clothing was made out of rabbit, groundhog, or other animals' fur. Along the Columbia River among the Chinook and Sahaptin, both men and women typically wore just a breech cloth in warm weather. A short robe or cape and leggings would be added in cooler weather. Below
12276-404: The onset of the rash. The rash on the mucous membranes ( enanthem ) was extensive. Skin lesions matured slowly, were typically confluent or semi-confluent, and by the seventh or eighth day, they were flat and appeared to be buried in the skin. Unlike ordinary-type smallpox, the vesicles contained little fluid, were soft and velvety to the touch, and may have contained hemorrhages. Malignant smallpox
12408-429: The oral, nasal, or pharyngeal mucosa of an infected person. It was transmitted from one person to another primarily through prolonged face-to-face contact with an infected person. Some infections of laundry workers with smallpox after handling contaminated bedding suggested that smallpox could be spread through direct contact with contaminated objects ( fomites ), but this was found to be rare. Also rarely, smallpox
12540-416: The ordinary type. There was usually no fever during the evolution of the rash. The skin lesions tended to be fewer and evolved more quickly, were more superficial, and may not have shown the uniform characteristic of more typical smallpox. Modified smallpox was rarely, if ever, fatal. This form of variola major was more easily confused with chickenpox . In malignant-type smallpox (also called flat smallpox)
12672-573: The person was infected with variola virus, a severe infection could result, and the person could transmit smallpox to others. Variolation had a 0.5–2 percent mortality rate, considerably less than the 20–30 percent mortality rate of smallpox. Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Dr. Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of
12804-485: The plants they gathered were camas roots and local berries and barks. The women used digging sticks to uproot and gather their food. It was a fundamental tool for their lives, and it was a rite of passage for young girls to be given their first digging sticks. Women's graves were often marked with these sticks. A Spokane religion was the Dreamer Cult , also called Washani, meaning "worship" or "dancers". It developed in
12936-552: The plateau. This process was still occurring at the time of European contact. Around 1730, horses were introduced onto the plateau from the Great Basin and were first adopted by the Cayuse and Nez Perce. This greatly changed the range and lifestyle of these groups. This transition was still underway when Europeans arrived. According to their oral tradition, the Kutenai people originated to
13068-493: The practice arrived in Europe. The idea that inoculation originated in India has been challenged, as few of the ancient Sanskrit medical texts described the process of inoculation. Accounts of inoculation against smallpox in China can be found as early as the late 10th century, and the procedure was widely practiced by the 16th century, during the Ming dynasty . If successful, inoculation produced lasting immunity to smallpox. Because
13200-502: The prehistory of the plateau region can be partially reconstructed by a combination of oral traditions, linguistics and archeological evidence. There is archeological evidence of human presence on the plateau for at least 12,000 years. The Marmes Rockshelter and Kennewick Man are two examples of early human presence. Over time human technologies adapted to the unique environment. Earth ovens near camas meadows have been found that are up to 8,000 years old. Around 4,000 years ago, there
13332-416: The pustules had deflated and began to dry up, forming crusts or scabs. By day 16–20 scabs had formed over all of the lesions, which had started to flake off, leaving depigmented scars. Ordinary smallpox generally produced a discrete rash, in which the pustules stood out on the skin separately. The distribution of the rash was most dense on the face, denser on the extremities than on the trunk, and denser on
13464-481: The river in three bands known as the Upper, Middle and Lower Spokane Indians. The Spokane bands were semi nomadic , following game and plants on a seasonal basis for nine months of the year, and settling in permanent winter villages for the other three. The first Europeans whom the Spokane people had contact with were fur traders and explorers. The Lewis and Clark Expedition encountered the Spokane tribe in 1805. Already
13596-454: The same size since the viral effect progresses more uniformly. A variety of laboratory methods were available for detecting chickenpox in the evaluation of suspected smallpox cases. The earliest procedure used to prevent smallpox was inoculation with variola minor virus (a method later known as variolation after the introduction of smallpox vaccine to avoid possible confusion), which likely occurred in India, Africa, and China well before
13728-491: The separation of variola virus from Taterapox (an Orthopoxvirus of some African rodents including gerbils ) at 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. This is consistent with archaeological and historical evidence regarding the appearance of smallpox as a human disease which suggests a relatively recent origin. If the mutation rate is assumed to be similar to that of the herpesviruses , the divergence date of variola virus from Taterapox has been estimated to be 50,000 years ago. While this
13860-507: The settlers. Prior to colonization by European-Americans, Chewelah was home to a band of the Kalispel people. The band was known as the slet̓éw̓si, meaning "valley people". The Chewelah Band of Indians is currently part of the Spokane Tribe. Around the 1950s, uranium was discovered on the reservation. With the development of nuclear weapons and other tools, it was considered highly valuable. It
13992-493: The site of the first permanent white settlement in Washington State, another variant of their name is Snxwemi'ne ("People of the steelhead trout place"). The Lower Spokane or Scqesciłni (Scqecioni) ("People of Little Falls") traditionally occupied the lower Spokane River from Little Falls to the confluence of the Columbia River, also known as Squasi'lni ("Fishers", after a settlement name). Individual bands were led by
14124-405: The sixth or seventh day, all the skin lesions had become pustules. Between seven and ten days the pustules had matured and reached their maximum size. The pustules were sharply raised, typically round, tense, and firm to the touch. The pustules were deeply embedded in the dermis, giving them the feel of a small bead in the skin. Fluid slowly leaked from the pustules, and by the end of the second week,
14256-481: The skin 24 to 48 hours after lesions on the mucous membranes appeared. Typically the macules first appeared on the forehead, then rapidly spread to the whole face, proximal portions of extremities, the trunk, and lastly to distal portions of extremities. The process took no more than 24 to 36 hours, after which no new lesions appeared. At this point, variola major disease could take several very different courses, which resulted in four types of smallpox disease based on
14388-520: The spleen, kidney, serous membranes , skeletal muscles, pericardium , liver, gonads and bladder. Historically, this condition was frequently misdiagnosed, with the correct diagnosis made only at autopsy. This form is more likely to occur in pregnant women than in the general population (approximately 16% of cases in unvaccinated pregnant women were early hemorrhagic smallpox, versus roughly 1% in nonpregnant women and adult males). The case fatality rate of early hemorrhagic smallpox approaches 100%. There
14520-404: The tribe cooked the roots in a shallow pit filled up with hot stones. When the ground around the stones was hot enough, the stones were removed, and bulbs were placed in the hole to cook overnight. Plateau women made berry cakes using Saskatoon berries or huckleberries . The berries were dried on racks covered with leaves. Most plateau groups also gathered a lichen ( Bryoria fremontii ), which
14652-584: The tribes on the plains east of the Rocky Mountains for bison meat and hides. Groups of hunters rode far to hunt bison, deer , and elk . In the spring and fall, salmon would swim up rivers from the Pacific Ocean. Plateau fishermen learned many ways to trap salmon. Dipnets , gaffs , or gigs were used depending on the fishing spot. On primary rivers, seine nets were used in spots where salmon or eels were known to congregate. Stakes were lined up to make
14784-403: The use of metal items such as pots, needles, and guns acquired from trade with Europeans. Plateau housing included longhouses roofed with summer tule mats. Tule, used for many purposes, is a tall, tough reed that grows in marshy areas and is sometimes called bulrush . For winter quarters, the people dug a pit a few feet into the ground and constructed a framework of poles over it, meeting in
14916-475: The vesicular stage. Hemorrhages in the mucous membranes appear to occur less often than in the early hemorrhagic form. Sometimes the rash forms pustules which bleed at the base and then undergo the same process as in ordinary smallpox. This form of the disease is characterized by a decrease in all of the elements of the coagulation cascade and an increase in circulating antithrombin . This form of smallpox occurs anywhere from 3% to 25% of fatal cases, depending on
15048-439: The virulence of the smallpox strain. Most people with the late-stage form die within eight to 10 days of illness. Among the few who recover, the hemorrhagic lesions gradually disappear after a long period of convalescence. The case fatality rate for late hemorrhagic smallpox is around 90–95%. Pregnant women are slightly more likely to experience this form of the disease, though not as much as early hemorrhagic smallpox. Smallpox
15180-442: The virus on chorioallantoic membrane (part of a chicken embryo ) and examining the resulting pock lesions under defined temperature conditions. Strains were characterized by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. Serologic tests and enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), which measured variola virus-specific immunoglobulin and antigen were also developed to assist in
15312-748: Was a lack of social stratification and a lack of tribal organization beyond the village level. In Canada, the greater part of the Interior Plateau was inhabited by Interior Salish peoples: the Lillooet tribe whose homelands are in the Lillooet River Valley; the Thompson First Nations , whose homelands are in the Fraser River Valley from Yale to Lillooet; the Secwepemc (Shuswap) of
15444-434: Was a shift in the archeological record from small bands to larger semi-sedentary villages, and a shift towards root processing tools, hallmarks of plateau culture. Linguists and oral traditions point to several comparatively recent movements of people. According to language comparisons, the interior Salish peoples expanded onto the plateau from the vicinity of the lower Fraser River. This expansion reached as far as Montana,
15576-431: Was also called white pox, kaffir pox, Cuban itch, West Indian pox, milk pox, and pseudovariola. The genome of variola major virus is about 186,000 base pairs in length. It is made from linear double stranded DNA and contains the coding sequence for about 200 genes . The genes are usually not overlapping and typically occur in blocks that point towards the closer terminal region of the genome. The coding sequence of
15708-512: Was complete around 1,500 years ago. Likewise, Athabaskans on the plateau are part of a relatively recent expansion from northern Canada and Alaska, as recently as 1,000 years ago. The Kalapuya people spread into the Willamette Valley, likely from the south, in the last 1,000 years. The recent expansion of Numic people across the Great Basin displaced several groups on the southern edge of
15840-462: Was cooked in pits similar to, and sometimes together with, camas. Gathering and processing of wild plants by the women is still a traditional way of life among many of the people of these tribes today. The men supplemented the diet by hunting and fishing, with salmon making up a major part of their food supply. When horses were introduced to the area, the world of the Plateau people expanded after they adopted use of horses, allowing them to trade with
15972-428: Was highly contagious, but generally spread more slowly and less widely than some other viral diseases, perhaps because transmission required close contact and occurred after the onset of the rash. The overall rate of infection was also affected by the short duration of the infectious stage. In temperate areas, the number of smallpox infections was highest during the winter and spring. In tropical areas, seasonal variation
16104-773: Was inhabited by Chinook people . Chinook people on the lowest portion of the Columbia are considered part of the Northwest Coast . Sahaptin groups also lived in Western Washington on the Mashel River and upper Cowlitz River . The Willamette Valley was inhabited by the Kalapuya people . Having no major salmon run, their culture was somewhat different from other plateau people, maintaining oak savannas similar to many California natives. While plateau people kept no written records,
16236-442: Was less evident and the disease was present throughout the year. Age distribution of smallpox infections depended on acquired immunity . Vaccination immunity declined over time and was probably lost within thirty years. Smallpox was not known to be transmitted by insects or animals and there was no asymptomatic carrier state. Transmission occurred through inhalation of airborne variola virus, usually droplets expressed from
16368-493: Was mined (under leases arranged on behalf of the Spokane by the federal government) from 1956 to 1962 out of an open pit . This practice was ended, and from 1969 to 1982, uranium was mined at the Midnite Mine . The now inactive mine is on the list of Superfund cleanup sites, as the mining process left the grounds and underground water highly contaminated by metals, radionucleides and acidic drainage . The creation of dams on
16500-421: Was nearly always fatal and death usually occurred between the 8th and 12th day of illness. Often, a day or two before death, the lesions turned ashen gray, which, along with abdominal distension, was a bad prognostic sign. This form is thought to be caused by deficient cell-mediated immunity to smallpox. If the person recovered, the lesions gradually faded and did not form scars or scabs. Hemorrhagic smallpox
16632-532: Was one of several diseases introduced by the Columbian exchange to the New World , resulting in large swathes of Native Americans dying . In 18th-century Europe, it is estimated that 400,000 people died from the disease per year, and that one-third of all cases of blindness were due to smallpox. Smallpox is estimated to have killed up to 300 million people in the 20th century and around 500 million people in
16764-657: Was particularly important because plateau tribes used no pottery. Water was boiled in baskets by inserting heated stones. Ancestors of the Plateau Indians created the oldest known shoes in the world, the Fort Rock sandals , made of twined sagebrush and dated between 10,390 and 9650 years BP . Tools were made from wood, stone and bone. Arrows for hunting were made from wood and tipped with arrow-heads chipped from special rocks. Antlers from animals were used for digging roots. In addition to their traditional tools, they later adopted
16896-435: Was reported as 1,961. In 2019 the tribe reported its population to be around 2,900 people. The name Spokane is first recorded in 1807. According to George Gibbs , the name was used by the Coeur d'Alene for one specific band of the Spokane, later transferred to all allied bands. A number of possible interpretations of the name have been proposed. Most frequently, the name has been translated as "Sun children", "Children of
17028-440: Was spread by virus carried in the air in enclosed settings such as buildings, buses, and trains. The virus can cross the placenta , but the incidence of congenital smallpox was relatively low. Smallpox was not notably infectious in the prodromal period and viral shedding was usually delayed until the appearance of the rash, which was often accompanied by lesions in the mouth and pharynx. The virus can be transmitted throughout
17160-404: Was the primary cause of smallpox outbreaks across Asia and most of Africa. Meanwhile, variola minor was more commonly found in regions of Europe, North America, South America, and certain parts of Africa. Variola minor virus, also called alastrim, was a less common form of the virus, and much less deadly. Although variola minor had the same incubation period and pathogenetic stages as smallpox, it
17292-511: Was the variola major strains (the more clinically severe form of smallpox) which spread from Asia between 400 and 1,600 years ago. A second clade included both alastrim (a phenotypically mild smallpox) described from the American continents and isolates from West Africa which diverged from an ancestral strain between 1,400 and 6,300 years before present. This clade further diverged into two subclades at least 800 years ago. A second estimate has placed
17424-401: Was then known as the "great pox". Other historical names for the disease include pox, speckled monster, and red plague. The United States and Russia retain samples of variola virus in laboratories, which has sparked debates over safety . There are two forms of the smallpox. Variola major is the severe and most common form, with a more extensive rash and higher fever. Variola minor is
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