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104-482: Its member states include Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Moldova, North Macedonia, Romania, Slovenia, Serbia, Turkey and Montenegro. SECI's observer states are Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Canada, France, Georgia, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Kosovo, Ukraine, United Kingdom and the United States of America as well as its observer International Organizations are

208-427: A collapse. Sanctions on fuel meant that fuel stations across the country ran out of petrol, and foreign assets were seized. The average income of inhabitants of FR Yugoslavia was halved from $ 3,000 to $ 1,500. An estimated 3 million Yugoslavs (Serbs and Montenegrins) lived below the poverty line, suicide rates increased by 22% and hospitals lacked basic equipment. Along with this, supply links were cut, which meant that

312-583: A growing desire for independence emerged among the Albanian majority population. Already, an unrecognised Republic of Kosova had emerged with underground institutions. In 1996, the Kosovo Liberation Army , an Albanian militia promoting Kosovar independence, launched attacks against Serbian police stations, killing at least ten Serbian policemen in direct attacks between 1996 and 1998. The low level insurgency eventually escalated. After Slobodan Milošević

416-703: A military offensive by the Croatian Army , and NATO involvement in the Bosnian War, President Slobodan Milošević agreed to negotiate, as the Serbian position within Bosnia had become substantially worse. Under threat of economically crippling the Republika Srpska, he took over negotiating powers for all Serbian secessionist movements, as well as FR Yugoslavia. The ensuing Dayton Agreements , signed between representatives from

520-599: A need for greater stability in the region. His initial plan, called the Southeast European Cooperative Development Initiative, was intended to focus on regional cooperation of the countries in Southeast Europe (SEE), and not be considered a financial assistance plan. The idea was to allow SEE countries access to resources that would help them rebuild and stabilize, but not to provide money. Instead, outside organizations and countries like

624-517: A new constitution in 1992, which established the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia essentially as a rump state , with a population consisting of a majority of Serbs. The new state abandoned the Communist legacy: the red star was removed from the national flag, and the communist coat of arms was replaced by a new coat of arms representing Serbia and Montenegro. The new state also established the office of

728-526: A resolution approving the agreement to transform IOM into an affiliated organization of the UN. This agreement has strengthened the relationship between IOM and the UN and improved its ability to fulfill its respective mandates in the interests of migrants and Member States. The IOM supported the creation of the Global Compact for Migration , the first-ever intergovernmental agreement on international migration which

832-399: A strategic advantage, Yugoslav Army units found themselves in a tactical advantage against KLA units which lacked proper training. VJ units themselves lacked morale, and attacks were often directed against civilian targets rather than military targets. 863,000 Albanian civilians were forcibly expelled between March and June 1999 from Kosovo. 169,824 Serb and Romani civilians were estimated by

936-695: A tense relationship with the international community , as economic sanctions were issued against the state during the course of the Yugoslav Wars and Kosovo War . This also resulted in hyperinflation between 1992 and 1994 . FR Yugoslavia's involvement in the Yugoslav Wars ended with the Dayton Agreement , which recognized the independence of the Republics of Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as establishing diplomatic relationships between

1040-418: A union with Serbia, Montenegro, and Krajina, thus he supported a union which would secure the unity of Serbs and Bosniaks. Milošević continued negotiations with Zulfikarpašić to include Bosnia and Herzegovina within a new Yugoslavia, however efforts to include entire Bosnia and Herzegovina within a new Yugoslavia effectively terminated by late 1991 as Izetbegović planned to hold a referendum on independence while

1144-451: A view to increasing efficiency in the flow of goods and improved trade, identification of bottlenecks at main international traffic corridors, creation of networks and zones of energy efficiency, investing in the promotion of networks of pipelines and their connections with international pipelines, provision of funds for the promotion of entrepreneurship, primarily through projects of small and medium-sized enterprises, etc. The SECI initiative

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1248-540: Is Amy Pope from the United States of America , with Ugochi Daniels from Nigeria serving as Deputy Directors General. The organization's global mandate includes assistance to migrants, including migrant workers, refugees and internally displaced persons. This broad mandate of the organization has earned it praise for flexibility in crisis situations, but also criticism for legal accountability in protection issues. Due to complementary mandates, IOM often cooperates with

1352-667: Is also active in stabilization, peacebuilding and development in the context of migration. As of 2023, the International Organization for Migration has 175 member states and 8 observer states. Member states: Observer States : Non-Member States : In 2003, both Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch were critical of the IOM's role in the Australian government's " Pacific Solution " of transferring asylum seekers to offshore detention centres. Human Rights Watch criticized

1456-515: Is based in Berlin . In 2020, the organization reported that it had over 15,311 employees, with 168 nationalities represented. The highest decision-making body of the IOM is the council, in which all member states are represented. It has rules of procedure and meets at regular intervals to adopt the annual budget and determine the organization's programmatic objectives. The official languages are English , French and Spanish . According to its own figures,

1560-523: Is encouraging cooperation among its Participating States and facilitating their integration into European structures. SECI is not an assistance program. It does not interfere with, but rather complements with existing initiatives. SECI endeavours to promote close cooperation among the governments of the region and to create new channels of communication among them. Furthermore, SECI attempts to emphasize and coordinate regionwide planning, identify needed follow-up and missing links, provide for better involvement of

1664-482: Is entirely landlocked, with the coastline belonging to Montenegro. The climate is similarly varied. The north has a continental climate (cold winters and hot summers); the central region has a combination of a continental and Mediterranean climate ; the southern region had an Adriatic climate along the coast, with inland regions experiencing hot, dry summers and autumns and relatively cold winters with heavy snowfall inland. Belgrade , with its population of 1,574,050,

1768-973: Is guided by the Co-ordinator, which has been nominated by the OSCE. Its principal body is the Programme Committee comprising national coordinators of the Member Countries. It ensures that activities fulfil SECI's mission and acts as its representative to outside parties. This regional depth and experience ensure its ability to fully support its regional membership and engagement on regional issues. SECI activities and projects include for example: • SECI Bucharest Center for Combating Transborder Crime and Corruption, renamed Southeast European Law Enforcement Center (SELEC) ; • Trade and Transport Facilitation in Southeast Europe (TTFSE); • Memorandum of Understanding on Road Transport (Athens MoU); • Memorandum of Understanding on

1872-607: Is not considered a member state by the SECI either, only a permanent observer. The South-East European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) is a multilateral regional initiative that has been initiated by the European Union , the United States of America and the countries of Southeast Europe within the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) as a support to the implementation of

1976-548: Is one of the central actors in humanitarian aid within the UN system, especially in the context of displacement. IOM's main aid measures include shelter, protection, the provision of basic medical and sanitary care, life safety, coordination, telecommunications and logistics. On the instructions of the UN Emergency Relief Coordinator , IOM, together with UNHCR, is primarily responsible for camp coordination and management in humanitarian emergencies. The organization

2080-411: Is the largest city in the two nations: and the only one of significant size. The country's other principal cities were Novi Sad , Niš , Kragujevac , Podgorica , Subotica , Pristina , and Prizren , each with populations of about 100,000–250,000 people. Demographics of FR Yugoslavia in 1992 FR Yugoslavia had more demographic variety than most other European countries. According to the 1992 census,

2184-524: The Assembly of Serbia on 24 July 1991. Under the Law, the municipalities, cities and settlements make the bases of the territorial organization. Serbia was divided into 195 municipalities and 4 cities , which were the basic units of local autonomy. It had two autonomous provinces: Kosovo and Metohija in the south (with 30 municipalities), which was under the administration of UNMIK after 1999, and Vojvodina in

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2288-669: The Battle of Vukovar , as well as the Kosovo War , and played combat roles during ethnic insurgencies . Following the Kosovo War, the VJ was forced to evacuate Kosovo, and in 2003 it was renamed the ''Armed Forces of Serbia and Montenegro.'' Following the dissolution of the Union between Serbia and Montenegro, units from each army were assigned to the independent republics of Serbia and Montenegro, as recruitment in

2392-706: The Bulldozer revolution , which saw his government overthrown, and replaced by one led by the Democratic Opposition of Serbia and Vojislav Koštunica , which also joined the UN. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ended in 2003 after the Federal Assembly of Yugoslavia voted to enact the Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro , which established the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. As such,

2496-520: The Dayton Accords in December 1996 at the inaugural session at Geneva on the basis of Final Points of Common EU-USA Understanding . SECI's purpose is to develop a sustainable economic strategy in and for the region and to focus on trans-border cooperation programs and projects in the fields of development of infrastructure, trade, traffic, security, energy, environment and the private sector. Its impetus

2600-886: The Deutsche Mark and continued to use it until the Mark fell into disuse to be replaced by the Euro . Serbia continued to use the Yugoslav Dinar, renaming it the Serbian Dinar . The complexity of the FRY's political relationships, slow progress in privatisation, and stagnation in the European economy were detrimental to the economy. Arrangements with the IMF, especially requirements for fiscal discipline, were an important element in policy formation. Severe unemployment

2704-701: The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , FR Yugoslavia ( FRY ) or simply Yugoslavia , was a country in Southeast Europe located in the Balkans that existed from 1992 to 2006, following the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFR Yugoslavia). The state was founded on 27 April 1992 as a federation comprising the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro . In February 2003, it

2808-710: The Hofburg Palace in Vienna . The SECI was formed in 1996 under the guidance of Ambassador Richard Schifter , at the time the Senior Director for Eastern Europe in the United States National Security Council . The group's mission was modeled after the Marshall Plan of 1947, which helped rebuild Europe after World War II. Since the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina was coming to a close, Schifter saw

2912-679: The International Monetary Fund in December 2000, Yugoslavia continued to reintegrate with other world nations by rejoining the World Bank and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development . The smaller republic of Montenegro severed its economy from federal control and from Serbia during the Milošević era. Afterwards, the two republics had separate central banks whilst Montenegro began to use different currencies – it first adopted

3016-623: The International Organization for Migration (IOM), European Institute for Law Enforcement Cooperation, renamed European Institute for Freedom, Security and Justice (EULEC), International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) and the United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK). SECI's purpose is to develop a sustainable economic strategy in and for the region and to focus on trans-border cooperation programs and projects in

3120-468: The Kosovo War . According to a 2004 estimate, the State Union had 10,825,900 inhabitants. According to a July 2006 estimate, the State Union had 10,832,545 inhabitants. The state suffered significantly economically due to the breakup of Yugoslavia and mismanagement of the economy, and an extended period of economic sanctions. In the early 1990s, the FRY suffered from hyperinflation of the Yugoslav dinar. By

3224-559: The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) under the then Chairman-in-Office, Norwegian Foreign Minister Knut Vollebaek, co-founded the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe , renamed Regional Cooperation Council (RCC), owned and run by countries mainly in Southeast Europe, aiming at strengthening peace, democracy and the economy in the region to serve the regional cooperation and European and Euro-Atlantic integration of South East Europe in order to spark development in

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3328-733: The Second World War . The IOM was initially a logistics agency that organized the transport of nearly one million migrants in the 1950s and has undergone several name changes since its inception. The transition from the Provisional Intergovernmental Committee for the Movement of Migrants from Europe (PICMME) in 1951 to the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration (ICEM) in 1952, to the Intergovernmental Committee for Migration (ICM) in 1980, and finally to

3432-915: The UNHCR . For example IOM coordinates work in response to the situation in Venezuela through the Office of International Organization for Migration Director General's Special Envoy for the Regional Response to the Venezuela Situation working with UNHCR and 17 countries in South and Central America and the Caribbean. According to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) , IOM

3536-619: The federal border region (mainly Novi Pazar in Serbia, and Rožaje in Montenegro). It is important to note that the Montenegrin population at the time often considered themselves to be Serbs. More than half of Kosovo's pre-1999 Serb population (226,000), including 37,000 Romani , 15,000 Balkan Muslims (including Ashkali , Bosniaks , and Gorani ), and 7,000 other non-Albanian civilians were expelled to central Serbia and Montenegro, following

3640-421: The 1990s, which had prevented agreement being reached on the disposition of federal assets and liabilities, particularly the national debt. The Government of Yugoslavia supported Croatian and Bosnian Serbs in the wars from 1992 to 1995. Because of that, the country was under economic and political sanctions. War and sanctions resulted in economic disaster, which forced thousands of its young citizens to emigrate from

3744-550: The Assembly of Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia. Despite this, they are still only recognized as an independent state by 114 UN member states , with Russia and Serbia leading the opposition of the declaration and the European Union having no official position on the situation as well as the United Nations saying that Resolution 1244 will remain the legal framework in Kosovo. Kosovo has never been and currently

3848-468: The Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats formed autonomous territories. Violence between ethnic Serbs and Bosniaks soon broke out. Thus, FR Yugoslavia was restricted to the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, and became closely associated with breakaway Serb republics during the Yugoslav Wars. The FRY was suspended from a number of international institutions. This was due to the ongoing Yugoslav Wars during

3952-462: The Danube River Basin; • Coordination of the "Interim Save Commission"; • SECI Business Advisory Council (BAC); • European Economic Danube Forum (EEDF) and • Center for Democracy and Reconciliation in Southeast Europe (till 2019) International Organization for Migration The International Organization for Migration ( IOM ) is a United Nations related organization working in

4056-636: The Dayton Agreement, the UN Security Council voted to lift most sanctions, but they were reissued following the outbreak of an Albanian insurgency in Kosovo. The lasting economic impact can be attributed to the eventual downfall of FR Yugoslavia and Slobodan Milošević's government, as well as a deeper desire in Montenegro to leave Yugoslavia. In the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija ,

4160-1010: The Facilitation of International Road Transport of Goods in the SECI Region (in cooperation with UNECE and the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT)); • Exchange of Information of Securities Markets in the SECI Countries; • Regional Transmission Planning in SECI Member Countries; • Policy facilitator within the framework of the Danube Cooperation Process (DCP); • Dialogue forum for interinstitutional and interdisciplinary communication with its Partnership for Improvement of Danube Infrastructure and Navigation (PIDIN); • Overall regional stakeholder, observer and promoter of cross-sectoral developments and trends within

4264-438: The Federal Republic had 10,394,026 inhabitants. The three largest named nationalities were Serbs (6,504,048 inhabitants, or 62.6%), Albanians (1,714,768 inhabitants, or 16.5%), and Montenegrins (519,766 inhabitants, or 5%). The country also had significant populations of Hungarians , ethnic Yugoslavs , ethnic Muslims , Romani , Croats , Bulgarians , Macedonians , Romanians and Vlachs , and others (under 1%). Most of

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4368-409: The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Croatia , resulted in each state being recognised as sovereign states. It also provided recognition for Serbian institutions and a rotating presidency within Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Serbian populated areas of the former Socialist Republic of Bosnia were absorbed into Bosnia and Herzegovina. Thus

4472-417: The IOM for operating Manus Regional Processing Centre and the processing centre on Nauru despite not having a refugee protection mandate. Human Rights Watch criticized the IOM for being part of "arbitrary detention" and for denying asylum seekers access to legal advice. Human Rights Watch urged the IOM to cease operation the process centres, which it stated were "detention centres" and to hand management of

4576-462: The IOM operated, using Australian government funding, was described by the Refugee Council of Australia "inhumane conditions, solitary confinement, lack of basic essentials and medical care, physical and sexual abuse, and severe overcrowding". Rohingya John Joniad described the housing as an "open prison". Serbia and Montenegro Montenegro: The State Union of Serbia and Montenegro or simply Serbia and Montenegro , known until 2003 as

4680-399: The IOM will abide by the principle of non-refoulement . In 2022, the role that the IOM played in housing refugees in Indonesia was described by the Refugee Council of Australia as presenting a "humanitarian veneer while carrying out rights-violating activities on behalf of Western nations” by researchers Asher Hirsch and Cameron Doig in The Globe and Mail . The community housing that

4784-420: The International Organization for Migration (IOM) in 1989 reflects the evolution of the IOM's mandate over its existence, becoming the leading intergovernmental organization in the field of migration. In 1992, it was granted observer status at the United Nations General Assembly (GA resolution A/RES/47/4). In September 2016, the United Nations (UN) Member States, through the General Assembly, unanimously adopted

4888-768: The Kosovo Liberation Army, including conducting raids during the course of the 1997 Albanian civil unrest , and drug dealing. Despite this, substantial evidence now shows that the CIA had aided in training units of the KLA, although not necessarily providing them with arms and funding. In 1998, the Kosovo War began, following increased open combat with Yugoslav police and army units deployed by Milošević. The KLA found itself heavily outnumbered and outgunned in open combat, and had to use guerrilla tactics. Serbian police and VJ units attacked KLA outposts, attempting to destroy them, as KLA units attempted to avoid direct confrontation and use terrorist attacks, including bombings and ambushes, to weaken Yugoslav control. Although unable to gain

4992-400: The SECI “Statement of Purpose” on December 6, 1996, and its Annex I as well as the “Final Points of Common EU-US Understanding”, dated December 6, 1996, which define the legal status and form of SECI. The Participating states requested then OSCE Chairman-in-Office, Swiss Foreign Minister Flavio Cotti , to designate, after appropriate consultations, the High-Level Personality (HLP) referred to in

5096-453: The Serb rebel-held territories in Croatia agreed that they would form a new "third Yugoslavia". Efforts were also made in 1991 to include the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina within the federation, with negotiations between Miloševic, Bosnia's Serbian Democratic Party , and the Bosniak proponent of union – Bosnia's Vice-president Adil Zulfikarpašić taking place on this matter. Zulfikarpašić believed that Bosnia could benefit from

5200-402: The Serbian proclamation of independence on 5 June ended the confederation of Serbia and Montenegro and thus the last remaining vestiges of the former Yugoslavia . The Federal Assembly of Yugoslavia, representing FR Yugoslavia (1992–2003) was composed of two chambers: the Council of Citizens and the Council of Republics. Whereas the Council of Citizens served as an ordinary assembly, representing

5304-445: The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia had ceased to exist, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a new state. All former republics were entitled to state succession while none of them continued SFR Yugoslavia's international legal personality. However, the government of Slobodan Milošević opposed any such claims, and as such, FR Yugoslavia was not allowed to join the United Nations. Throughout its existence, FR Yugoslavia had

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5408-465: The State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, and the establishment of the independent republics of Serbia and Montenegro, turning Serbia into a landlocked country . Some consider this the last act that ended the breakup of Yugoslavia. At the country's founding in 1992 following the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFR Yugoslavia) , the country's official name was the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FR Yugoslavia), as it claimed to be

5512-426: The Statement of Purpose. On December 19, 1996, the OSCE Chairman-in-Office, as authorized by all OSCE Participating States, named Erhard Busek , former Vice-Chancellor of Austria, as SECI "High-Level Personality", hereinafter Coordinator. The next step was to get all the countries in the region together and agree to join a cooperation initiative, an extremely difficult task considering the ethnic tension that dominated

5616-614: The UNHCR's Belgrade office to have fled from Kosovo-Metohija to either Serbia proper , the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina , or the constituent Republic of Montenegro by 20 June 1999. Out of 10,317 civilians, 8,676 Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma, Bosniaks, Montenegrins and others were killed or went missing in connection with the war between 1 January 1998 - 31 December 2000. The Serbian government attributed 1,953 Serbian, 361 Albanian and 266 other civilian deaths or disappearances from 1 January 1998 - 1 November 2001 to “Albanian terrorism in Kosovo-Metohija”. The international community

5720-400: The United Nations, accepting that it was not the sole legal successor to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and was allowed to join the UN. Milošević would later be put on trial for corruption and war crimes, especially during the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, although he died in prison before his trial could end in 2006. His culpability, especially of

5824-414: The United States would offer technical assistance and provide experts on relevant subjects. Schifter's hunch was realized on 14 December 1995, when a cease-fire was announced and peace negotiations were signed in Dayton, Ohio under the Dayton Agreement . The Participating States of the Southeast European Cooperative Initiative held an inaugural meeting in Geneva on December 5–6, 1996 and formally adopted

5928-421: The Yugoslav Wars ended, and international sanctions on FR Yugoslavia were lifted. However, Slobodan Milošević would not achieve his dreams of admitting FR Yugoslavia to the United Nations as the successor state of SFR Yugoslavia, as an 'outer wall' of international sanctions prohibited this. Following the adoption of economic sanctions by the international community against FR Yugoslavia, its economy experienced

6032-438: The Yugoslav dinar experienced a major hyperinflation , leading to inflation reaching 313 million percent, the second worst hyperinflation in history. Many parts of FR Yugoslavia, including all of Montenegro, adopted the Deutsche Mark and Euro currencies instead of the Yugoslav dinar. International sanctions crippled the Yugoslav economy, and prevented it from playing an active role in aiding Serb breakaway republics. Following

6136-437: The Yugoslav economy could not grow, and imports or exports needed for industries could not be obtained, forcing them to close. The crippled state of the Yugoslav economy also affected its ability to wage war, and after 1992, Yugoslavia had an extremely limited military role within the Yugoslav Wars, due to Yugoslav Army (VJ) units being unable to operate without oil or munitions. On top of this, starting in 1992 and until 1994,

6240-434: The army was on a local, rather than Federal, level. Montenegro inherited the small navy of FR Yugoslavia, due to Serbia being landlocked. FR Yugoslavia was composed of two political units, consisting of two Republics, and two subordinate Autonomous Provinces to Serbia, as following: The territorial organisation of the Republic of Serbia was regulated by the Law on Territorial Organisation and Local Self-Government, adopted in

6344-408: The bombings. In the aftermath of the Kosovo War, a low level insurgency continued in parts of Southern Serbia ( Presevo valley ), which had Albanian minorities. However, this insurgencts ( UCPMB ) lacked resources, and the Yugoslav Armed Forces and police were able to put down the insurgency. The string of defeats, as well as a complete collapse of the Yugoslav economy, led to mass unpopularity of

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6448-467: The centres to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees . Amnesty International expressed concern that the IOM undertook actions on behalf of governments that negatively impacted the human rights of asylum seekers, refugees and migrants. Amnesty International cited an example of fourteen Kurds in Indonesia who were expelled from Australian waters by Australian authorities and relocated to Indonesia. Amnesty International requested an assurance that

6552-494: The charges brought against him in the context of the ICTY, remains a subject of controversy within Serbia. In 2002, Serbia and Montenegro came to a new agreement regarding continued co-operation, which, among other changes, promised the end of the name Yugoslavia (since they were part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). On 4 February 2003, the Federal Assembly of Yugoslavia created a loose state union or confederacy —the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, although Yugoslavia

6656-471: The city of Belgrade presents a district of its own. Montenegro was divided into 21 municipalities . Serbia and Montenegro had an area of 102,350 square kilometres (39,518 sq mi), with 199 kilometres (124 mi) of coastline. The terrain of the two republics is extremely varied, with much of Serbia comprising plains and low hills (except in the more mountainous region of Kosovo and Metohija) and much of Montenegro consisting of high mountains. Serbia

6760-521: The city proper) and "other" (suburban). Competences of cities and their municipalities were divided. Municipalities were gathered into districts , which are regional centres of state authority, but have no assemblies of their own; they present purely administrative divisions, and host various state institutions such as funds, office branches and courts. The Republic of Serbia was then and is still today divided into 29 districts (17 in Central Serbia, 7 in Vojvodina and 5 in Kosovo, which are now defunct), while

6864-444: The conflict . The conflict ended with the adoption of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 , which guaranteed economic and political separation of Kosovo from FR Yugoslavia, to be placed under UN Administration . Economic hardship and war resulted in growing discontent with the government of Slobodan Milošević and his allies, who ran both Serbia and Montenegro as an effective dictatorship. This would eventually cumulate in

6968-476: The country, Ćosić was forced out of office in 1993 due to his opposition to Serbian President Slobodan Milošević . Ćosić was replaced by Zoran Lilić who served from 1993 to 1997, and then followed by Milošević becoming Yugoslav President in 1997 after his last legal term as Serbian president ended in 1997. FR Yugoslavia was dominated by Milosevic and his allies, until the presidential election in 2000. There were accusations of vote fraud and Yugoslav citizens took to

7072-464: The country. FR Yugoslavia acted to support Serbian separatist movements in breakaway states, including the Republic of Serbian Krajina and the Republika Srpska , and sought to establish them as independent Serbian republics, with potential eventual reintegration with FR Yugoslavia. However, the Government of FR Yugoslavia would treat these republics as separate entities, and gave unofficial, rather than active, aid by transferring control of units from

7176-416: The essential dictatorship of Slobodan Milošević and his allies in the Socialist Party of Serbia . In September 2000, amongst accusations of electoral fraud, large scale protests struck the nation. Milošević was eventually removed from power, as his Socialist Party of Serbia lost in the federal elections to the Democratic Opposition of Serbia . In the aftermath, a new government in Yugoslavia negotiated with

7280-491: The establishment of a UN mission to Kosovo, as well as the complete withdrawal of units of the Yugoslav National Army. As such, Kosovo remained an Autonomous Province of Serbia, but politically and economically independent. The damage to FR Yugoslavia was immense, with the government estimating $ 100 billion in infrastructure damage, as well as 1,200 Serbian and Albanian civilians or soldiers confirmed dead. Economists have estimated at least $ 29 billion in direct damages caused by

7384-413: The ethnic diversity was situated in the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina , where smaller numbers of other minority groups could be found. The large Albanian population was chiefly concentrated in Kosovo , with smaller populations in the Preševo Valley , and in the Ulcinj municipality in Montenegro. The Muslim ( Slavic Muslims , including Bosniaks and Gorani ) population lived mostly in

7488-499: The field of migration. The organization implements operational assistance programmes for migrants , including internally displaced persons , refugees , and migrant workers . The International Organization for Migration is based in Geneva . Its director general is Amy Pope. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) was founded in 1951 in response to the large number of internally displaced persons and war refugees in Europe after

7592-568: The fields of development of infrastructure, trade, traffic, security, energy, environment and the private sector. Providing regional peace and stability among the countries of Southeastern Europe through cooperative activities, the further integration of its member states into the European Union shall be facilitated through the support of main international organizations and observer states. The initiative has provided regional stability and peace since its founding in 1996. In 1999, SECI, together with

7696-438: The member and observer states on business matters in Southeast Europe and request their intervention when necessary. Furthermore, it advises business communities ensuring an effective follow-up of recommendations as well as attracting investments and increasing trade with and among the members countries. All SECI programs and projects are being implemented by experts from the member states and states supporting this Initiative with

7800-521: The mid-1990s, the FRY had overcome the inflation. Further damage to Yugoslavia's infrastructure and industry caused by the Kosovo War left the economy only half the size it was in 1990. Since the ousting of former Federal Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević in October 2000, the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS) coalition government has implemented stabilization measures and embarked on an aggressive market reform program. After renewing its membership in

7904-408: The name Yugoslavia was consigned to history. A growing independence movement in Montenegro, led by Milo Đukanović meant that the new constitution of Serbia and Montenegro included a clause allowing for a referendum on the question of Montenegrin independence, after a period of three years had passed. In 2006, the referendum was called, and passed, by a narrow margin. This led to the dissolution of

8008-424: The north (with 46 municipalities and 1 city). The territory between Kosovo and Vojvodina was called Central Serbia . Central Serbia was not an administrative division on its own and had no regional government of its own. In addition, there were four cities: Belgrade, Niš , Novi Sad and Kragujevac , each having an assembly and budget of its own. The cities comprised several municipalities, divided into "urban" (in

8112-451: The now-defunct JNA to the secessionist movements. In this way, FR Yugoslavia avoided potential accusations of committing acts of aggression against the breakaway republics recognised by the international community. Slobodan Milošević , the President of Serbia , did not consider himself to be at war with the breakaway republics of Yugoslavia. Following the transfer of Yugoslav Army units,

8216-449: The organization's budget in 2020 was around two billion US dollars. This is made up of voluntary contributions from the member states and donations. The Director General of the organization is elected by the delegates of the IOM member states for a five-year term. The following table lists the previous directors of the IOM and its predecessor organization, the ICEM. The current Director General

8320-749: The past half century, including Kosovo and Timor 1999, and the Asian tsunami , the 2003 invasion of Iraq , the Pakistan earthquake of 2004/2005, the 2010 Haiti earthquake , and the European migrant crisis —its credo that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society has steadily gained more international acceptance. The organization is headquartered in Geneva, with liaison offices in New York City and Addis Ababa . The Global Migration Data Analysis Centre (GMDAC)

8424-562: The people of FR Yugoslavia, the Council of Republics was made equally by representatives from the federation's constituent republics, to ensure federal equality between Serbia and Montenegro. The first president from 1992 to 1993 was Dobrica Ćosić , a former communist Yugoslav partisan during World War II and later one of the fringe contributors of the controversial Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts . Despite being head of

8528-499: The president, held by a single person, initially appointed with the consent of the republics of Serbia and Montenegro until 1997 after which the president was democratically elected. The President of Yugoslavia acted alongside the Presidents of the republics of Serbia and Montenegro. Initially, all three offices were dominated by allies of Slobodan Milosevic and his Socialist Party of Serbia . On 26 December 1991, Serbia, Montenegro, and

8632-475: The private sector in regional economic and environmental efforts, help to create a regional climate that encourages the transfer of know-how and greater investment in the private sector, and assist in harmonizing trade laws and policies. According to its official mandate, SECI advises the EU-Commission , European Investment Bank (EIB), European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) and governments of

8736-609: The region to the benefit of its people. The same year, SECI founded the SECI Bucharest Center for Combating Transborder Crime and Corruption, later renamed Southeast European Law Enforcement Center (SELEC), which is concentrating on the cooperation to prevent and combat trans-border crime. The countries that signed and ratified the SECI agreement were Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Slovenia, Serbia and Turkey. The SECI headquarters are located within

8840-574: The region. The SECI was originally composed of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Greece, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, Turkey, Yugoslavia, Croatia and Slovenia. However those last three participants caused some growing pains for the initiative in its nascent stages. Yugoslavia's invitation was revoked after the country cancelled local election results when a minority party won the popular vote, eventually being allowed in as Serbia and Montenegro and Slovenia and Croatia originally agreed to join but only as observer nations. The Slovenian concern

8944-498: The sole legal successor state of the SFR Yugoslavia . The United States government however viewed this claim as illegitimate and thus, as early as 1993, referred to the country as Serbia and Montenegro . The 2003 constitution changed the state name to "Serbia and Montenegro". During the collapse of SFR Yugoslavia in the 1990s, the two Serb majority republics, Serbia and Montenegro, agreed to remain as Yugoslavia, and established

9048-466: The state of FR Yugoslavia ceased to play an important military role in the Yugoslav Wars, barring conflicts on the border with Croatia, such as the Siege of Dubrovnik . It instead provided economic and political aid, to avoid provoking the international community further, and to preserve FR Yugoslavia as the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, rather than 'Greater Serbia.' In 1995, following Operation Storm ,

9152-486: The states, and a guaranteed role of the Serbian population within Bosnian politics. Later on, growing separatism within the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija , a region of Serbia heavily populated by ethnic Albanians , resulted in an insurrection by the Kosovo Liberation Army , an Albanian separatist group. The outbreak of the Kosovo War reintroduced international sanctions , as well as eventual NATO involvement in

9256-530: The streets and engaged in riots in Belgrade demanding that Milošević be removed from power. Shortly afterwards Milošević resigned and Vojislav Koštunica took over as Yugoslav president and remained president until the state's reconstitution as the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Federal Prime Minister Milan Panić became frustrated with Milošević's domineering behaviour during diplomatic talks in 1992 and told Milošević to "shut up" because Milošević's position

9360-523: The successor state to this decision (as well as many others made during Milošević's regime), in practice, after the Bulldozer Revolution, nothing has been done in this direction, as the country is a candidate for the European Union . The Armed Forces of Yugoslavia ( Serbian : Војска Југославије/Vojska Jugoslavije, ВЈ/VJ) included ground forces with internal and border troops , naval forces , air and air defense forces , and civil defense . It

9464-1309: The technical support of the European Commission , UN Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE), World Bank , European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), European Investment Bank (EIB), World Customs Organization and the OSCE. Also, SECI closely cooperates with the Regional Cooperation Council (RCC), Central European Initiative (CEI), Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation , Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA), International Sava River Basin Commission (ISRBC), Danube Commission (DC) and specialized UN agencies and programs and other organizations. SECI Member states are: Austria, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Moldova, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Slovenia, Serbia and Turkey. SECI Observers states are: Azerbaijan, Belgium, Canada, France, Georgia, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Kosovo, Ukraine, United Kingdom and United States. The principal SECI goals are: elimination of administrative and other obstacles with

9568-686: Was a key political and economic problem. Corruption also presented a major problem, with a large black market and a high degree of criminal involvement in the formal economy. Serbia, and in particular the valley of the Morava is often described as "the crossroads between the East and the West " – one of the primary reasons for its turbulent history. The valley is by far the easiest land route from continental Europe to Greece and Asia Minor . Major international highways going through Serbia were E75 and E70 . E763 / E761

9672-724: Was adopted in Marrakech , Morocco, in December 2018. To support the implementation, follow-up and review of the Global Compact on Migration, the UN Secretary-General António Guterres established the UN Network on Migration in 2019. IOM coordinates the United Nations Network on Migration which includes UNHCR , WFP and UNDP , among others. While the IOM's history tracks the man-made and natural disasters of

9776-512: Was created. It was unicameral and was made up of 126 deputies, of which 91 were from Serbia and 35 were from Montenegro. The Assembly convened in the building of the old Federal Assembly of Yugoslavia, which now houses the National Assembly of Serbia . In 2003, after the constitutional changes and creation of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro , a new President of Serbia and Montenegro

9880-558: Was elected President of Yugoslavia in 1997, having served his maximum two terms as President of Serbia, he ordered Yugoslav Army (VJ) units to move into Kosovo to aid in the suppression of the insurrection. The governments of FR Yugoslavia and the US declared the Kosovo Liberation Army a terrorist organisation, following repeated deadly attacks against Yugoslav law enforcement agencies. US intelligence also mentioned illegal arms sources of

9984-641: Was elected. He was also president of the Council of Ministers of Serbia and Montenegro . Svetozar Marović was the first and last President of Serbia and Montenegro until its breakup in 2006. On April 12, 1999, the Federal Assembly of the FR Yugoslavia passed the "Decision on the accession of the FRY to the Union State of Russia and Belarus ". Although Serbia is, according to constitutional and international law,

10088-570: Was established from the remnants of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), the military of SFR Yugoslavia . Several Bosnian Serb units of the VJ were transferred over to the Republika Srpska , during the course of the Bosnian War , leaving only units directly from Serbia and Montenegro in the armed forces. The VJ saw military action during the Yugoslav Wars , including the Siege of Dubrovnik and

10192-657: Was hospitalized, eventually dying, and shortly after, Croatia joined the SECI as a full-fledged member. Kosovo is another area of contention for the SEE countries. During the time of the formation of the SECI, in 1996, they were only recognized as a region and by 1999, they were governed by the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo ( UNMIK ), under the UNSC Resolution 1244 ; in February 2008,

10296-623: Was not approved by the UN Security Council, for fear of a veto by Russia, which would cause controversy as to its legality . The UN Security Council adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 1160 , renewing arms and oil sanctions against FR Yugoslavia, and thus crippling its economy. The effects of continuous aerial bombardment and sanctions cost the Yugoslav economy hundreds of billions of USD and eventually forced Milošević's government to comply with an agreement put forward by an international delegation. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 led to substantial autonomy for Kosovo, and

10400-402: Was officially subordinate to his position. Milošević later forced Panić to resign. However, this situation changed after 1997 when Milošević's second and last legal term as Serbian President ended. He then had himself elected Federal President, thus entrenching the power that he already de facto held. After the federation was reconstituted as a State Union, the new Assembly of the State Union

10504-476: Was quick to respond, issuing a peace proposal to Yugoslavia in 1999. The agreement was seen as an essential ultimatum by NATO to Yugoslavia, and this rejected by the Yugoslav government. NATO responded in March 1999 by ordering airstrikes against Yugoslav military targets and infrastructure, including roads, railroads, administrative buildings and the headquarters of Radio Television Serbia . NATO's bombing campaign

10608-513: Was still commonly used. A new constitutional charter was agreed to provide a framework for the governance of the country. On Sunday, 21 May 2006, Montenegrins voted in an independence referendum , with 55.5% supporting independence. Fifty-five percent or more of affirmative votes were needed to dissolve the confederation and Yugoslavia. The turnout was 86.3% and 99.73% of the more than 477,000 votes cast were deemed valid. The subsequent Montenegrin proclamation of independence on 3 June 2006 and

10712-471: Was that they were a Central European country, not part of SEE, but once Hungary joined, they quickly followed suit. Croatia was more of a challenge in that not only did they not see themselves as a SEE country, but President Tudjman in an interview with Richard Schifter said that Croatia was a “Catholic, Mediterranean country” that wants nothing to do with the “Orthodox and the Muslims.” In 1999, President Tudjman

10816-507: Was transformed from a federal republic to a political union until Montenegro seceded from the union in June 2006, leading to the full independence of both Serbia and Montenegro . Its aspirations to be the sole legal successor state to SFR Yugoslavia were not recognized by the United Nations , following the passing of United Nations Security Council Resolution 777 , which affirmed that

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