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105-637: The name derives from the Arabic word souk which means "market", and the Chaoui Berber word ahra (plural ahras ) which means " lion ", in reference to the Barbary lions which existed in the neighboring forests until their extinction in 1930; hence Souk Ahras means "market of lions" (see also Oran ( Wahran ) and Tahert for names with a related etymology). The old name of the Numidian city of Thagaste derives from

210-409: A funduq , khān , samsara , or wakāla . They could serve a variety of functions including an inn for travelers and merchants, a manufacturing center, a trade venue, or a warehouse. In Iran and Central Asia, the permanent bazaar is likewise in the centre of a city and had common architectural elements. These bazaars acted as financial centers of the city and were traditionally overseen by

315-867: A Csb climate because of its location inside the Alborz mountains . Winters in this zone are rainy and can be mild to chilly. Some locales in this zone experience some amount of snowfall, while others do not. Csb climates are found in northwestern Iberian Peninsula (namely Galicia and the Norte region and west coast of Portugal ), in coastal Northern California , in the Pacific Northwest (namely western Washington , western Oregon and southern portions of Vancouver Island in British Columbia ), in central Chile , in parts of southern Australia and in sections of southwestern South Africa . A few locations close to

420-456: A Mediterranean climate are near large bodies of water, temperatures are generally moderate, with a comparatively small range of temperatures between the winter low and summer high unlike (the relatively rare) dry-summer humid continental climates (although the daily diurnal range of temperature during the summer is large due to dry and clear conditions, except along the immediate coastlines). Temperatures during winter only occasionally fall below

525-501: A Painter in the Atlas and the Anti-Atlas published in 1922 Types of markets, bazaars and souks: Markets and retail in general: Hot-summer Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate ( / ˌ m ɛ d ɪ t ə ˈ r eɪ n i ən / MED -ih-tə- RAY -nee-ən ), also called a dry summer climate , described by Köppen as Cs , is a temperate climate type that occurs in

630-694: A book of travels titled From the Black Sea through Persia and India. Other notable painters in the Orientalist genre who included scenes of street life and market-based trade in their work are Jean-Léon Gérôme Delacroix (1824–1904), Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860), Frederic Leighton (1830–1896), Eugène Alexis Girardet 1853–1907 and William Holman Hunt (1827–1910), who all found inspiration in Oriental street scenes, trading and commerce. A proliferation of both Oriental fiction and travel writing occurred during

735-594: A century of intensive agriculture. Much of the Overberg in the southern Cape of South Africa , was once covered with renosterveld , but has likewise been largely converted to agriculture, mainly for wheat . In hillside and mountainous areas, away from the urban sprawls , ecosystems and habitats of native vegetation are more sustained and undisturbed. The fynbos vegetation in the South-western Cape in South Africa

840-550: A common Aramaic origin of the Arabic souk , and holds a prominent role in everyday life. Markets such as Mahane Yehuda in Jerusalem are often covered rows of stalls much like those seen elsewhere in the region, selling produce, spices, halvah , and even clothing. Scholar Mohammad Gharipour has pointed out that in spite of the centrality of bazaars in Persian history, relatively little

945-661: A few kilometres inland. Occasionally also termed the "cool-summer Mediterranean climate", this subtype of the Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) is less common and experience warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 22 °C (72 °F) during its warmest month and as usual an average in the coldest month between 18 and −3 °C (64 and 27 °F) or, in some applications, between 18 and 0 °C (64 and 32 °F). Also, at least four months must average above 10 °C (50 °F). Cool ocean currents, upwelling and higher latitudes are often

1050-544: A mean temperature below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C [27 °F]), depending on the isotherm used). Regions in the Americas with this climate are influenced by the dry-summer trend (though briefly) that extends considerably poleward along the west coast, as well as the moderating influences of high altitude and relative proximity to the Pacific Ocean. These conditions maintain an unusually narrow temperature range through

1155-526: A month with less than 30 mm (1.2 in) of precipitation and as a month within the high-sun months of April to September, in the case of the Northern Hemisphere and October to March, in the case of the Southern Hemisphere, and it also must contain exactly or less than one-third that of the wettest winter month. Some, however, use a 40 mm (1.6 in) level. The third letter indicates

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1260-585: A number of oceanic islands such as Madeira , the Juan Fernández Islands , the western part of the Canary Islands , and the eastern part of the Azores . Under Trewartha 's modified Köppen climate classification, the two major requirements for a Cs climate are revised. Under Trewartha's system, at least eight months must have average temperatures of 10 °C (50 °F) or higher ( subtropical ), and

1365-438: A sale or fair to raise money for charitable purposes (e.g. charity bazaar ). In Turkish , the word was borrowed as pazar , but it refers to an outdoor market held at regular intervals, not a permanent structure containing shops. English place names usually translate "çarşı" (shopping district in a downtown or downtown itself) as "bazaar" when they refer to an area with covered streets or passages. The word "souk" in

1470-540: A season earlier than at the Dead Sea . In the Holy Land no rain at all falls in summer but early rains may come in autumn. The majority of the regions with Mediterranean climates have relatively mild winters and very warm summers. However, winter and summer temperatures can vary greatly between different regions with a Mediterranean climate. For instance, in the case of winters, Funchal experiences mild to warm temperatures in

1575-495: A social function as being a place for people to meet in, in addition to its commercial function. In pre-Islamic Arabia, two types of souks existed: permanent urban markets and temporary seasonal markets. The temporary seasonal markets were held at specific times of the year and became associated with particular types of produce. Suq Hijr in Bahrain was noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. In spite of

1680-482: A veil was a particularly tempting subject because she was hidden from view, adding to her mysterious allure. Notable artists in the Orientalist genre include: Jean-Léon Gérôme Delacroix (1824–1904), Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860), Frederic Leighton (1830–1896), Eugène Alexis Girardet 1853-1907 and William Holman Hunt (1827–1910) who all found inspiration in Oriental street scenes, trading and commerce. French painter Jean-Étienne Liotard visited Istanbul in

1785-597: A yearly cycle in which abiotic (environmental) controls of stream populations and community structure dominate during floods, biotic components (e.g. competition and predation) controls become increasingly important as the flood discharge declines, and environmental controls regain dominance as environmental conditions become very harsh (i.e. hot and dry); as a result, these communities are well suited to recover from droughts , floods , and fires . Aquatic organisms in these regions show distinct long-term patterns in their structure and function, and are also highly sensitive to

1890-526: Is Al Mirbid just outside Basra , also famed for its poetry competitions in addition to its storytelling activities. Temporary souks tended to become known for specific types of produce. For example, Suq Hijr in Bahrain was noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. Political, economic and social changes have left only the small seasonal souks outside villages and small towns, primarily selling livestock and agricultural products. Weekly markets have continued to function throughout

1995-424: Is closely associated with Mediterranean climate zones, as are unique freshwater communities, though vegetation native to the Mediterranean climate zone can also be found in the approximate nearby climate zones, which usually tend to be the humid subtropical , oceanic and/or semi-arid zones, depending on the region and location. Particularly distinctive of the climate are sclerophyll shrublands, called maquis in

2100-452: Is crossed by a major North African river, the Medjerda . Three dams exist in the region of Souk Ahras, that of Ain-Edalia supplies the town of Souk Ahras and its region with 76 million cubic metres (2.7 billion cubic feet). The dams of Oued Charef and Djedra , provide a capacity of 153 and 35 million cubic metres (5.4 and 1.2 billion cubic feet), respectively. Dam Djedra

2205-559: Is famed for its high floral diversity , and includes such plant types as members of the Restionaceae , Ericas (Heaths) and Proteas . Representatives of the Proteaceae also grow in Australia, such as Banksias . The palette of California native plants is also renowned for its species and cultivar diversity. This subtype of the Mediterranean climate ( Csa ) is the most common form of

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2310-838: Is found throughout the warmer middle latitudes , affecting almost exclusively the western portions of continents in relative proximity to the coast. The climate type's name is in reference to the coastal regions of the Mediterranean Sea , which mostly share this type of climate, but it can also be found in the Atlantic portions of Iberia and Northwest Africa, the Pacific portions of the United States and Chile, extreme west areas of Argentina, around Cape Town in South Africa, parts of Southwest and South Australia , and parts of Central Asia . They tend to be found in proximity (both poleward and near

2415-406: Is higher, steppe climates tend to prevail, but still follow the basic pattern of the Mediterranean climates. Irregularity of the rainfall, which can vary considerably from year to year, accentuates the droughts of the Mediterranean climate. Rain does not fall evenly, nor does the rain arrive at the same time or within the same intervals. In Gibraltar , for instance, rain starts falling nearly half

2520-441: Is intended to supply the town of Souk Ahras with a quantity of 12 and 35 million cubic metres (420 and 1,240 million cubic feet) of potable water, while 2 million cubic metres (71 million cubic feet) will be pumped for irrigation. Souk Ahras has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) with warm summers and mild winters. Its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea aids in moderating

2625-676: Is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Europeans conquered and excavated parts of North Africa and the Levant. These regions now make up what is called the Middle East, but in the past were known as the Orient. Europeans sharply divided peoples into two broad groups – the European West and the East or Orient ; us and the other. Europeans often saw Orientals as

2730-920: Is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence. Historical records document the concept of a bazaar existing in Iran as early as 3000 BCE, where some large cities contained districts dedicated to trade and commerce. Archeological data also suggests the existence of market districts in ancient Mesopotamia . Markets centers must have existed in Egypt to conduct international trade, but no archeological evidence for them has been found. In Achaemenid Persia (550–330 BCE), documents indicate that crafts were sold in markets close to Persepolis. A network of bazaars had sprung up alongside ancient caravan trade routes. Bazaars located along these trade routes, formed networks, linking major cities with each other and in which goods, culture, people and information could be exchanged. Sources from around

2835-521: Is mid-century example of the genre. Byron's Oriental Tales, is another example of the Romantic Orientalism genre. Although these works were purportedly non-fiction, they were notoriously unreliable. Many of these accounts provided detailed descriptions of market places, trading and commerce. Examples of travel writing include: Les Mysteres de L'Egypte Devoiles by Olympe Audouard published in 1865 and Jacques Majorelle 's Road Trip Diary of

2940-891: Is the Khan al-Mirjan in Baghdad, built in 1359 as part of a larger architectural complex. Muhammad's prohibition against constructing permanent buildings and levying taxes in the market began to be disregarded as early as the Umayyad period (7th to 8th centuries). The Umayyad caliphs Mu'awiya I and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik both built structures in the market of Medina and levied taxes there, while purpose-built markets were built in early Islamic cities further abroad such as Basra in Iraq , Fustat in Egypt, and Kairouan in Tunisia. This process seems to have accelerated during

3045-744: The Aterian culture from the end of the Middle Palaeolithic to the early upper Palaeolithic Ages. After the Aterian, Souk Ahras was inhabited by people of the Capsian culture. Many stone tools dating to this period have been discovered. Stemmed arrows were found on the site of present-day Souk Ahras, but also in Tiffech and Taoura , not far from it. It was the birthplace of Augustine of Hippo (born 13 November 354 CE), son of Saint Monica of Hippo , who later became

3150-619: The Middle East , the Balkans , Central Asia , North Africa and South Asia . They are traditionally located in vaulted or covered streets that have doors on each end and served as a city's central marketplace. The term bazaar originates from Persian , where it referred to a town's public market district. The term bazaar is sometimes also used to refer collectively to the merchants , bankers and craftsmen who work in that area. The term souk comes from Arabic and refers to marketplaces in

3255-523: The Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries), the construction of commercial buildings in and around the bazaar was often sponsored by sultans, ruling elites, or by members of the Ottoman royal family . The revenues generated by these buildings were typically earmarked to support the upkeep of religious complexes sponsored by these same patrons, through the legal framework of a waqf (legal endowment). In

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3360-645: The Selimiye Mosque complex in Edirne or the Sultanahmet Mosque complex in Istanbul. The Spice Bazaar or Mısır Çarşısı ('Egyptian Market') in Istanbul is also one of the largest and best-known examples. The han is similar in function to other khān or caravanserai buildings elsewhere, with a courtyard enclosed by two storeys. The ground floor was usually used for storage and for stabling horses, while

3465-582: The gold souk , the texitle souk, the spice souk, the leather souk, the booksellers' souk, etc. This promotes competition among sellers and helps buyers easily compare prices. Merchants specialized in each trade were also organized into guilds , which provided support to merchants but also to clients. The exact details of the organizations varied from region to region. Each guild had rules that members were expected to follow, but they were loose enough to allow for competition. Guilds also fulfilled some functions similar to trade unions and were able to negotiate with

3570-674: The kedkhoda in Istanbul or the amir-i bazariyan in Delhi . In the Maghreb (northwestern Africa), the muḥtasib also shared responsibilities with other officials such as the qadi or the hakim . Permanent bazaars were established in urban zones, usually within the city walls and close to the heart of the city. In much of the Middle East and North Africa, the bazaar is a network of interconnected spaces, including streets and buildings, with diverse architectural forms. Its boundaries are not sharply defined and can vary according to circumstance, as

3675-415: The subtropical ridge migrates towards the equator and leaves the area, making rainfall much more likely. As a result, areas with this climate receive almost all of their precipitation during their winter and spring seasons, and may go anywhere from four to six months during the summer and early fall without having any significant precipitation . In the lower latitudes, precipitation usually decreases in both

3780-663: The 17th century and painted pastels of Turkish domestic scenes. British painter John Frederick Lewis who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life. Edwin Lord Weeks was a notable American example of a 19th-century artist and author in the Orientalism genre. His parents were wealthy tea and spice merchants who were able to fund his travels and interest in painting. In 1895 Weeks wrote and illustrated

3885-724: The 20th century iron ore and phosphate mining brought some modern significance and prosperity to the town. During the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962), Souk Ahras housed the Ouled Bechiah Mounts as an autonomous military base of the Army of National Liberation (ALN) , called "Basis of the East". The town of Souk Ahras is located in a basin surrounded by wooded mountains as the Djebel Beni Salah or Djebel Ouled Moumen. Souk Ahras

3990-592: The Andes in Northern Ecuador , Peru , Colombia , and Western Venezuela . The cold-summer subtype of the Mediterranean climate ( Csc ) is rare and predominantly found at scattered high-altitude locations along the west coasts of North and South America having a similar climate. This type is characterized by cool, dry summers, with less than four months with a mean temperature at or above 10 °C (50 °F), as well as with cool, wet winters, with no winter month having

4095-905: The Arab world. Most of them are named from the day of the week on which they are held. They usually have open spaces specifically designated for their use inside cities. Examples of surviving markets are the Wednesday Market in Amman that specializes in the sale of used products, the Ghazl market held every Friday in Baghdad specializing in pets; the Fina’ Market in Marrakech offers performance acts such as singing, music, acrobats and circus activities. In tribal areas, where seasonal souks operated, neutrality from tribal conflicts

4200-533: The Arabic-speaking world is roughly equivalent to "bazaar". The Arabic word is a loan from Aramaic "šūqā" ("street, market"), itself a loanword from the Akkadian "sūqu" ("street"). The Arabic word sūq was then borrowed into English via French ( souk ) by the 19th century. The English word can also be spelled "suq" or "souq". In Modern Standard Arabic the term al-sūq refers to markets in both

4305-574: The Berber Thagoust, which means the bag , given that the site of the town is located at the foot of a mountain surrounded by three peaks in the form of a bag containing the city. Subsequently, when the Arabic language appeared in the region it was called Soukara . In other sources it is cited as the Palace of the African, according to Al-Masudi . The town of Souk Ahras, as its region, was home to people of

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4410-528: The Bishop of Hippo and Saint Augustine. Souk Ahras (Thagaste) has played an important role in the political and cultural history of the region because of its strategic position at the crossroads of Numide , Ancient Roman, and Berber civilizations. It was the location of military fortifications ( Madaure , Tiffech , Khemissa , etc.) and urban centers. Thagaste was a town of Numidia in Roman North Africa , on

4515-656: The East, however many artists relied heavily on their everyday experiences for inspiration in their artworks. For example, Charles D'Oyly , who was born in India, published the Antiquities of Dacca featuring a series of 15 engraved plates of Dacca [now Dhaka, Bangladesh] featuring scenes of markets, commerce, buildings and streetscapes. European society generally frowned on nude painting – but harems, concubines and slave markets, presented as quasi-documentary works, satisfied European desires for pornographic art. The Oriental female wearing

4620-455: The Köppen climate system, the first letter indicates the climate group (in this case temperate climates). Temperate climates or " C " zones average temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), but below 18 °C (64 °F), in their coolest months. The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern (" s " represents dry summers). Köppen has defined a dry summer month as

4725-763: The Mediterranean Basin, chaparral in California, matorral in Chile, fynbos in South Africa, and mallee and kwongan shrublands in Australia. Mediterranean vegetation shows a number of adaptations to drought , grazing , and frequent fire regimes. The small sclerophyllous leaves that characterize many of the perennial shrubs of this biome, help conserve water and prevent nutrient loss. The soils generally are of low fertility , and many plants have mutualistic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria . Aquatic communities in Mediterranean climate regions are adapted to

4830-447: The Mediterranean climate typically experience hot, sometimes very hot and dry summers. Winters can be mild, cool or chilly, and some cities in this region receive somewhat regular snowfall (e.g. Kermanshah ), while others do not receive any (e.g. Casablanca ). Csa climates are mainly found around the Mediterranean Sea , southern Australia, southwestern South Africa , sections of Central Asia , northern sections of Iran and Iraq ,

4935-448: The Mediterranean climate, therefore it is also known as a "typical Mediterranean climate". As stated earlier, regions with this form of a Mediterranean climate experience average monthly temperatures in excess of 22.0 °C (71.6 °F) during its warmest month and an average in the coldest month between 18 and −3 °C (64 and 27 °F) or, in some applications, between 18 and 0 °C (64 and 32 °F). Regions with this form of

5040-413: The Middle East and North Africa. Although the lack of archaeological evidence has limited detailed studies of the evolution of bazaars, the earliest evidence for the existence of bazaars or souks dates to around 3000 BCE . Cities in the ancient Middle East appear to have contained commercial districts. Later, in the historic Islamic world , bazaars typically shared in common certain institutions, such as

5145-508: The Middle East, the bazaar is considered to be "the beating heart of the city and a symbol of Islamic architecture and culture of high significance." Today, bazaars are popular sites for tourists and some of these ancient bazaars have been listed as world heritage sites or national monuments on the basis of their historical, cultural or architectural value. The Medina of Fez , Morocco , which includes numerous long market streets (e.g. Tala'a Kebira ) and bazaar areas (e.g. Kissariat al-Kifah ),

5250-431: The average annual precipitation must not exceed 900 mm (35 in), as well as satisfying Köppen's precipitation requirements. [Chile] has four months of winter, no more, and in them, except when there is a quarter moon, when it rains one or two days, all the other days have such a beautiful sunshine that is not necessary to resort to fire. The summer is so temperate, with delicious airs, that man can go all day under

5355-555: The banks of the Oued Hamise river. Augustine of Hippo was born here. The Roman city is identified with ruins of Tajilt near Souk Ahras, Algeria. The Numidian city of Thagaste or Tagaste, on whose ruins Souk Ahras was built, was situated in the north-eastern highlands of Numidia . It was about 100 km (60 miles) from Hippo Regius , (present day Annaba ), 32 km (20 miles) southwest of Thubursicum (present day Khamissa), and about 240 km (150 miles) from Carthage (on

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5460-399: The bazaar is closely integrated with its urban surroundings and with other important institutions of the city. Although there is great variety among the bazaars of this region, there are three recurring elements, in addition to the general network of market streets. One element is the individual shops or booths that line each side of a market street. The shops are usually small spaces open to

5565-545: The bazaar to economic life and the prominence of marketplace terminology in the Quran , not much is known about the early history of bazaars and it remains a topic of ongoing research. Most of the surviving urban commercial structures in the Islamic world date from the 16th century or later, though some preserved urban caravanserais (commonly known as a funduq , khān , or wakāla ) date from earlier periods. The oldest of these

5670-434: The centrality of the Middle East in the history of souks, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence. However, documentary sources point to permanent marketplaces in cities from as early as 550 BCE. According to traditional Muslim narratives, Muhammad established a market place ( sūq ) in Medina shortly after arriving there during the Hijrah in 622 CE. He designated an open, unbuilt space as

5775-415: The cities that developed under the Ottoman Empire, there was generally one central bazaar area, known in Turkish as the çarşı . The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul , known locally as the Kapalıçarşı ('covered market'), is a famous example. Additionally, several types of market structures were common: the bedesten , the arasta , and the han (Turkish cognate of khān ). The Ottoman bedesten

5880-419: The city's temperatures. As a result, Souk Ahras usually does not see the extreme temperatures that are experienced in the adjacent interior deserts. The climate of Souk Ahras, like that of other Atlas cities, features wet winters and dry summers. Souk Ahras on average receives roughly 840.74 mm (33.10 inches) of precipitation per year, the bulk of which is seen between October and April. The inhabitants of

5985-401: The coast of present-day Tunisia ). Thagaste became a Roman municipium . The city was mentioned by Pliny the Elder . As a municipium , Thagaste was not settled by Roman Italian immigrants, but was inhabited by Romanized native Berbers . In 1830 Souk Ahras became a colonial settlement of French Algeria (1830–1962). In the late 19th century connection via the Algerian Railway , and in

6090-400: The coast) of desert and semi-arid climates , and equatorward of oceanic climates . Mediterranean climate zones are typically located along the western coasts of landmasses, between roughly 30 and 45 degrees north or south of the equator . The main cause of Mediterranean, or dry summer, climate is the subtropical ridge , which extends towards the pole of the hemisphere in question during

6195-434: The cold current has a stabilizing effect on the surrounding air, further reducing the chances for rain, but often causing thick layers of marine fog that usually evaporates by mid-day. Similar to desert climates, in many Mediterranean climates there is a strong diurnal character to daily temperatures in the warm summer months due to strong solar heating during the day from sunlight and rapid cooling at night. In winter,

6300-451: The corner of Sidi Massoud, and the cultural center. Souk Ahras is located in the east of Algeria, near the border with Tunisia. It is 600 km (370 miles) away from Algiers . It is one of the largest and oldest cities in Algeria and is 90 km (56 miles) from Annaba and its airport. Types of tourism in the state Souk A bazaar or souk is a marketplace consisting of multiple small stalls or shops, especially in

6405-440: The degree of summer heat: " a " represents an average temperature in the warmest month above 22 °C (72 °F), while " b " indicates the average temperature in the warmest month below 22 °C (72 °F). There is a "c" with 3 or less months' average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F), but this climate is rare and is very isolated. Under the Köppen classification, dry-summer climates ( Csa , Csb ) usually occur on

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6510-470: The early modern period. Many English visitors to the Orient wrote narratives around their travels. British Romantic literature in the Orientalism tradition has its origins in the early eighteenth century, with the first translations of The Arabian Nights (translated into English from the French in 1705–08). The popularity of this work inspired authors to develop a new genre, the Oriental tale. Samuel Johnson's History of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia, (1759)

6615-416: The early modern period. Many of these works were lavishly illustrated with engravings of every day scenes of Oriental lifestyles, including scenes of market places and market trade. Artists focused on the exotic beauty of the land – the markets, caravans and snake charmers. Islamic architecture also became favorite subject matter. Some of these works were propaganda designed to justify European imperialism in

6720-557: The freezing point and snow is generally seldom seen. Summer temperatures can be cool to very hot, depending on the distance from a large body of water, elevation, and latitude, among other factors. Strong winds from inland desert regions can sometimes boost summer temperatures up, quickly increasing the risk of wildfires . Notable exceptions to the usual proximity from bodies of water, thus featuring extremely high summer temperatures and cooler winters, include south-eastern Turkey and northern Iraq ( Urfa , Erbil ), surrounded by hot deserts to

6825-463: The government on behalf of merchants or represent their interests when needed. Though each neighbourhood within the city would have a local souk selling food and other essentials, the main bazaar was one of the central structures of a large city, selling durable goods, luxuries and providing services such as money exchange. Workshops where goods for sale are produced (in the case of a merchant selling locally-made products) are typically located away from

6930-416: The growing importance of the suburbs and the commercial districts resulted in most of them being enclosed within newly expanded city walls. From the 10th century onward, the bazaar became the financial center of a city and was heavily patronized and developed by ruling elites. The grouping of a bazaar, citadel, and Friday mosque also became more common. In the Mamluk Sultanate (13th to 16th centuries) and in

7035-401: The interior of northern California west of the Sierra Nevada , along the Wasatch Front in Utah , and inland areas of southern Oregon west of the Cascade Mountains . Southern California's coasts also experience hot summers due to the shielding effect of the Channel Islands . However, unshielded areas of that coastline can have warm-summer Mediterranean climates with hot-summer areas just

7140-435: The lower mid-latitudes (normally 30 to 44 north and south latitude). Such climates typically have dry summers and wet winters, with summer conditions being hot and winter conditions typically being mild. These weather conditions are typically experienced in the majority of Mediterranean-climate regions and countries, but remain highly dependent on proximity to the ocean, altitude and geographical location. The dry summer climate

7245-432: The lowland areas, temperatures which can sometimes prohibit the growth of typical cold-sensitive Mediterranean plants. Some Spanish authors opt to use the term 'continental Mediterranean climate' ( Clima Mediterráneo Continentalizado ) for some regions with lower temperatures in winter than the coastal areas, but Köppen's Cs zones show no distinction as long as winter temperature means stay above freezing. Additionally,

7350-414: The market and carried on trade, while the men remain at home weaving cloth. He also described The Babylonian Marriage Market . Sassanid rule in Iran was an important period for the development of urbanization and commerce. In Sassanid Iran, the bazaar was usually the heart of a town or city, where it spread outwards and affected the development of other neighbourhoods. The bazaar usually contained, or

7455-404: The market area and forbade both the construction of permanent structures and the levying of taxes in this area. Eight years later, he is said to have appointed a market inspector ( 'āmil 'alā l-sūq ), a position that likely evolved into the later muḥtasib in Islamic cities, an official in charge of overseeing public morality and regulating weights and measures. Despite the importance of

7560-412: The most prestigious and profitable trades such as jewelry, perfumes, and textiles. In order to protect these goods, the entrances to this area could be closed and locked at night or in times of danger. The other recurring element is the presence of courtyard buildings entered via a single large doorway. Often translated into English as a caravanserai , this type of building is known in different regions as

7665-484: The opposite of Western civilization; the peoples could be threatening- they were "despotic, static and irrational whereas Europe was viewed as democratic, dynamic and rational." At the same time, the Orient was seen as exotic, mysterious, a place of fables and beauty. This fascination with the other gave rise to a genre of painting known as Orientalism . A proliferation of both Oriental fiction and travel writing occurred during

7770-575: The physical sense and the abstract economic sense (e.g., an Arabic-speaker would speak of the sūq in the old city as well as the sūq for oil, and would call the concept of the free market السوق الحرّ , as-sūq al-ḥurr ). In northern Morocco, the Spanish corruption socco is often used as in the Grand Socco and Petit Socco of Tangiers . In Israel , the term shuk or shuq ( Hebrew : שׁוּק , romanized :  šūq ) shares

7875-519: The position of the muḥtasib , and certain architectural forms, such as roofed streets and courtyard buildings known in English as caravanserais . The exact details of their evolution and organization varied from region to region. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Western interest in oriental culture led to the publication of many books about daily life in Middle Eastern countries. Souks, bazaars and

7980-519: The reason for this cooler type of Mediterranean climate. The other main reason for this cooler type is the altitude . For instance, Menton on the French coast has a Csa climate while Castellar, Alpes-Maritimes , the adjacent town just north of Menton, with an altitude between 100 and 1,382 m (328 and 4,534 ft), has a Csb climate instead. The village of Siah Bisheh in Northern Iran also has

8085-636: The recent effects of climate change . The native vegetation of Mediterranean climate lands must be adapted to survive long, hot summer droughts in summer and prolonged wet periods in winter. Mediterranean vegetation examples include the following: Many native vegetations in Mediterranean climate area valleys have been cleared for agriculture and farming. In places such as the Sacramento Valley and Oxnard Plain in California , draining marshes and estuaries combined with supplemental irrigation has led to

8190-440: The reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ( r.  724–743 ) in particular. Markets that sold the most important or expensive goods were usually located near the city's central Friday mosque . In some cities, such as Cairo and Aleppo, the main bazaar was initially focused along one important street and then progressively grew and branched off into the surrounding streets. During the Islamic period in Iran, bazaars developed along

8295-509: The same era also indicate that ancient Greeks regulated trade in areas at the center of their cities around stoa buildings. The ideas of Greek city planning were spread to the Middle East during the Seleucid period, following the conquests of Alexander the Great . The Greek historian, Herodotus , noted that in Egypt, roles were reversed compared with other cultures and Egyptian women frequented

8400-513: The same lines as those of the Sassanid period. Up to the 11th century, the bazaar developed more commonly in the suburbs outside the city walls that enclosed the shahristān , the formal city. This was especially true in Central Asia, though there were exceptions in some regions where the bazaar was grouped with the citadel and the city's Friday mosque inside the city walls. After the 11th century,

8505-501: The so-called "Mediterranean trinity" of major agricultural crops have traditionally been successfully grown ( wheat , grapes and olives ). As a result, these regions are notable for their high-quality wines, grapeseed/olive oils, and bread products. Under the Köppen climate classification , "hot dry-summer" climates (classified as Csa ) and "cool dry-summer" climates (classified as Csb ) are often referred to as just "Mediterranean". Under

8610-501: The souk itself. Historically, in Islamic cities, the muḥtasib was the official in charge of regulating and policing the bazaar and other aspects of urban life. They monitored things such as weights and measures, pricing, cleanliness, noise, and traffic circulation, as well as being responsible for other issues of public morality. They also investigated complaints about cheating or the quality of goods. The equivalent official could be known by other titles in different regions, such as

8715-419: The south and mountains to the north. Those places routinely experience summer daily means of over 30 °C (86 °F) and daily highs above 40 °C (104 °F), while receiving enough rainfall in winter not to fall into arid or semi-arid classifications. As in every climatologic domain, the highland locations of the Mediterranean domain can present cooler temperatures in the summer and winter than

8820-542: The south coast of England such as Weymouth and Portland just scrape into this climate classification due to very low rainfall in July. A trend towards slightly drier summers during the 1971–2000 climate average period, meant that this classification previously extended slightly further to include a few other weather stations in southern England, such as Bognor Regis and Teignmouth . Rarer instances of this climate can be found in relatively small and isolated high altitude areas of

8925-621: The state. Some Iranian bazaars are organized around one long market street from which other market streets branch off (e.g. in Isfahan or Tehran), while others are large rectangular zones with a grid-like network of parallel and intersecting streets (e.g. as in Tabriz). The streets are lined with structures of one or two storeys that contain spaces for shops. The streets are typically roofed with brick vaults, pierced by skylights to allow for light and air circulation. The shops are often adjacent or connected to

9030-421: The street and occupied by merchants. They are typically equipped with large shutters which can be closed and locked when the shopkeeper is away. Another element is a more secure market area, usually centrally located and consisting of streets that were covered or roofed. This complex is variably known as a qayṣariyya , bedesten , or khān , depending on the city or historical period. It usually hosted

9135-546: The summer and migrates towards the equator during the winter. This is due to the seasonal poleward-equatorward variations of temperatures. The resulting vegetation of Mediterranean climates are the garrigue or maquis in the European Mediterranean Basin, the chaparral in California, the fynbos in South Africa , the mallee in Australia, and the matorral in Chile. Areas with this climate are also where

9240-537: The sun. Poleward extension and expansion of the subtropical anticyclone over the oceans bring subsiding air to the region in summer, with clear skies and high temperatures. When the anticyclone moves Equator-ward in winter, it is replaced by traveling, frontal cyclones with their attendant precipitation. During summer, regions of the Mediterranean climate are strongly influenced by the subtropical ridge which keeps atmospheric conditions very dry with minimal cloud coverage. In some areas, such as coastal California ,

9345-457: The temperature and rainfall pattern for a Csa or even a Csb climate can exist as a microclimate in some high-altitude locations adjacent to a rare tropical As ( tropical savanna climate with dry summers, typically in a rainshadow region, as in Hawaii). These have a favourable climate, with mild wet winters and fairly warm, dry summers. The Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome

9450-653: The town of Souk Ahras are of Berber origin. They are mainly from the different regions of the wilaya of Souk Ahras and neighboring wilayas . The first tribes having established in Souk Ahras were known as the Papiria, or Babiria from the name of Berber. They were composed of Causses and Syliactae. The tribes of Mousoulami, Kirina, Hnanchas, Hrakta have also lived here, all of them having Berber origins. These tribes lived in tents and practiced nomadism . They have established later and founded respective cities for themselves, including

9555-579: The town of Souk Ahras. Tourism in Souk Ahras focuses largely on a variety of historical and natural sites. In recent years it has become a destination for culture and health tourism. Souk Ahras, is one of the most beautiful cities in Algeria, especially in the spring and winter, attracting many tourists. Landmarks include the Al-Aman mosque, the Thagaste bridge in the center of the city, the olive tree of St. Augustine,

9660-605: The trappings of trade feature prominently in paintings and engravings, works of fiction and travel writing. Shopping at a bazaar or market-place remains a central feature of daily life in many Middle-Eastern and South Asian cities and towns and the bazaar remains the beating heart of West Asian and South Asian life; in the Middle East, souks tend to be found in a city's old quarter. Bazaars and souks are often important tourist attractions. A number of bazaar districts have been listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites due to their historical and/or architectural significance. The origin of

9765-674: The tropics, on Haleakalā Summit in Hawaii. In South America, Csc regions can be found along the Andes in Chile and Argentina. The town of Balmaceda, Chile is one of the few towns confirmed to have this climate. Small areas with a Csc climate can be found at high elevations in Corsica . In Norway, the small fishing village of Røstlandet , in Røst Municipality , above the Arctic Circle has

9870-538: The upper floor housed merchants. A temporary, seasonal souk is held at a set time that might be yearly, monthly or weekly. The oldest souks were set up annually, and were typically general festivals held outside cities. For example, Souk Ukadh was held yearly in pre-Islamic times in an area between Mecca and Ta’if during the sacred month of Dhu al-Qi'dah . While a busy market, it was more famous for its poetry competitions, judged by prominent poets such as Al-Khansa and Al-Nabigha . An example of an Islamic annual souk

9975-457: The western sides of continents. Csb zones in the Köppen system include areas normally not associated with Mediterranean climates but with Oceanic climates, such as much of the Pacific Northwest , much of southern Chile , parts of west-central Argentina , and parts of New Zealand . Additional highland areas in the subtropics also meet Cs requirements, though they, too, are not normally associated with Mediterranean climates. The same goes for

10080-527: The winter and summer due to higher evapotranspiration . Toward the polar latitudes, total moisture usually increases; for instance, the Mediterranean climate in Southern Europe has more rain. The rainfall also tends to be more evenly distributed throughout the year in Southern Europe, while in places such as Southern California , the summer is nearly or completely dry. In places where evapotranspiration

10185-410: The winter, with frost and snowfall almost unknown, whereas Tashkent has cold winters with annual frosts and snowfall; or, to consider summer, Seville experiences rather high temperatures in that season. In contrast, San Francisco has cool summers with daily highs around 21 °C (70 °F) due to the continuous upwelling of cold subsurface waters along the coast. Because most regions with

10290-484: The word "bazaar" comes from New Persian bāzār , from Middle Persian wāzār , from Old Persian wāčar , from Proto-Indo-Iranian *wahā-čarana . The term spread from Persian into Arabic, now used throughout the Middle East and in the Indian subcontinent. In North American and Europe, the English word "bazaar" can denote more generically a shop or market selling miscellaneous items. It can also refer in particular to

10395-448: The workshops where the goods are also produced, so that manufacturing and retail are often concentrated in the same areas, though some production (especially of textiles) was also distributed in other parts of the city. Like the bazaars further west, there were also many khān s (caravanserais) built in the area. They acted as warehouses, production centers, wholesale centers, hostels for merchants, and offices for conducting business. In

10500-543: The year for climate zones at such distances from coasts. In North America, areas with Csc climate can be found in the Olympic , Cascade , Klamath , and Sierra Nevada ranges in Washington, Oregon and California. These locations are found at high altitude nearby lower altitude regions characterized by a warm-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) or hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csa ). A rare instance of this climate occurs in

10605-445: Was a solid stone building, typically rectangular and roofed by domes, with shops inside. Like the qayṣariyya or bedesten in other regions, it hosted the most important and luxurious trades. The arasta is usually an elongated market structure or market street with shops lining its façades. Arasta s could be independent markets built outside the main bazaar area, such as those built as part of large religious complexes like

10710-542: Was adjoined by, an open-air plaza that served as a forum of socio-economic activity. Historically, bazaars were also held outside cities at locations where incoming caravans stopped and merchants displayed their goods for sale. Bazaars were established at caravanserai , places where a caravan or caravans arrived and remained for rest and refreshments. Since this might be infrequent, souks often extended beyond buying and selling goods to include major festivals involving various cultural and social activities. Any bazaar may serve

10815-726: Was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981. Al-Madina Souk in Aleppo is the largest covered historic market in the world, with an approximate length of 13 kilometers. It is part of the Ancient Aleppo , a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1986 in Syria . The Bazaar complex in Tabriz , Iran, was listed by UNESCO in 2010. The Bazaar of Qaisiyariye in Lar, Iran , is on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 2007. Kemeraltı Bazaar in İzmir

10920-435: Was placed on tentative list in 2020. Shopping at a souk or market place is part of daily life throughout much of the Middle East. Prices are commonly set by bargaining , also known as haggling, between buyers and sellers. Bazaars or souks are traditionally divided into specialized sections dealing in specific types of product, each usually housed in a few narrow streets and named after the product it specializes in such as

11025-419: Was usually declared for the period of operation of a souk to permit the unhampered exchange of surplus goods. Some of the seasonal markets were held at specific times of the year and became associated with particular types of produce such as Suq Hijr in Bahrain, noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. In spite of the centrality of the Middle Eastern market place, relatively little

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