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69-458: In music, solfège ( / ˈ s ɒ l f ɛ ʒ / , French: [sɔlfɛʒ] ) or solfeggio ( / s ɒ l ˈ f ɛ dʒ i oʊ / ; Italian: [solˈfeddʒo] ), also called sol-fa , solfa , solfeo , among many names, is a mnemonic used in teaching aural skills , pitch and sight-reading of Western music . Solfège is a form of solmization , though the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Syllables are assigned to

138-482: A breeze make a sane Japanese chilly in the USA." (les) Netherlands (Pays-Bas), Canada, Brazil (Brésil), Mexico (Mexique), Senegal, Japan (Japon), Chile (Chili), & (les) USA (États-Unis d'Amérique). Mnemonics can be used in aiding patients with memory deficits that could be caused by head injuries , strokes , epilepsy , multiple sclerosis and other neurological conditions. In a study conducted by Doornhein and De Haan,

207-658: A different shape. An example of this type of solmization occurs in Shakespeare's King Lear , where in Act 1, Scene 2, Edmund exclaims to himself right after Edgar's entrance so that Edgar can hear him: "O, these eclipses do portend these divisions". Then, in the 1623 First Folio (but not in the 1608 Quarto), he adds "Fa, so, la, mi". This Edmund probably sang to the tune of Fa , So , La , Ti (e.g. F, G, A, B in C major), i.e. an ascending sequence of three whole tones with an ominous feel to it: see tritone (historical uses) . Solfège

276-550: A grammar and tutorial for learning the Polish language. In 1653 at age 30 he accompanied the Polish ambassador to Istanbul. After two to three years of applying himself to the study of the Turkish language in Istanbul, he became the chief translator to the Polish embassy at Istanbul, and subsequently was appointed as deputy ambassador with full ambassadorial powers. Soon after that promotion, he

345-466: A language the learner knows already, also called "cognates" which are very common in Romance languages and other Germanic languages . A useful such technique is to find linkwords , words that have the same pronunciation in a known language as the target word, and associate them visually or auditorially with the target word. For example, in trying to assist the learner to remember ohel ( אוהל ‎),

414-420: A list is to create an easily remembered acronym . Another is to create a memorable phrase with words which share the same first letter(s) (i.e.: the same initialism ) as the list members. Mnemonic techniques can be applied to most memorization of novel materials. Some common examples for first-letter mnemonics: Mnemonic phrases or poems can be used to encode numeric sequences by various methods, one common one

483-523: A lovely house , I'd like to buy it ." The linguist Michel Thomas taught students to remember that estar is the Spanish word for to be by using the phrase "to be a star". Another Spanish example is by using the mnemonic " Vin Diesel Has Ten Weapons" to teach irregular command verbs in the you ( tú ) form. Spanish verb forms and tenses are regularly seen as the hardest part of learning

552-459: A mnemonic training study, a research team followed-up 112 community-dwelling older adults, 60 years of age and over. Delayed recall of a word list was assessed prior to, and immediately following mnemonic training, and at the 5-year follow-up. Overall, there was no significant difference between word recall prior to training and that exhibited at follow-up. However, pre-training performance gains scores in performance immediately post-training and use of

621-503: A musical scale by syllables, including those used in India and Japan as well as solfège, comes from French solmisation , from the Latin solfège syllables sol and mi . The verb "to sol-fa" means to sing the solfège syllables of a passage (as opposed to singing the lyrics, humming, etc). In eleventh-century Italy, the music theorist Guido of Arezzo invented a notational system that named

690-670: A system of mnemonics in which (as in Wennsshein) the numerical figures are represented by letters chosen due to some similarity to the figure or an accidental connection with it. This alphabet was supplemented by a complicated system of localities and signs. Feinaigle, who apparently did not publish any written documentation of this method, travelled to England in 1811. The following year one of his pupils published The New Art of Memory (1812), giving Feinaigle's system. In addition, it contains valuable historical material about previous systems. Other mnemonists later published simplified forms, as

759-509: Is a Finnish mnemonic regarding electricity : the first and last three letters can be arranged into the equations P = U × I {\displaystyle P=U\times I} and U = R × I {\displaystyle U=R\times I} . (The letter M is ignored, which can be explained with another, politically incorrect mnemonic.) Mnemonics may be helpful in learning foreign languages, for example by transposing difficult foreign words with words in

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828-528: Is a fundamental element of the Kodály method used primarily in Hungary , but with a dedicated following worldwide. In the movable do system, each solfège syllable corresponds not to a pitch, but to a scale degree: The first degree of a major scale is always sung as "do", the second as "re", etc. (For minor keys, see below.) In movable do, a given tune is therefore always sol-faed on the same syllables, no matter what key it

897-503: Is derived from the Ancient Greek word μνημονικός ( mnēmonikos ) which means ' of memory ' or ' relating to memory ' . It is related to Mnemosyne , the name of the goddess of memory in Greek mythology . Both of these words are derived from μνήμη ( mnēmē ), ' remembrance, memory ' . Mnemonics in antiquity were most often considered in the context of what is today known as

966-479: Is in. The solfège syllables used for movable do differ slightly from those used for fixed do, because the English variant of the basic syllables ("ti" instead of "si") is usually used, and chromatically altered syllables are usually included as well. If, at a certain point, the key of a piece modulates, then it is necessary to change the solfège syllables at that point. For example, if a piece begins in C major, then C

1035-406: Is initially sung on "do", D on "re", etc. If, however, the piece then modulates to F major, then F is sung on "do", G on "re", etc., and C is then sung on "sol". Passages in a minor key may be sol-faed in one of two ways in movable do: either starting on do (using "me", "le", and "te" for the lowered third, sixth, and seventh degrees, and "la" and "ti" for the raised sixth and seventh degrees), which

1104-551: Is known regarding the practice until the 13th century. Among the voluminous writings of Roger Bacon is a tractate De arte memorativa . Ramon Llull devoted special attention to mnemonics in connection with his ars generalis. The first important modification of the method of the Romans was that invented by the German poet Conrad Celtes , who, in his Epitoma in utramque Ciceronis rhetoricam cum arte memorativa nova (1492), used letters of

1173-423: Is referred to as "do-based minor", or starting on la (using "fi" and "si" for the raised sixth and seventh degrees). The latter (referred to as "la-based minor") is sometimes preferred in choral singing, especially with children. The choice of which system is used for minor makes a difference as to how you handle modulations. In the first case ("do-based minor"), when the key moves for example from C major to C minor

1242-431: Is said to be in "d-Moll"), and solfège syllables are encountered only in sight-singing and ear training. Mnemonic It makes use of elaborative encoding , retrieval cues and imagery as specific tools to encode information in a way that allows for efficient storage and retrieval. It aids original information in becoming associated with something more accessible or meaningful—which in turn provides better retention of

1311-561: Is still used for sight reading training. There are two main types: Movable do and Fixed do . In Movable do or tonic sol-fa , each syllable corresponds to a scale degree ; for example, if the music changes into a higher key, each syllable moves to a correspondingly higher note. This is analogous to the Guidonian practice of giving each degree of the hexachord a solfège name, and is mostly used in Germanic countries, Commonwealth countries, and

1380-446: Is to create a new phrase in which the number of letters in each word represents the according digit of pi. For example, the first 15 digits of the mathematical constant pi (3.14159265358979) can be encoded as "Now I need a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics"; "Now", having 3 letters, represents the first number, 3. Piphilology is the practice dedicated to creating mnemonics for pi. Another

1449-538: Is transposed from do = C to do = E-flat. In Fixed do , each syllable always corresponds to the same pitch; when the music changes keys, each syllable continues to refer to the same sound (in the absolute sense) as it did before. This is analogous to the Romance-language system naming pitches after the solfège syllables, and is used in Romance and Slavic countries, among others, including Spanish-speaking countries. From

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1518-441: Is used for "calculating" the multiples of 9 up to 9 × 10 using one's fingers. Begin by holding out both hands with all fingers stretched out. Now count left to right the number of fingers that indicates the multiple. For example, to figure 9 × 4, count four fingers from the left, ending at your left-hand index finger. Bend this finger down and count the remaining fingers. Fingers to the left of the bent finger represent tens, fingers to

1587-902: The Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia, the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York, the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston, Massachusetts, and the Cleveland Institute of Music in Cleveland, Ohio. In the fixed do system, shown above, accidentals do not affect the syllables used. For example, C, C ♯ , and C ♭ (as well as C [REDACTED] and C [REDACTED] , not shown above) are all sung with

1656-554: The Hebrew word for tent , the linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann proposes the memorable sentence " Oh hell , there's a raccoon in my tent ". The memorable sentence "There's a fork in Ma's leg " helps the learner remember that the Hebrew word for fork is mazleg ( מזלג ‎). Similarly, to remember the Hebrew word bayit ( בית ‎), meaning house , one can use the sentence "that's

1725-550: The Italian Renaissance , the debate over the superiority of instrumental music versus singing led Italian voice teachers to use Guido’s syllables for vocal technique rather than pitch discrimination. Hence, specific syllables were associated with fixed pitches. When the Paris Conservatoire was founded at the turn of the nineteenth century, its solfège textbooks adhered to the conventions of Italian solfeggio, solidifying

1794-650: The alphabet for associations, rather than places. About the end of the 15th century, Peter of Ravenna (b. 1448) provoked such astonishment in Italy by his mnemonic feats that he was believed by many to be a necromancer . His Phoenix artis memoriae ( Venice , 1491, 4 vols.) went through as many as nine editions, the seventh being published at Cologne in 1608. About the end of the 16th century, Lambert Schenkel ( Gazophylacium , 1610), who taught mnemonics in France , Italy and Germany , similarly surprised people with his memory. He

1863-502: The art of memory . The general name of mnemonics , or memoria technica , was the name applied to devices for aiding the memory, to enable the mind to reproduce a relatively unfamiliar idea, and especially a series of dissociated ideas, by connecting it, or them, in some artificial whole, the parts of which are mutually suggestive. Mnemonic devices were much cultivated by Greek sophists and philosophers and are frequently referred to by Plato and Aristotle . Philosopher Charmadas

1932-419: The "most fertile secret" in mnemonics—using consonants for figures, thus expressing numbers by words (vowels being added as required), in order to create associations more readily remembered. The philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz adopted an alphabet very similar to that of Wennsshein for his scheme of a form of writing common to all languages. Wennsshein's method was adopted with slight changes afterward by

2001-444: The "natural" memory and the "artificial" memory. The former is inborn and is the one that everyone uses instinctively. The latter in contrast has to be trained and developed through the learning and practice of a variety of mnemonic techniques. Mnemonic systems are techniques or strategies consciously used to improve memory. They help use information already stored in long-term memory to make memorization an easier task. Mnemonic

2070-470: The 8th century. They translate as: So that your servants may with loosened voices Resound the wonders of your deeds, Clean the guilt from our stained lips, O Saint John. "Ut" was changed in the 1600s in Italy to the open syllable Do. Guido's system had only six notes, but "si" was added later as the seventh note of the diatonic scale. In Anglophone countries, "si" was changed to "ti" by Sarah Glover in

2139-469: The United States. One particularly important variant of movable do, but differing in some respects from the system described below, was invented in the nineteenth century by Sarah Ann Glover , and is known as tonic sol-fa . In Italy, in 1972, Roberto Goitre wrote the famous method "Cantar leggendo", which has come to be used for choruses and for music for young children. The pedagogical advantage of

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2208-417: The aged adults into two groups, aged unimpaired and aged impaired, according to a neuropsychological testing . With the aged groups split, there was an apparent deficit in target recognition in aged impaired adults compared to both young adults and aged unimpaired adults. This further supports the varying effectiveness of mnemonics in different age groups. Moreover, different research was done previously with

2277-413: The apartments of the house until discovering the places where images had been placed by the imagination. In accordance with this system, if it were desired to fix a historic date in memory, it was localised in an imaginary town divided into a certain number of districts, each with ten houses, each house with ten rooms, and each room with a hundred quadrates or memory-places, partly on the floor, partly on

2346-408: The command is being given to. The phrase, when pronounced with a Spanish accent, is used to remember "Ven Di Sal Haz Ten Ve Pon Sé", all of the irregular Spanish command verbs in the you ( tú ) form. This mnemonic helps students attempting to memorize different verb tenses. Another technique is for learners of gendered languages to associate their mental images of words with a colour that matches

2415-449: The creation of long-term memories. [REDACTED] The dictionary definition of mnemonic at Wiktionary Francisci a Mesgnien Meninski Franciscus à Mesgnien Meninski (first name spelled also Francisci , François and Franciszek ) (1623–1698) was the author of a multi-volume Turkish-to-Latin dictionary and grammar of the Turkish language , first published in 1680, which

2484-416: The four walls, partly on the ceiling. Therefore, if it were desired to fix in the memory the date of the invention of printing (1436), an imaginary book, or some other symbol of printing, would be placed in the thirty-sixth quadrate or memory-place of the fourth room of the first house of the historic district of the town. Except that the rules of mnemonics are referred to by Martianus Capella , nothing further

2553-600: The gender in the target language. An example here is to remember the Spanish word for "foot", pie , [pee-eh] with the image of a foot stepping on a pie, which then spills blue filling (blue representing the male gender of the noun in this example). For French verbs which use être as an auxiliary verb for compound tenses: DR and MRS VANDERTRAMPP: descendre, rester, monter, revenir, sortir, venir, arriver, naître, devenir, entrer, rentrer, tomber, retourner, aller, mourir, partir, passer. Masculine countries in French (le): "Neither can

2622-568: The information. Commonly encountered mnemonics are often used for lists and in auditory form such as short poems , acronyms , initialisms or memorable phrases. They can also be used for other types of information and in visual or kinesthetic forms. Their use is based on the observation that the human mind more easily remembers spatial, personal, surprising, physical, sexual, humorous and otherwise "relatable" information rather than more abstract or impersonal forms of information. Ancient Greeks and Romans distinguished between two types of memory:

2691-412: The language. With a high number of verb tenses, and many verb forms that are not found in English, Spanish verbs can be hard to remember and then conjugate. The use of mnemonics has been proven to help students better learn foreign languages, and this holds true for Spanish verbs. A particularly hard verb tense to remember is command verbs. Command verbs in Spanish are conjugated differently depending on who

2760-459: The latter part, which is so contrived as to give the answer. Thus, in history, the Deluge happened in the year before Christ two thousand three hundred forty-eight; this is signified by the word Del- etok , Del standing for Deluge and etok for 2348. Wennsshein's method is comparable to a Hebrew system by which letters also stand for numerals, and therefore words for dates. To assist in retaining

2829-519: The letters C, D, E, F, G, A, and B – are used to name the notes of the C-Major scale. Here it would be said, for example, that Beethoven's Ninth Symphony (in D minor ) is in "Re minor", and that its third movement (in B-flat major ) is in "Si-bemol major". In Germanic countries, on the other hand, the notes have letter names that are mainly the same as those used in English (so that Beethoven's Ninth Symphony

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2898-440: The majority of subsequent "original" systems. It was modified and supplemented by Richard Grey (1694–1771), a priest who published a Memoria technica in 1730. The principal part of Grey's method is briefly this: To remember anything in history , chronology , geography , etc., a word is formed, the beginning whereof, being the first syllable or syllables of the thing sought, does, by frequent repetition, of course draw after it

2967-552: The memory. The Romans valued such helps in order to support facility in public speaking. The Greek and the Roman system of mnemonics was founded on the use of mental places and signs or pictures, known as "topical" mnemonics. The most usual method was to choose a large house, of which the apartments, walls, windows, statues, furniture, etc., were each associated with certain names, phrases, events or ideas, by means of symbolic pictures. To recall these, an individual had only to search over

3036-482: The mnemonic predicted performance at follow-up. Individuals who self-reported using the mnemonic exhibited the highest performance overall, with scores significantly higher than at pre-training. The findings suggest that mnemonic training has long-term benefits for some older adults, particularly those who continue to employ the mnemonic. This contrasts with a study from surveys of medical students that approximately only 20% frequently used mnemonic acronyms. In humans,

3105-468: The mnemonical words in the memory, they were formed into memorial lines. Such strange words in difficult hexameter scansion, are by no means easy to memorise. The vowel or consonant , which Grey connected with a particular figure, was chosen arbitrarily. A later modification was made in 1806 Gregor von Feinaigle , a German monk from Salem near Constance . While living and working in Paris , he expounded

3174-506: The more complicated mnemonics were generally abandoned. Methods founded chiefly on the so-called laws of association (cf. Mental association ) were taught with some success in Germany. A wide range of mnemonics are used for several purposes. The most commonly used mnemonics are those for lists, numerical sequences, foreign-language acquisition, and medical treatment for patients with memory deficits. A common mnemonic technique for remembering

3243-549: The movable-Do system is its ability to assist in the theoretical understanding of music; because a tonic is established and then sung in comparison to, the student infers melodic and chordal implications through their singing. Movable do is frequently employed in Australia, China, Japan (with 5th being so, and 7th being si), Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States, Hong Kong, and English-speaking Canada. The movable do system

3312-502: The nineteenth century so that every syllable might begin with a different letter . "Ti" is used in tonic sol-fa (and in the famed American show tune " Do-Re-Mi "). Some authors speculate that the solfège syllables ( do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti ) might have been influenced by the syllables of the Arabic solmization system called درر مفصّلات Durar Mufaṣṣalāt ("Detailed Pearls") ( dāl, rā', mīm, fā', ṣād, lām, tā' ). This mixed-origin theory

3381-722: The notes of the scale and assist the musician in audiating , or mentally hearing, the pitches of a piece of music, often for the purpose of singing them aloud. Through the Renaissance (and much later in some shapenote publications) various interlocking four-, five- and six-note systems were employed to cover the octave. The tonic sol-fa method popularized the seven syllables commonly used in English-speaking countries: do (spelled doh in tonic sol-fa ), re , mi , fa , so(l) , la , and ti (or si ) (see below ). There are two current ways of applying solfège: 1) fixed do , where

3450-598: The patients were treated with six different memory strategies including the mnemonics technique. The results concluded that there were significant improvements on the immediate and delayed subtest of the RBMT, delayed recall on the Appointments test, and relatives rating on the MAC from the patients that received mnemonics treatment. However, in the case of stroke patients, the results did not reach statistical significance. Academic study of

3519-496: The principles of topical or local mnemonics. Giordano Bruno included a memoria technica in his treatise De umbris idearum, as part of his study of the ars generalis of Llull . Other writers of this period are the Florentine Publicius (1482); Johannes Romberch (1533); Hieronimo Morafiot , Ars memoriae (1602);and B. Porta, Ars reminiscendi (1602). In 1648 Stanislaus Mink von Wennsshein revealed what he called

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3588-406: The process of aging particularly affects the medial temporal lobe and hippocampus , in which the episodic memory is synthesized. The episodic memory stores information about items, objects, or features with spatiotemporal contexts. Since mnemonics aid better in remembering spatial or physical information rather than more abstract forms, its effect may vary according to a subject's age and how well

3657-670: The rhythm. This system is called fixed do and is used in Belgium , Brazil, Spain, Portugal , France, Italy, Romania , Latin American countries and in French-speaking Canada as well as countries such as Russia , Turkey , Ukraine , Bulgaria and Israel where non-Romance languages are spoken. In the United States, the fixed-do system is taught at many conservatories and schools of music including The Juilliard School in New York City,

3726-422: The right are ones. There are three fingers to the left and six to the right, which indicates 9 × 4 = 36. This works for 9 × 1 up through 9 × 10. For remembering the rules in adding and multiplying two signed numbers, Balbuena and Buayan (2015) made the letter strategies LAUS (like signs, add; unlike signs, subtract) and LPUN (like signs, positive; unlike signs, negative), respectively. PUIMURI (' thresher ')

3795-477: The same notion, which presented with similar results to that of Reagh et al. in a verbal mnemonics discrimination task. Studies (notably " The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two ") have suggested that the short-term memory of adult humans can hold only a limited number of items; grouping items into larger chunks such as in a mnemonic might be part of what permits the retention of a larger total amount of information in short-term memory, which in turn can aid in

3864-410: The scale being "fa, sol, la, fa, sol, la, mi, fa". The use of "fa", "sol" and "la" for two positions in the scale is a leftover from the Guidonian system of so-called "mutations" (i.e. changes of hexachord on a note, see Guidonian hand ). This system was largely eliminated by the 19th century, but is still used in some shape note systems, which give each of the four syllables "fa", "sol", "la", and "mi"

3933-631: The six notes of the hexachord after the first syllable of each line of the Latin hymn " Ut queant laxis ", the "Hymn to St. John the Baptist ", yielding ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la . Each successive line of this hymn begins on the next scale degree , so each note's name was the syllable sung at that pitch in this hymn. Ut queant laxīs     re sonāre fibrīs Mī ra gestōrum     fa mulī tuōrum, Sol ve pollūtī     la biī reātum, Sancte Iohannēs. The words were ascribed to Paulus Diaconus in

4002-430: The subject's medial temporal lobe and hippocampus function. This could be further explained by one recent study which indicates a general deficit in the memory for spatial locations in aged adults (mean age 69.7 with standard deviation of 7.4 years) compared to young adults (mean age 21.7 with standard deviation of 4.2 years). At first, the difference in target recognition was not significant. The researchers then divided

4071-486: The syllable "do". Several chromatic fixed-do systems have also been devised to account for chromatic notes , and even for double-sharp and double-flat variants. The Yehnian system, being the first 24-EDO (i.e., quarter tone) solfège system, proposed even quartertonal syllables. While having no exceptions to its rules, it supports both si and ti users. (Si users / Ti users) In the countries with fixed-do, these seven syllables (with "si" rather than "ti") – and not

4140-406: The syllable do keeps pointing to the same note, namely C, (there's no "mutation" of do's note), but when the key shifts from C major to A minor (or A major), the scale is transposed from do = C to do = A. In the second case ("la-based minor"), when the key moves from C major to A minor the syllable do continues to point to the same note, again C, but when the key moves from C major to C minor the scale

4209-426: The syllables are always tied to specific pitches (e.g., "do" is always "C-natural") and 2) movable do , where the syllables are assigned to scale degrees , with "do" always the first degree of the major scale. Italian " solfeggio " and English/French " solfège " derive from the names of two of the syllables used: sol and fa . The generic term " solmization ", referring to any system of denoting pitches of

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4278-419: The use of Fixed doh in Romance cultures In the major Romance and Slavic languages, the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, and Si are the ordinary names of the notes, in the same way that the letters C, D, E, F, G, A, and B are used to name notes in English. For native speakers of these languages, solfège is simply singing the names of the notes , omitting any modifiers such as "sharp" or "flat" to preserve

4347-400: The use of mnemonics has shown their effectiveness. In one such experiment, subjects of different ages who applied mnemonic techniques to learn novel vocabulary outperformed control groups that applied contextual learning and free-learning styles. Mnemonics were seen to be more effective for groups of people who struggled with or had weak long-term memory , like the elderly. Five years after

4416-575: Was awarded Polish citizenship, on which occasion he added the Polish termination of "ski" to his last name, which had been Mesgnien or Menin previously. In 1661 he moved to Vienna in Austria to become interpreter of Oriental languages for the Habsburg monarchy at Vienna. He stayed at that post for the rest of his career, and died at Vienna. His great work, the Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalium ,

4485-573: Was brought forward by scholars as early as the seventeenth and eighteenth century, in the works of Francisci a Mesgnien Meninski and Jean-Benjamin de La Borde . Modern scholars are mostly skeptical. In the Elizabethan era , England and its related territories used only four of the syllables: mi, fa, sol, and la. "Mi" stood for modern ti or si, "fa" for modern do or ut, "sol" for modern re, and "la" for modern mi. Then, fa, sol and la would be repeated to also stand for their modern counterparts, resulting in

4554-561: Was denounced as a sorcerer by the University of Louvain , but in 1593 he published his tractate De memoria at Douai with the sanction of that celebrated theological faculty. The most complete account of his system is given in two works by his pupil Martin Sommer, published in Venice in 1619. In 1618 John Willis (d. 1628?) published Mnemonica; sive ars reminiscendi , containing a clear statement of

4623-543: Was famous for his outstanding memory and for his ability to memorize whole books and then recite them. In later times, the poet Simonides was credited for development of these techniques, perhaps for no reason other than that the power of his memory was famous. Cicero , who attaches considerable importance to the art, but more to the principle of order as the best help to memory, speaks of Carneades (perhaps Charmades) of Athens and Metrodorus of Scepsis as distinguished examples of people who used well-ordered images to aid

4692-587: Was ground-breaking in its comprehensiveness at the time, and for historians and linguists today it is a valuable reference for the Turkish language of the early modern period . Mesgnien-Meninski was born in Lorraine (duchy) in today's northeastern France. He studied in Rome, where one of his teachers was a theoretical linguist, logician, and Jesuit, Giovanni Battista Giattini. Mesgnien-Meninski moved to Poland around 1647. In 1649, when aged in his late 20s, he published in Latin

4761-512: Was published at Vienna in 1680 in 4 volumes, consisting of a dictionary of Turkish, Arabic and Persian vocabulary translated to Latin and explained in Latin, plus a grammar and tutorial for learning the Turkish language. For his Arabic and Persian vocabulary Meninski copied much from the Arabic-Latin and Persian-Latin dictionaries of Jacobus Golius (died 1667). The Turkish was largely and essentially from Meninski himself. In 1687, Meninski published

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