173-456: Solar power includes solar farms as well as local distributed generation , mostly on rooftops and increasingly from community solar arrays. In 2023, utility-scale solar power generated 164.5 terawatt-hours (TWh), or 3.9% of electricity in the United States . Total solar generation that year, including estimated small-scale photovoltaic generation, was 238 TWh. As of the end of 2023,
346-525: A laissez-faire philosophy and free-market fiscal policy. Reagan's taxation policies resembled those instituted by President Calvin Coolidge and Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon in the 1920s. Reagan's team was also strongly influenced by contemporary economists such as Arthur Laffer , who rejected the then-dominant views of Keynesian economists . Reagan relied on Laffer and other economists to argue that tax cuts would reduce inflation, which went against
519-413: A photovoltaic system , or PV system, produces direct current (DC) power which fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity. For practical use this usually requires conversion to alternating current (AC), through the use of inverters . Multiple solar cells are connected inside panels. Panels are wired together to form arrays, then tied to an inverter, which produces power at the desired voltage, and for AC,
692-596: A utility company was the world's first grid-connected pole-attached solar panels of Public Service Enterprise Group in New Jersey. More than 174,000 PV panels are mounted on utility poles along streets of New Jersey with aggregated capacity of 40 MW. As of November 2017, there were nearly 5,500 schools in the United States that had solar installations with the total capacity of approximately 910 MW. The top five states were Nevada, California, Hawaii, Arizona, and New Jersey with 23.10%, 14.50%, 14.50%, 14.10% and 13.00% of
865-616: A $ 535 million loan guarantee, prompting Republican members of the Energy and Commerce committee to vote to cease accepting new applications to the loan program. In September 2014, SolarCity broke ground on a solar panel manufacturing plant in Buffalo, New York . Upon its completion in 2016, it was projected to be the largest solar manufacturing facility in the Western hemisphere, with an annual manufacturing capacity of 1 gigawatt. However, as of 2019
1038-518: A 30-year lifetime to make a profit. However prices of new panels increased in the year after the study. A 2022 study found that modules were lasting longer than previously estimated, and said that might result in less PV waste than had been thought. In 2023 the EPA considered regulations. One of the first applications of concentrated solar was the 6 horsepower (4.5 kW) solar powered motor made by H.E. Willsie and John Boyle in 1904. An early solar pioneer of
1211-451: A Republican) were eager to back some of Reagan's conservative policies. Throughout 1981, Reagan frequently met with members of Congress, focusing especially on winning support from conservative Southern Democrats. Reagan also benefited from a conservative majority in the House during his first two years as president, with an estimated 230 votes during the 97th Congress, although this changed after
1384-492: A balanced budget during his time in office. In an effort to lower the national debt, Congress passed the Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Balanced Budget Act , which called for automatic spending cuts if Congress was unable to eliminate deficits through the regular budget-making process. However, Congress found ways around the automatic cuts and deficits continued to rise, ultimately leading to the passage of
1557-583: A campaign promise to name the first woman to the Supreme Court. Democrats, who had planned to vigorously oppose Reagan's nominations to the Supreme Court, approved of the nomination of O'Connor. However, the Christian right was astonished and dismayed with O'Connor, who they feared would not overturn the Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade , which had established abortion as protected from government interference via
1730-464: A characterization by Carter of his record regarding Medicare, Reagan replied with a phrase that helped define the election and endure in the political lexicon: " There you go again ." Though the race had been widely regarded as a close contest, Reagan won over the large majority of undecided voters. Reagan took 50.7% of the popular vote and 489 of the 538 electoral votes. Carter won 41% of the popular vote and 49 electoral votes, while Anderson won 6.6% of
1903-584: A factor of 2.56. They forecast the cost of recycling a single PV panel by then would reach $ 20–30, which would increase the LCOE of PV by a factor 4. Analyzing the US market, where no EU-like legislation exists as of 2021, HBR noted that without mandatory recycling legislation and with the cost of sending it to a landfill being just $ 1–2 there was a significant financial incentive to discard the decommissioned panels. The study assumed that consumers would replace panels halfway through
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#17328849384642076-595: A focus of his administration, but he came to support a package of reforms sponsored by Republican Senator Alan Simpson and Democratic Congressman Romano Mazzoli , which he signed into law as the Immigration Reform and Control Act in November 1986. The act made it illegal to knowingly hire or recruit illegal immigrants , required employers to attest to their employees' immigration status, and granted amnesty to approximately three million illegal immigrants who had entered
2249-474: A former general who had served as chief of staff to Richard Nixon , as his first secretary of state. Other major Cabinet appointees included Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger , a former Nixon cabinet official who would preside over an increase in defense spending, and Secretary of the Treasury Donald Regan , a bank executive. Reagan selected David Stockman , a young congressman from Michigan , as
2422-492: A growing number of countries and regions all over the world. The largest manufacturers of solar equipment were based in China. Although concentrated solar power capacity grew more than tenfold, it remained a tiny proportion of the total, because the cost of utility-scale solar PV fell by 85% between 2010 and 2020, while CSP costs only fell 68% in the same timeframe. Despite the rising cost of materials, such as polysilicon , during
2595-491: A high of nearly 11% in 1982, poverty rate rose from 11.7 percent to 15 percent. The country emerged from recession in 1983, but not all shared equally in the economic recovery, and economic inequality and the number of homeless individuals both increased during the 1980s. Fearful of damaging confidence in the economic recovery, Reagan nominated Volcker to a second term in 1983, and Volcker remained in office until 1987. Inflation dropped to approximately 3.5% in 1985, while
2768-582: A high specific heat capacity, and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. This method of energy storage is used, for example, by the Solar Two power station, allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in its 68 m storage tank, enough to provide full output for close to 39 hours, with an efficiency of about 99%. In stand alone PV systems , batteries are traditionally used to store excess electricity. With grid-connected photovoltaic power systems , excess electricity can be sent to
2941-572: A large area of sunlight to a hot spot, often to drive a steam turbine . Photovoltaics (PV) were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to remote homes powered by an off-grid rooftop PV system. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since then, as the cost of solar panels has fallen, grid-connected solar PV systems ' capacity and production has doubled about every three years . Three-quarters of new generation capacity
3114-473: A law creating new federal judicial positions in 1984, Reagan had appointed nearly half of the federal judiciary by the time he left office in 1989. On March 30, 1981, only 69 days into the new administration, Reagan, his press secretary James Brady , Washington police officer Thomas Delahanty , and Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy were struck by gunfire from would-be assassin John Hinckley Jr. outside
3287-691: A limited effect on the users, but their effect on self-consumption of solar power may be limited. The original political purpose of incentive policies for PV was to facilitate an initial small-scale deployment to begin to grow the industry, even where the cost of PV was significantly above grid parity, to allow the industry to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity. Since reaching grid parity, some policies are implemented to promote national energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction of CO 2 emissions. Financial incentives for photovoltaics differ across countries, including Australia , China , Germany , India , Japan , and
3460-490: A local user or users. Utility-scale solar is sometimes used to describe this type of project. This approach differs from concentrated solar power , the other major large-scale solar generation technology, which uses heat to drive a variety of conventional generator systems. Both approaches have their own advantages and disadvantages, but to date, for a variety of reasons, photovoltaic technology has seen much wider use. As of 2019 , about 97% of utility-scale solar power capacity
3633-536: A manufacturing plant for solar ingots and wafers (the building blocks for silicon solar cells) in Salem, Oregon. The plant was scheduled to begin operating in October 2009 and scheduled to reach its full production capacity of 70 megawatts (MW) of solar wafers per year by April 2010. In April 2013 the plant closed its wafer slicing operation. In February 2016 the parent company, Panasonic, announced it would lay off 37% of
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#17328849384643806-750: A manufacturing plant in Hillsboro, Oregon . In 2016 the Hillsboro plant was the largest photovoltaic technology manufacturing plant in the Western Hemisphere. It maintains 500 megawatts of cell-manufacturing capacity and 350 MW of module-assembly capacity annually. Rapidly decreasing photovoltaic prices put General Electric's planned factory in Colorado on hold, and led to the bankruptcy of Konarka Technologies , which had expected to produce 1,000 MW of solar modules per year by 2011, and Solyndra , which defaulted on
3979-504: A measure more directly comparable to other forms of power generation. Most solar parks are developed at a scale of at least 1 MW p . As of 2018, the world's largest operating photovoltaic power stations surpassed 1 gigawatt . At the end of 2019, about 9,000 solar farms were larger than 4 MW AC (utility scale), with a combined capacity of over 220 GW AC . Commercial concentrating solar power (CSP) plants, also called "solar thermal power stations", were first developed in
4152-406: A number of tax breaks. The top rate was dropped to 28%, but capital gains taxes were increased on those with the highest incomes from 20% to 28%. The increase of the lowest tax bracket from 11% to 15% was more than offset by expansion of the personal exemption, standard deduction , and earned income tax credit . The net result was the removal of six million poor Americans from the income tax roll and
4325-579: A rate ranging from wholesale to retail rate or above, as can be excess annual credits. A community solar project is a solar power installation that accepts capital from and provides output credit and tax benefits to multiple customers, including individuals, businesses, nonprofits, and other investors. Participants typically invest in or subscribe to a certain kW capacity or kWh generation of remote electrical production. In some countries tariffs (import taxes) are imposed on imported solar panels. The overwhelming majority of electricity produced worldwide
4498-743: A record pace in the United States and throughout the world in 2008, according to industry reports. The Solar Energy Industries Association 's "2008 U.S. Solar Industry Year in Review " found that U.S. solar energy capacity increased by 17% in 2007, reaching the total equivalent of 8,775 megawatts (MW). The SEIA report tallies all types of solar energy, and in 2007 the United States installed 342 MW of solar photovoltaic (PV) electric power, 139 thermal megawatts ( MW th ) of solar water heating , 762 MW th of pool heating , and 21 MW th of solar space heating and cooling. Another report in 2008 by research and publishing firm Clean Edge and
4671-449: A reduction of income tax liability at all income levels. The net effect of Reagan's tax bills was that overall tax burden held steady at roughly 19 percent of gross national product . Reagan prioritized tax cuts over spending cuts, arguing that lower revenue would eventually require lower spending. Nonetheless, Reagan was determined to decrease government spending and roll back or dismantle Great Society programs such as Medicaid and
4844-571: A shared solar array and receive bill credits on their monthly utility bill. Community solar is available in about one third of the states, including MN, NJ, CA, NY, MA and CO. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 created a large investment into clean energy with the purpose of developing an increase of green jobs. Thin-film photovoltaics (CdTe and CIGS) were chosen because they can be less expensive to manufacture than crystalline silicon-based solar cells. In late September 2008, Sanyo Electric Company, Ltd. announced its decision to build
5017-463: A tenth of their electricity from solar, with China making up more than half of solar growth. Almost half the solar power installed in 2022 was mounted on rooftops . Much more low-carbon power is needed for electrification and to limit climate change . The International Energy Agency said in 2022 that more effort was needed for grid integration and the mitigation of policy, regulation and financing challenges. Nevertheless solar may greatly cut
5190-440: A thin coating of boron. The “Bell Solar Battery” was described as 6% efficient, with a square yard of the panels generating 50 watts. The first satellite with solar panels was launched in 1957 . By the 1970s, solar panels were still too expensive for much other than satellites . In 1974 it was estimated that only six private homes in all of North America were entirely heated or cooled by functional solar power systems. However,
5363-461: Is (or is predicted to become) the cheapest source of energy in all of Central America, Africa, the Middle East, India, South-east Asia, Australia, and several other regions. Different measurements of solar irradiance (direct normal irradiance, global horizontal irradiance) are mapped below: In cases of self-consumption of solar energy, the payback time is calculated based on how much electricity
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5536-429: Is 392 MWac, and brings the total to 1,310 MWac. The 110 MWac Crescent Dunes project started commissioning during February. The 250 MWac Mojave solar, second phase 125 MWac Genesis Solar, and Tooele Army Depot Solar's 1.5 MWac power plant are all expected to come online in 2014. A total of around 9.5 GW of solar PV and CSP capacity is expected to come online in 2016, more than any other source. A complete list of incentives
5709-497: Is a type of solar cell that includes a perovskite-structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic–inorganic lead or tin halide-based material as the light-harvesting active layer. Perovskite materials, such as methylammonium lead halides and all-inorganic cesium lead halide, are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture. Concentrated solar power (CSP), also called "concentrated solar thermal", uses lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to concentrate sunlight, then uses
5882-455: Is forecast to be solar, surpassing coal as the largest source of installed power capacity. Utility scale is forecast to become the largest source of electricity in all regions except sub-Saharan Africa by 2050. According to a 2021 study, global electricity generation potential of rooftop solar panels is estimated at 27 PWh per year at costs ranging from $ 40 (Asia) to $ 240 per MWh (US, Europe). Its practical realization will however depend on
6055-571: Is key for high self-consumption. The match can be improved with batteries or controllable electricity consumption. However, batteries are expensive, and profitability may require the provision of other services from them besides self-consumption increase, for example avoiding power outages . Hot water storage tanks with electric heating with heat pumps or resistance heaters can provide low-cost storage for self-consumption of solar power. Shiftable loads, such as dishwashers, tumble dryers and washing machines, can provide controllable consumption with only
6228-575: Is largely a function of climate and latitude and so varies significantly from state to state. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory has calculated that the highest statewide average solar voltaic capacity factors are in Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada (each 26.3 percent), and the lowest is Alaska (10.5 percent). The lowest statewide average capacity factor in the contiguous 48 states is in West Virginia (17.2 percent). The table above gives an indication of
6401-484: Is maintained at the Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE). Most solar power systems are grid connected and use net metering laws to receive compensation for electricity that is not consumed on site and exported to the grid. New Jersey leads the nation with the least restrictive net metering law, and California leads in total number of homes which have solar panels installed. Many were installed because of
6574-421: Is not purchased from the grid. However, in many cases, the patterns of generation and consumption do not coincide, and some or all of the energy is fed back into the grid. The electricity is sold, and at other times when energy is taken from the grid, electricity is bought. The relative costs and prices obtained affect the economics. In many markets, the price paid for sold PV electricity is significantly lower than
6747-695: Is potentially an important issue, particularly in off-grid applications and for future 100% renewable energy scenarios. Solar is intermittent due to the day/night cycles and variable weather conditions. However solar power can be forecast somewhat by time of day, location, and seasons. The challenge of integrating solar power in any given electric utility varies significantly. In places with hot summers and mild winters, solar tends to be well matched to daytime cooling demands. Concentrated solar power plants may use thermal storage to store solar energy, such as in high-temperature molten salts. These salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have
6920-582: Is second only to onshore wind turbines in levelized cost of electricity competitiveness. Replacing historical sources of fossil energy (coal, oil, and natural gas) with solar and wind results in lower operating costs for utility providers and lower energy costs for consumers. This does not include the significant additional health and mortality burden to society from fossil fuel use that makes it even more expensive than it appears. The Carter administration provided major subsidies for research into photovoltaic technology and sought to increase commercialization in
7093-489: Is solar, with both millions of rooftop installations and gigawatt-scale photovoltaic power stations continuing to be built. In 2023, solar power generated 5.5% (1,631 TWh) of global electricity and over 1% of primary energy , adding twice as much new electricity as coal. Along with onshore wind power , utility-scale solar is the source with the cheapest levelised cost of electricity for new installations in most countries. As of 2023, 33 countries generated more than
Solar power in the United States - Misplaced Pages Continue
7266-765: Is then used for power generation or energy storage. Thermal storage efficiently allows overnight electricity generation, thus complementing PV. CSP generates a very small share of solar power and in 2022 the IEA said that CSP should be better paid for its storage. As of 2021 the levelized cost of electricity from CSP is over twice that of PV. However, their very high temperatures may prove useful to help decarbonize industries (perhaps via hydrogen) which need to be hotter than electricity can provide. A hybrid system combines solar with energy storage and/or one or more other forms of generation. Hydro, wind and batteries are commonly combined with solar. The combined generation may enable
7439-435: Is used immediately because traditional generators can adapt to demand and storage is usually more expensive. Both solar power and wind power are sources of variable renewable power , meaning that all available output must be used locally, carried on transmission lines to be used elsewhere, or stored (e.g., in a battery). Since solar energy is not available at night, storing it so as to have continuous electricity availability
7612-742: The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies. Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the United States (SERI, now NREL ), Japan ( NEDO ), and Germany ( Fraunhofer ISE ). Between 1970 and 1983 installations of photovoltaic systems grew rapidly. In
7785-580: The 1980 Republican presidential primaries . After Bush won the Iowa caucuses, he became Reagan's primary challenger, but Reagan won the New Hampshire primary and most of the following primaries, gaining an insurmountable delegate lead by the end of March 1980. Ford was Reagan's first choice for his running mate, but Reagan backed away from the idea out of the fear of a "co-presidency" in which Ford would exercise an unusual degree of power. Reagan instead chose Bush, and
7958-403: The 1980 presidential election . Four years later, in the 1984 presidential election , he defeated former Democratic vice president Walter Mondale , to win re-election in a larger landslide. Reagan served two terms and was succeeded by his vice president, George H. W. Bush , who won the 1988 presidential election . Reagan's 1980 landslide election resulted from a dramatic conservative shift to
8131-469: The 1982 congressional elections . Compared to other midterm elections , the losses were relatively small for the party holding the presidency, but conservative Democrats were less open to Reagan's initiatives after 1982. As deficits continued to be an issue, Reagan signed another bill that raised taxes, the Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 . With Donald Regan taking over as Chief of Staff in 1985,
8304-463: The 2021–2022 global energy crisis , utility scale solar was still the least expensive energy source in many countries due to the rising costs of other energy sources, such as natural gas. In 2022, global solar generation capacity exceeded 1 TW for the first time. However, fossil-fuel subsidies have slowed the growth of solar generation capacity. About half of installed capacity is utility scale. Most new renewable capacity between 2022 and 2027
8477-539: The Firearm Owners Protection Act , which amended the Gun Control Act of 1968 , prohibiting the transfer or possession of machine guns . In 1989, Reagan said "I do not believe in taking away the right of the citizen to own guns for sporting, for hunting and so forth, or for home defense; but I do believe that an AK-47 , a machine gun, is not a sporting weapon or needed for defense of a home." Reagan
8650-699: The MX missile , and the 600-ship Navy . In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20 , Reagan oversaw NATO 's deployment of the Pershing missile in West Germany. The president also strongly denounced the Soviet Union and Communism in moral terms, describing the Soviet Union as an " evil empire ." Despite this heavy rhetoric, the Reagan administration continued arms control talks with
8823-575: The Office of Economic Opportunity . In August 1981, Reagan signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981, which cut federal funding for social programs like food stamps , school lunch programs , and Medicaid. The Comprehensive Employment and Training Act , which had provided for the employment of 300,000 workers in 1980, was also repealed, and the administration tightened eligibility for unemployment benefits . Notably absent from
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#17328849384648996-446: The Office of National Drug Control Policy . Critics charged that Reagan's policies promoted significant racial disparities in the prison population, were ineffective in reducing the availability of drugs or crime on the street, and came at a great financial and human cost for American society. Supporters argued that the numbers for adolescent drug users declined during Reagan's years in office. On May 19, 1986, President Reagan signed
9169-592: The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 . Reagan took office in the midst of poor economic conditions, as the country experienced stagflation , a phenomenon in which both inflation and unemployment were high. The economy experienced a brief period of growth early in Reagan's first year in office, but plunged into a recession in July 1981. As the recession continued in the first two years of Reagan's presidency, many within Reagan's administration blamed
9342-561: The Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO), which consisted of federal employees, voted to go on a labor strike in hopes of receiving better pay and benefits. After the vote, Reagan announced that the strikers would be fired if they did not return to work within forty-eight hours. Federal law forbid government employees from striking. After the deadline passed, Reagan fired over 10,000 air traffic controllers, while approximately 40 percent of
9515-603: The Reagan Era . Even prior to becoming president, Reagan was the leader of a dramatic conservative shift that undercut many of the domestic and foreign policies that had dominated the national agenda for decades. A major factor in the rise of conservatism was the growing distrust of government in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal . While distrust of high officials had been an American characteristic for two centuries, Watergate engendered heightened levels of suspicion and encouraged
9688-705: The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan . Reagan feared that the Soviet Union had gained a military advantage over the United States, and the Reagan administration hoped that heightened military spending would grant the U.S. military superiority and weaken the Soviet economy. Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the United States Armed Forces , directing funding to the B-1 Lancer bomber, the B-2 Spirit bomber , cruise missiles ,
9861-413: The U.S. Energy Information Administration , as of September 2014 utility-scale solar had sent 12,303 gigawatt-hours of electricity to the U.S. grid. This was an increase of over 100% versus the same period in 2013 (6,048 GWh). The number of homes with solar systems installed had been increasing rapidly, from 30,000 in 2006 to 1.3 million in 2016. A 2014 study by the U.S. Department of Energy predicted
10034-460: The United States and even across states within the US. In net metering the price of the electricity produced is the same as the price supplied to the consumer, and the consumer is billed on the difference between production and consumption. Net metering can usually be done with no changes to standard electricity meters , which accurately measure power in both directions and automatically report
10207-578: The University of Delaware built an experimental house called the Solar One, the first house to convert sunlight into energy. Solar One , the first pilot solar power tower design was completed in 1981. The parabolic trough Solar Energy Generating Systems opened its first unit in 1984, the first major solar thermal plant in the world. The United States pioneered solar tower and trough technologies. A number of different solar thermal technologies are in use in
10380-641: The Washington Hilton Hotel . Although Reagan was initially reported to be "close to death" upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital , he underwent surgery and recovered quickly from a broken rib, a punctured lung, and internal bleeding . Reagan was released from the hospital on April 11, becoming the first serving president to survive being wounded in an assassination attempt. The failed assassination attempt had great influence on Reagan's popularity; polls indicated his approval rating to be around 73%. Many pundits and journalists later described
10553-457: The early 1980s recession , which cut into federal revenue. Unable to win further domestic spending cuts, and pressured to address the deficit, Reagan was forced to raise taxes after 1981. Nonetheless, the national debt more than tripled between fiscal year 1980 and fiscal year 1989, going from $ 914 billion to $ 2.7 trillion, while national debt as a percentage of GDP rose from 33 percent in 1981 to 53 percent in 1989. Reagan never submitted
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#173288493846410726-486: The electrical grid . Net metering and feed-in tariff programs give these systems a credit for the electricity they produce. This credit offsets electricity provided from the grid when the system cannot meet demand, effectively trading with the grid instead of storing excess electricity. When wind and solar are a small fraction of the grid power, other generation techniques can adjust their output appropriately, but as these forms of variable power grow, additional balance on
10899-556: The federal debt increased significantly during Reagan's tenure. Reagan signed the Tax Reform Act of 1986 , simplifying the tax code by reducing rates and removing several tax breaks, and the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 , which enacted sweeping changes to U.S. immigration law and granted amnesty to three million illegal immigrants . Reagan also appointed more federal judges than any other president, including four Supreme Court Justices. Reagan's foreign policy stance
11072-548: The government's intelligence community ; mandated rules for spying on United States citizens, permanent residents, and on anyone within the United States; and also directed the Attorney General and others to create further policies and procedures for what information intelligence agencies can collect, retain, and share. Reagan escalated the Cold War, accelerating a reversal from the policy of détente which had begun in 1979 after
11245-399: The silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost US$ 286/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.5–6%. In 1957, Mohamed M. Atalla developed the process of silicon surface passivation by thermal oxidation at Bell Labs . The surface passivation process has since been critical to solar cell efficiency . As of 2022 over 90% of the market is crystalline silicon . The array of
11418-590: The " Just Say No " drug awareness campaign. Concerns about drug use prompted Congress to pass legislation such as the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984 and the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 , the latter of which granted $ 1.7 billion to fight drugs and established a mandatory minimum penalties for drug offenses. Reagan also signed the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 , which further increased criminal penalties for drug use and established
11591-478: The " War on Drugs ". He promised a "planned, concerted campaign" against all drugs, in hopes of decreasing drug use, particularly among adolescents. The " crack epidemic ," which saw a large number of individuals become addicted to crack cocaine and may have played a role in numerous murders, emerged as a major area of public concern. First Lady Nancy Reagan made the War on Drugs her main cause as First Lady, founding
11764-562: The 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce, such as experiments by Augustin Mouchot . Charles Fritts installed the world's first rooftop photovoltaic solar array, using 1%-efficient selenium cells, on a New York City roof in 1884. However, development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum . Bell Telephone Laboratories’ 1950s research used silicon wafers with
11937-525: The 1980s is the worst public scandal in American history...Measuring by money, [or] by the misallocation of national resources...the S&;L outrage makes Teapot Dome and Credit Mobilier seem minor episodes." The 1980s saw the highest rate of immigration to the United States since the 1910s, and the proportion of the foreign-born population reached its highest level since the 1940s. Reagan did not make immigration
12110-658: The 1980s. The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility , located in California's Mojave Desert, is the world's largest solar thermal power plant project. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW), the Andasol solar power station (150 MW), and Extresol Solar Power Station (150 MW), all in Spain. The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage, allowing
12283-408: The 1981 tax bill. By 1983, the amount of federal tax had fallen for all or almost all American taxpayers, but most strongly affected the wealthy; the proportion of income paid in taxes by the richest one percent fell from 29.8 percent to 24.8 percent. Partly due to the poor economy, Reagan's legislative momentum dissipated after his first year in office, and his party lost several seats in the House in
12456-426: The 1983 Greyhound bus driver strike, and the 1985–86 Hormel strike , ended with dismissal of the strikers. With the assent of Reagan's sympathetic National Labor Relations Board appointees, many companies also won wage and benefit cutbacks from unions, especially in the manufacturing sector. During Reagan's time in office, the share of employees who were part of a labor union dropped from approximately one-fourth of
12629-538: The 19th and 20th century, Frank Shuman , built a demonstration plant that used solar power to pump water using an array of mirrors in a trough to generate steam. Located in Philadelphia, the solar water pump station was capable of pumping 3,000 US gallons (11,000 L) an hour at that latitude, corresponding to 25 horsepower (19 kW). After seven weeks of testing the plant was disassembled and shipped to Egypt for testing as an irrigation plant. In 1973, Karl Böer of
12802-731: The Constitution. O'Connor served on the Supreme Court until 2006, and was generally considered to be a centrist conservative. In 1986, Reagan elevated Associate Justice William Rehnquist to the position of Chief Justice of the United States after Warren Burger chose to retire. Rehnquist, a member of the conservative wing of the Court, was the third sitting associate justice to be elevated to chief justice, after Edward Douglass White and Harlan F. Stone . Reagan successfully nominated Antonin Scalia to fill Rehnquist's position as an associate justice of
12975-522: The Democratic gains in the 1982 election, with House control switching to liberals within the Democratic caucus. In July 1981, the Senate voted 89–11 in favor of the tax cut bill favored by Reagan, and the House subsequently approved the bill in a 238–195 vote. The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 cut the top marginal tax rate from 70% to 50%, lowered the capital gains tax from 28% to 20%, more than tripled
13148-528: The Director of the Office of Management and Budget . CIA director William J. Casey emerged as an important figure in the administration, as the CIA would figure prominently into Reagan's Cold War initiatives. Reagan downgraded the importance of the national security advisor , and six different individuals held that position during Reagan's presidency. Haig left the cabinet in 1982 after clashing with other members of
13321-579: The Interior James G. Watt implemented policies designed to open up federal territories to oil drilling and surface mining . Under EPA Director Anne Gorsuch , the EPA's budget was dramatically reduced and the EPA loosely enforced environmental regulations. After the passage of the Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act, savings and loans associations engaged in riskier activities, and
13494-468: The Reagan administration made simplification of the tax code the central focus of its second term domestic agenda. Working with Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill , a Democrat who also favored tax reform, Reagan overcame significant opposition from members of Congress in both parties to pass the Tax Reform Act of 1986 . The act simplified the tax code by reducing the number of tax brackets to four and slashing
13667-531: The Reagan administration, and was replaced by another former Nixon administration official, George P. Shultz . By 1982, National Security Advisor William P. Clark Jr. , Ambassador to the United Nations Jeane Kirkpatrick , and CIA Director Casey had established themselves as the major figures in the formulation of the administration's foreign policy. Shultz eventually emerged as the administration's most influential foreign policy figure, moving
13840-464: The Reagan-Bush ticket was nominated at the 1980 Republican National Convention . Meanwhile, Carter won the Democratic nomination, defeating a primary challenge by Senator Ted Kennedy . Polls taken after the party conventions showed a tied race between Reagan and Carter, while independent candidate John B. Anderson had the support of many moderates. The 1980 general campaign between Reagan and Carter
14013-584: The Riverside East Solar Energy Zone in the California desert said in 2023 that ‘solar plants create myriad environmental problems, including habitat destruction and “lethal death traps” for birds, which dive at the panels, mistaking them for water ... one project bulldozed 600 acres of designated critical habitat for the endangered desert tortoise , while populations of Mojave fringe-toed lizards and bighorn sheep have also been afflicted.’ The same article included many other examples of how
14186-474: The Social Security disability rolls. Reagan's inability to implement major cuts to Social Security solidified its status as the " third rail " of U.S. politics, and future administrations would be reluctant to propose cuts to the popular program. As Reagan was unwilling to match his tax cuts with cuts to defense spending or Social Security, rising deficits became an issue. These deficits were exacerbated by
14359-488: The Supreme Court from reviewing state and local laws mandating school prayer , but Republican senators like Lowell Weicker and Barry Goldwater blocked passage of Helms' bill. Reagan campaigned vigorously to restore organized prayer to the schools, first as a moment of prayer and later as a moment of silence. His election reflected an opposition to Engel v. Vitale , which prohibited state officials from composing an official state prayer and requiring that it be recited in
14532-534: The Supreme Court ruling still banned a moment of silence for public schools, and said that efforts to reinstitute prayer in public schools were "an uphill battle". In 1987, he renewed his call for Congress to support voluntary prayer in schools. In 1982, Reagan signed a bill extending the Voting Rights Act for 25 years after a grass-roots lobbying and legislative campaign forced him to abandon his plan to ease that law's restrictions. He also reluctantly accepted
14705-644: The Supreme Court. Scalia became a member of the Court's conservative wing. Reagan faced greater difficulties in filling the final Supreme Court vacancy, which arose due to the retirement of Lewis F. Powell Jr. Reagan nominated Robert Bork in July 1987, but the nomination was rejected by the Senate in October 1987. Later that month, Reagan announced the nomination of Douglas H. Ginsburg , but Ginsburg withdrew from consideration in November 1987. Finally, Reagan nominated Anthony Kennedy , who won Senate confirmation in February 1988. Along with O'Connor, Kennedy served as
14878-488: The U.S.: The rapidly falling price of PV solar had led to several projects being abandoned or converted to PV technology. Blythe Solar Power Project converted to a PV project, Rice Solar Energy Project was put on indefinite hold, Palen Solar Project tried to convert to PV but its permits were denied, Hidden Hills Solar Project was suspended in 2013 and later canceled. No major CSP plants remain under construction in
15051-476: The US, residential solar cost from 2 to 4 dollars/watt (but solar shingles cost much more) and utility solar costs were around $ 1/watt. The productivity of solar power in a region depends on solar irradiance , which varies through the day and year and is influenced by latitude and climate . PV system output power also depends on ambient temperature, wind speed, solar spectrum, the local soiling conditions, and other factors. Onshore wind power tends to be
15224-486: The United States before January 1, 1982, and had lived in the country continuously. The bill was also contained provisions designed to enhance security measures at the Mexico–United States border . Upon signing the act at a ceremony held beside the newly refurbished Statue of Liberty , Reagan said, "The legalization provisions in this act will go far to improve the lives of a class of individuals who now must hide in
15397-473: The United States had 179 gigawatts (GW) of installed photovoltaic (utility and small scale) and concentrated solar power capacity combined. This capacity is exceeded only by China and the European Union . In 2021, 36% of all new electricity generation capacity in the country came from solar, surpassed only by wind with 41%. By 2015, solar employment had overtaken oil and gas as well as coal employment in
15570-443: The United States often consist of two or more units which correspond to construction stages and/or technology-improvement phases of a particular development project. Typically these units are co-located in the vicinity of the same high-capacity transmission substation , and may also feed that substation with other large PV plants which are adjacently sited but separately developed. An objector at non-profit “Basin and Range Watch” to
15743-543: The United States, President Jimmy Carter set a target of producing 20% of U.S. energy from solar by the year 2000, but his successor, Ronald Reagan , removed the funding for research into renewables. Falling oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of photovoltaics from 1984 to 1996. In the mid-1990s development of both, residential and commercial rooftop solar as well as utility-scale photovoltaic power stations began to accelerate again due to supply issues with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns, and
15916-400: The United States. ( MW ) Generation ( GWh ) ( Parabolic Trough ) In 2013, Abengoa's 280 MWac of CSP project was brought online in the 3rd quarter. Genesis Solar's first phase of 125 MWac was brought online in the 4th quarter of 2013, bringing the total to 410 MWac for the year and 918 MWac total. Ivanpah was completed during the first quarter of 2014. The world's largest CSP power plant
16089-403: The United States. As of 2023, more than 280,000 Americans were employed in the solar industry. The United States conducted much early research in photovoltaics and concentrated solar power. It is among the top countries in the world in electricity generated by the sun and several of the world's largest utility-scale installations are located in the desert Southwest. The oldest solar power plant in
16262-508: The administration in the wake of the Iran–Contra affair and Republican losses in the 1986 mid-term elections . Regan was replaced by former Senate Majority Leader Howard Baker . Reagan made four successful appointments to the Supreme Court during his eight years in office. In 1981, he successfully nominated Sandra Day O'Connor to succeed Associate Justice Potter Stewart , fulfilling
16435-457: The administration towards a less confrontational policy with the Soviet Union. Baker and Treasury Secretary Regan switched positions at the beginning of Reagan's second term. Regan centralized power within his office, and he took on the responsibilities that had been held by Baker, Deaver, and Meese, the latter of whom succeeded William French Smith as attorney general in 1985. Regan frequently clashed with First Lady Nancy Reagan , and he left
16608-553: The amount of inherited money exempt from the estate tax , and cut the corporate tax . Reagan's success in passing a major tax bill and cutting the federal budget was hailed as the "Reagan Revolution" by some reporters; one columnist wrote that the Reagan's legislative success represented the "most formidable domestic initiative any president has driven through since the Hundred Days of Franklin Roosevelt ." Faced with concerns about
16781-525: The argument that whites had to vote Democratic to protect segregation in the South. Responding to these various trends, Reagan and other conservatives successfully presented conservative ideas as an alternative to a public that had grown disillusioned with New Deal liberalism and the Democratic Party. Reagan's charisma and speaking skills helped him frame conservatism as an optimistic, forward-looking vision for
16954-545: The arid tropics and subtropics. Deserts lying in low latitudes usually have few clouds and can receive sunshine for more than ten hours a day. These hot deserts form the Global Sun Belt circling the world. This belt consists of extensive swathes of land in Northern Africa , Southern Africa , Southwest Asia , Middle East , and Australia , as well as the much smaller deserts of North and South America . Thus solar
17127-429: The availability and cost of scalable electricity storage solutions. A photovoltaic power station , also known as a solar park, solar farm, or solar power plant, is a large-scale grid-connected photovoltaic power system (PV system) designed for the supply of merchant power . They are different from most building-mounted and other decentralized solar power because they supply power at the utility level, rather than to
17300-540: The broadcasting industry, eliminating the Fairness Doctrine and other restrictions. The 1982 Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act deregulated savings and loan associations and allowed banks to provide adjustable-rate mortgages . Reagan also eliminated numerous government positions and dismissed numerous federal employees, including the entire staff of the Employment and Training Administration . Secretary of
17473-661: The budget cuts was the Department of Defense , which saw its budget bolstered. Reagan experienced several legislative successes in his first year in office, but his attempts to cut federal domestic spending after 1981 met increasing congressional resistance. Spending on programs like Supplemental Security Income , Medicaid, the earned income tax credit , and Aid to Families with Dependent Children all increased after 1982. The number of federal civilian employees rose during Reagan's tenure, from 2.9 million to 3.1 million. Reagan's policy of New Federalism , which sought to shift
17646-592: The cheapest source of electricity in Northern Eurasia, Canada, some parts of the United States, and Patagonia in Argentina whereas in other parts of the world mostly solar power (or less often a combination of wind, solar and other low carbon energy) is thought to be best. Modelling by Exeter University suggests that by 2030, solar will be least expensive in all countries except for some in north-eastern Europe. The locations with highest annual solar irradiance lie in
17819-444: The cities to the suburbs led to the creation of a new group of voters less attached to New Deal economic policies and machine politics . Meanwhile, it became socially acceptable for conservative Southern whites, especially well-educated suburbanites, to vote Republican. Though the civil rights legislation of the 1960s had been a triumphal issue for liberalism and had created a new, pro-Democratic black electorate, it had also destroyed
17992-482: The consumption of 3,856 TWh in 2011. For comparison, onshore wind potential is estimated at 32,784 TWh/year, and offshore wind at 16,976 TWh/year, while the total available from all renewable resources is estimated at 481,963 TWh/year. Renewable energy is the least expensive source of power generation as of 2023, even considering the upfront cost of installation. Therefore, the economics of the renewable energy transition are highly favorable unlike in prior decades. Solar
18165-596: The continuation of affirmative action programs and the establishment of Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday . The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and the Justice Department both prosecuted far fewer civil rights cases per year than they had under Carter. In 1988, Reagan vetoed the Civil Rights Restoration Act , but his veto was overridden by Congress. Reagan had argued that
18338-567: The conviction or resignation of several administration officials. During Reagan's second term, he sought closer relations with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev , and the two leaders signed a major arms control agreement known as the INF Treaty . Historians and political scientists generally rank Reagan in the upper tier of American presidents, and consider him to be one of the most important presidents since Franklin D. Roosevelt . Supporters of Reagan's presidency have pointed to his contributions to
18511-461: The cost of energy. Geography affects solar energy potential because different locations receive different amounts of solar radiation. In particular, with some variations, areas that are closer to the equator generally receive higher amounts of solar radiation. However, solar panels that can follow the position of the Sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from
18684-550: The cost of solar power, which is a problem for countries where contracts may not be honoured, such as some African countries. Some countries are considering price caps , whereas others prefer contracts for difference . In many countries, solar power is the lowest cost source of electricity. In Saudi Arabia, a power purchase agreement (PPA) was signed in April 2021 for a new solar power plant in Al-Faisaliah. The project has recorded
18857-426: The cost per kilowatt-hour of solar photovoltaic systems had been dropping, while electricity generated from fossil fuels was becoming more expensive. As a result, the report projects that solar power was expected to reach cost parity with conventional power sources in many U.S. markets by 2015. To reach the 10% goal, solar photovoltaic companies would need to make solar power a "plug-and-play technology", or simplify
19030-492: The country. Reagan, who had served as Governor of California from 1967 to 1975, narrowly lost the 1976 Republican presidential primaries to incumbent President Gerald Ford . With the defeat of Ford by Democrat Jimmy Carter in the 1976 election , Reagan immediately became the front-runner for the 1980 Republican presidential nomination. A darling of the conservative movement, Reagan faced more moderate Republicans such as George H. W. Bush , Howard Baker , and Bob Dole in
19203-506: The deficit. Reagan made passage of the Kemp–Roth bill his top domestic priority upon taking office. As Democrats controlled the House of Representatives, passage of any bill would require the support of some House Democrats in addition to the support of congressional Republicans. Reagan's victory in the 1980 presidential campaign had united Republicans around his leadership, while conservative Democrats like Phil Gramm of Texas (who later became
19376-476: The deployment of solar systems. The report also underlines the importance of future " smart grid " technologies. Solar Energy Industries Association and GTM Research found that the amount of new solar electric capacity increased in 2012 by 76 percent from 2011, raising the United States’ market share of the world's installations above 10 percent, up from roughly 5 to 7 percent in the past seven years. According to
19549-581: The desired frequency/phase. Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid when available, especially in developed countries with large markets. In these grid-connected PV systems , use of energy storage is optional. In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing countries, batteries or additional power generators are often added as back-ups. Such stand-alone power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight. In "vertical agrivoltaics " system, solar cells are oriented vertically on farmland, to allow
19722-421: The difference, and because it allows homeowners and businesses to generate electricity at a different time from consumption, effectively using the grid as a giant storage battery. With net metering, deficits are billed each month while surpluses are rolled over to the following month. Best practices call for perpetual roll over of kWh credits. Excess credits upon termination of service are either lost or paid for at
19895-586: The dispatching of electricity over up to a 24-hour period. Since peak electricity demand typically occurs at about 5 pm, many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage. The typical cost factors for solar power include the costs of the modules, the frame to hold them, wiring, inverters, labour cost, any land that might be required, the grid connection, maintenance and the solar insolation that location will receive. Photovoltaic systems use no fuel, and modules typically last 25 to 40 years. Thus upfront capital and financing costs make up 80% to 90% of
20068-436: The economic recovery of the 1980s, the peaceful end of the Cold War, and a broader restoration of American confidence. However, Reagan's presidency has received criticism from some Democrats for rising budget deficits and wealth inequality during and after his presidency. Due to Reagan's popularity with the public and advocacy of American conservatism , some historians have described the period during and after his presidency as
20241-443: The end of 2010. Through the end of 2005, a majority of photovoltaics in the United States was off-grid. Solar is expected to account for 51 GW (or 48%) of the new installed generating capacity in the United States from 2022 to 2023. The amount of electricity a unit is capable of producing over an extended period of time is determined by multiplying the capacity by the capacity factor . The capacity factor for solar photovoltaic units
20414-529: The end of 2019, then 26% until the end of 2020, and 22% until the end of 2021. It applies to a taxpayer's principal and/or second residences, but not to a property that is rented out. There is no maximum cap on the credit, and the credit can be applied toward the Alternative Minimum Tax , and any excess credit (greater than that year's tax liability) could be rolled into the following year. The solar industry and utilities clashed extensively on renewal, but
20587-514: The end of 2045 (including 60% renewable energy sources by 2030). A 2012 report from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) described technically available renewable energy resources for each state and estimated that urban utility-scale photovoltaics could supply 2,232 TWh/year, rural utility-scale PV 280,613 TWh/year, rooftop PV 818 TWh/year, and CSP 116,146 TWh/year, for a total of almost 400,000 TWh/year, 100 times
20760-548: The end of the Vietnam War . The administration also created controversy by granting aid to paramilitary forces seeking to overthrow leftist governments, particularly in war-torn Central America and Afghanistan . Specifically, the Reagan administration engaged in covert arms sales to Iran to fund Contra rebels in Nicaragua that were fighting to overthrow their nation's socialist government. The resulting Iran–Contra affair led to
20933-569: The environment. His main goal was to lessen the burden of regulation on businesses to promote more economic activity in the United States. Because of this policy, Reagan refused to renew the Clean Air Act during his administration. Reagan lessened existing regulations on pollution, cut funding to government environmental agencies, and appointed known anti-environmentalist individuals to key positions presiding over these organizations. When Reagan took office in 1981, he "attempted to reduce" money that
21106-456: The equator. Daytime cloud cover can reduce the light available for solar cells. Land availability also has a large effect on the available solar energy. Solar power plants use one of two technologies: A solar cell , or photovoltaic cell, is a device that converts light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect . The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. The German industrialist Ernst Werner von Siemens
21279-488: The facility has not met the projections on production or job creation. As cadmium, indium, selenium, nanoparticles, and other harmful elements are used in PV solar technology the disposal is similar to the outcomes of electronic waste . This can present possible risks for the workers disposing the product. A 2021 study by Harvard Business Review indicates that, unless reused, by 2035 the discarded panels would outweigh new units by
21452-500: The failed assassination as a critical moment in Reagan's presidency, as his newfound popularity provided critical momentum in passing his domestic agenda. Reagan used his White House staff to shape major domestic policies. His Chief of Staff made heavy use of the Office of Policy Development in supervising cabinet action on the Reagan initiatives. Reagan implemented neoliberal economic policies based on supply-side economics , advocating
21625-472: The figure could reach 3.8 million homes by 2020. In 2015 an article reported that utilities in the United States have led a largely unsuccessful campaign to slow the growth of solar. In the United States, 14,626 MW of PV was installed in 2016, a 95% increase over 2015 (7,493 MW). During 2016, 22 states added at least 100 MW of capacity. Just 4,751 MW of PV installations were completed in 2013. The U.S. had approximately 440 MW of off-grid photovoltaics as of
21798-457: The grid is needed. As prices are rapidly declining, PV systems increasingly use rechargeable batteries to store a surplus to be used later at night. Batteries used for grid-storage can stabilize the electrical grid by leveling out peak loads for a few hours. In the future, less expensive batteries could play an important role on the electrical grid, as they can charge during periods when generation exceeds demand and feed their stored energy into
21971-452: The grid when demand is higher than generation. Presidency of Ronald Reagan [REDACTED] Ronald Reagan 's tenure as the 40th president of the United States began with his first inauguration on January 20, 1981, and ended on January 20, 1989. Reagan, a Republican from California , took office following his landslide victory over Democrat incumbent president Jimmy Carter and independent congressman John B. Anderson in
22144-551: The improving economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies. In the early 2000s, the adoption of feed-in tariffs —a policy mechanism, that gives renewables priority on the grid and defines a fixed price for the generated electricity—led to a high level of investment security and to a soaring number of PV deployments in Europe. For several years, worldwide growth of solar PV was driven by European deployment , but it then shifted to Asia, especially China and Japan , and to
22317-508: The industry. In the early 1980s, the US accounted for more than 85% of the solar market. During the Reagan administration , oil prices decreased and the US removed most of its policies that supported its solar industry. Government subsidies were higher in Germany and Japan, which prompted the industrial supply chain to begin moving from the US to those countries. Solar energy deployment increased at
22490-431: The key White House staffers early in Reagan's presidency. Baker quickly established himself as the most powerful member of the troika and the overseer of day-to-day operations, while Meese had nominal leadership of policy development and Deaver orchestrated Reagan's public appearances. Aside from the troika, other important White House staffers included Richard Darman and David Gergen . Reagan chose Alexander Haig ,
22663-429: The key swing vote on the Supreme Court in the decades after Reagan left office. Reagan appointed a combined total of 368 judges to the United States courts of appeals and the United States district courts , more than any other president . The vast majority of his judicial appointees were conservative, and many of the appointees were affiliated with the conservative Federalist Society . Partly because Congress passed
22836-638: The land to both grow crops and generate renewable energy. Other configurations include floating solar farms , placing solar canopies over parking lots, and installing solar panels on roofs. A thin-film solar cell is a second generation solar cell that is made by depositing one or more thin layers, or thin film (TF) of photovoltaic material on a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are commercially used in several technologies, including cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and amorphous thin-film silicon (a-Si, TF-Si). A perovskite solar cell (PSC)
23009-512: The leaders of some institutions embezzled funds. In what became known as the Savings and loan crisis , a total of 747 financial institutions failed and needed to be rescued with $ 160 billion in taxpayer dollars. As an indication of this scandal's size, Martin Mayer wrote at the time, "The theft from the taxpayer by the community that fattened on the growth of the savings and loan (S&L) industry in
23182-484: The legislation infringed on states' rights and the rights of churches and business owners. No civil rights legislation for gay individuals passed during Reagan's tenure. Many in the Reagan administration, including Communications Director Pat Buchanan , were hostile to the gay community, as were many religious leaders who were important allies to the administration. Gay rights and the growing HIV/AIDS emerged as an important matter of public concern in 1985 after it
23355-565: The media to engage in a vigorous search for scandals. An unexpected new factor was the emergence of the religious right as a cohesive political force that gave strong support to conservatism. Other factors in the rise of the conservative movement were the emergence of a " culture war " as a triangular battle among conservatives, traditional liberals, and the New Left , involving such issues as individual freedom, divorce, sexual freedom, abortion, and homosexuality. A mass movement of population from
23528-416: The median for owner-occupied households. However, as prices have rapidly dropped over the last 10 years, and business models have evolved to avoid upfront costs or high credit scores, rooftop solar is trending towards reaching more and more families of all incomes. For households that cannot access solar on their own roofs, community solar is an option. Community solar allows customers to sign up for access to
23701-464: The million solar roof initiative. In some states, such as Florida , solar power is subject to legal restrictions that discourage its use. The federal tax credit for solar was extended for eight years as part of the financial bail out bill , H.R. 1424, until the end of 2016. It was estimated this would create 440,000 jobs, 28 gigawatts of solar power, and lead to a $ 300 billion market for solar panels. This estimate did not take into account
23874-466: The mounting federal debt, Reagan agreed to raise taxes, signing the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 (TEFRA). Many of Reagan's conservative supporters condemned TEFRA, but Reagan argued that his administration would be unable to win further budget cuts without the tax hike. Among other provisions, TEFRA doubled the federal cigarette tax and rescinded a portion of the corporate tax cuts from
24047-474: The nonprofit Co-op America found that solar power's contribution could grow to 10% of the nation's power needs by 2025, with nearly 2% of the nation's electricity coming from concentrating solar power systems, while solar photovoltaic systems would provide more than 8% of the nation's electricity. Those figures correlate to nearly 50,000 megawatts of solar photovoltaic systems and more than 6,600 megawatts of concentrating solar power. The report noted that
24220-535: The policies of Paul Volcker , the Chair of the Federal Reserve . But Reagan himself never criticized Volcker. Volcker sought to fight inflation by pursuing a policy of "tight money" in which interest rates were set at a high level. High interest rates would restrict lending and investment, which would in turn lower inflation, raise unemployment and, at least in the short term, reduce economic growth. Unemployment reached
24393-547: The popular vote. In the concurrent congressional elections , Republicans took control of the Senate for the first time since the 1950s, while Democrats retained control of the House of Representatives . Reagan tapped James Baker , who had run Bush's 1980 campaign, as his first chief of staff . Baker, Deputy Chief of Staff Michael Deaver , and Counselor Edwin Meese formed the "troika,"
24566-409: The president's national security team pressed for more surveillance power early during Reagan's first term. Their recommendations were based upon the premise that the federal government's intelligence and counterintelligence capabilities had been weakened by presidents Carter and Ford. On December 4, 1981, Reagan signed Executive Order 12333 . This presidential directive broadened the power of
24739-428: The prevailing Keynesian view. Supply-side advocates also asserted that cutting taxes would ultimately lead to higher government revenue due to economic growth, a proposition that was challenged by many economists. Republican Congressman Jack Kemp and Republican Senator William Roth had nearly won passage of a major tax cut during Carter's presidency, but Carter had prevented passage of the bill due to concerns about
24912-472: The price of bought electricity, which incentivizes self-consumption. Moreover, separate self-consumption incentives have been used in e.g., Germany and Italy. Grid interaction regulation has also included limitations of grid feed-in in some regions in Germany with high amounts of installed PV capacity. By increasing self-consumption, the grid feed-in can be limited without curtailment , which wastes electricity. A good match between generation and consumption
25085-499: The program, but recommended expanding the Social Security base (by including exempt federal and nonprofit employees), raising Social Security taxes, and reducing some payments. These recommendations were enacted in the Social Security Amendments of 1983 , which received bipartisan support. While Reagan avoided cuts to Social Security and Medicare for most individuals, his administration attempted to purge many people from
25258-426: The public schools. In 1981, he proposed a constitutional amendment on school prayer , which stated: "Nothing in this Constitution shall be construed to prohibit individual or group prayer in public schools or other public institutions. No person shall be required by the United States or by any state to participate in prayer." In 1984, he again raised the issue to Congress. In 1985, he expressed his disappointment that
25431-414: The race on Carter's handling of the economy. Mired with an approval rating in the low 30s, Carter also waged a negative campaign, focusing on the supposed risk of war if Reagan took office. Reagan and Carter met in one presidential debate, held just one week before election day. Reagan delivered an effective performance, asking voters, "Are you better off today than you were four years ago?" In response to
25604-507: The remaining workforce. In early October 2008, First Solar , Inc. broke ground on an expansion of its Perrysburg, Ohio , planned to add enough capacity to produce another 57 MW per year of solar modules at the facility, bringing its total capacity to roughly 192 MW per year. In November 2016 the company reduced the workforce in the Perrysburg plant by 20% as part of a worldwide restructuring. In mid-October 2008, SolarWorld AG opened
25777-552: The removal of the $ 2,000 cap on residential tax credits at the end of 2008. A 30% tax credit is available for residential and commercial installations. For 2009 through 2011 this was a 30% grant, not a tax credit, known as the 1603 grant program. The federal Residential Energy Efficient Property Credit ( income tax credit on IRS Form 5695) for residential PV and solar thermal was extended in December 2015 to remain at 30% of system cost (parts and installation) for systems put into service by
25950-483: The residential and non-residential markets. Non-residential market includes installations on commercial, government, school and non-profit organization properties. Between 2000 and 2013 there was 2,261 MW of residential solar and 4,051 MW non-residential solar installed. After years of cost reduction, the average US price per watt was between $ 2.51 to $ 3.31 in 2020 for 10 kW systems, and $ 1.05/W for utility systems. Another type of distributed generation implemented by
26123-553: The responsibility for most social programs to state governments, found little support in Congress. In 1981, OMB Director David Stockman won Reagan's approval to seek cuts to Social Security in 1981, but this plan was poorly-received in Congress. In 1982, Reagan established the bipartisan National Commission on Social Security Reform to make recommendations to secure the long-term integrity of Social Security. The commission rejected Social Security privatization and other major changes to
26296-422: The resulting heat to generate electricity from conventional steam-driven turbines. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists: among the best known are the parabolic trough , the compact linear Fresnel reflector , the dish Stirling and the solar power tower . Various techniques are used to track the sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight and
26469-531: The right in American politics, including a loss of confidence in liberal , New Deal , and Great Society programs and priorities that had dominated the national agenda since the 1930s. Domestically, the Reagan administration enacted a major tax cut , sought to cut non-military spending, and eliminated federal regulations. The administration's economic policies, known as " Reaganomics ", were inspired by supply-side economics . The combination of tax cuts and an increase in defense spending led to budget deficits, and
26642-442: The same solar project had hurt the desert flora and fauna, according to environmentalists. ( MW dc unless stated) 34°50′56.0″N 118°21′10.6″W / 34.848889°N 118.352944°W / 34.848889; -118.352944 ( Solar star II ) Within the cumulative PV capacity in the United States, there has been growth in the distributed generation segment, which are all grid-connected PV installations in
26815-401: The schools in the respective states that had installations. As of April 2018, there were total capacity of 2,562 MW of commercial solar installations from more than 4,000 companies in 7,400 locations. Top five corporations were Target, Walmart, Prologis, Apple, and Kohl's. In the United States 18% solar adopters in 2018 earned below the national median household income, while 30% were below
26988-468: The shadows, without access to many of the benefits of a free and open society. Very soon many of these men and women will be able to step into the sunlight and, ultimately, if they choose, they may become Americans." The bill was largely unsuccessful at halting illegal immigration, and the population of illegal immigrants rose from 5 million in 1986 to 11.1 million in 2013. Not long after being sworn into office, Reagan declared more militant policies in
27161-533: The solar industry prevailed. The renewal wasexpected to add $ 38 billion of investment for 20 GigaWatts of solar. Solar power Solar power , also known as solar electricity , is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity , either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power . Solar panels use the photovoltaic effect to convert light into an electric current . Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and solar tracking systems to focus
27334-487: The spread of solar power between the different types at the end of 2021. Capacity figures may seem smaller than those quoted by other sources and it is likely that the capacities are measured in MW AC rather than MW DC, the former of which gives a lower reading due to conversion losses during the process by which power is transformed by inverters from direct current to alternating current. Large-scale photovoltaic power plants in
27507-407: The system to vary power output with demand, or at least smooth the solar power fluctuation. There is much hydro worldwide, and adding solar panels on or around existing hydro reservoirs is particularly useful, because hydro is usually more flexible than wind and cheaper at scale than batteries, and existing power lines can sometimes be used. The early development of solar technologies starting in
27680-419: The total workforce to approximately one-sixth of the total workforce. Reagan sought to loosen federal regulation of economic activities, and he appointed key officials who shared this agenda. According to historian William Leuchtenburg , by 1986, the Reagan administration eliminated almost half of the federal regulations that had existed in 1981. The Federal Communications Commission aggressively deregulated
27853-481: The unemployment rate fell to about 5% in 1988. In 1987, Reagan appointed conservative economist Alan Greenspan to succeed Volcker, and Greenspan would lead the Federal Reserve until 2006. Greenspan raised interest rates in another attempt to curb inflation, setting off a stock market crash in October 1987 known as " Black Monday ", but the markets stabilized and recovered in the following weeks. In August 1981,
28026-502: The union members returned to work. Reagan's handling of the strike was strongly criticized by union leaders, but it won the approval of his conservative base of voters and others in the public. The breaking of the PATCO strike demoralized organized labor, and the number of strikes fell dramatically in the 1980s. Many of the strikes that did occur, including the Arizona copper mine strike of 1983 ,
28199-647: The use of condoms, Reagan rejected Koop's proposals in favor of abstinence-only sex education . By 1989, approximately 60,000 Americans had died of AIDS, and liberals strongly criticized Reagan's response to the HIV/AIDS crisis. On the 1980 campaign trail, Reagan spoke of the gay rights movement: My criticism is that [the gay movement] isn't just asking for civil rights; it's asking for recognition and acceptance of an alternative lifestyle which I do not believe society can condone, nor can I. Reagan's strong preferences for limited federal involvement and deregulation extended to
28372-530: The world is the 354-megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems thermal power plant in California. The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is a solar thermal power project in the Mojave Desert , 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Las Vegas , with a gross capacity of 392 MW. The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near Gila Bend, Arizona , about 70 miles (110 km) southwest of Phoenix , completed in 2013. When commissioned it
28545-471: The world's lowest cost for solar PV electricity production of USD 1.04 cents/ kWh. Expenses of high-power band solar modules has greatly decreased over time. Beginning in 1982, the cost per kW was approximately 27,000 American dollars, and in 2006 the cost dropped to approximately 4,000 American dollars per kW. The PV system in 1992 cost approximately 16,000 American dollars per kW and it dropped to approximately 6,000 American dollars per kW in 2008. In 2021 in
28718-450: Was PV. In some countries, the nameplate capacity of photovoltaic power stations is rated in megawatt-peak (MW p ), which refers to the solar array's theoretical maximum DC power output. In other countries, the manufacturer states the surface and the efficiency. However, Canada, Japan, Spain, and the United States often specify using the converted lower nominal power output in MW AC ,
28891-498: Was among those who recognized the importance of this discovery. In 1931, the German engineer Bruno Lange developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide , although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created
29064-510: Was conducted amid a multitude of domestic concerns and the ongoing Iran hostage crisis . After winning the Republican nomination, Reagan pivoted to the center. Though he continued to champion a major tax cut, Reagan backed off of his support for free trade and the privatization of Social Security , and promised to consider arms control treaties with the Soviet Union . He instead sought to focus
29237-506: Was directed towards studying the burgeoning field of global warming and human-driven climate change. In the early 1980s, the study of the intersection between human activity and climate change was still in its infancy and scientists were far from a consensus on the topic. In 1987, the Reagan administration signed the Montreal Protocol in an effort to reduce emissions that damage the ozone layer . Citing national security concerns,
29410-408: Was disclosed that actor Rock Hudson , a personal friend of President Reagan, was receiving treatment for AIDS. As public anxiety over AIDS rose, the Supreme Court upheld a state law that criminalized homosexuality in the case of Bowers v. Hardwick . Though Surgeon General C. Everett Koop advocated for a public health campaign designed to reduce the spread of AIDS by raising awareness and promoting
29583-419: Was largely unable to enact his ambitious social policy agenda, which included a federal ban on abortions and an end to desegregation busing . Despite the lack of major social policy legislation, Reagan was able to influence social policy through regulations and the appointment of conservative Supreme Court Justices. With Reagan's support, conservative Republican Senator Jesse Helms led an effort to prevent
29756-508: Was resolutely anti-communist . Its plan of action, known as the Reagan Doctrine , sought to roll back the global influence of the Soviet Union in an attempt to end the Cold War. Under his doctrine, the Reagan administration initiated a massive buildup of the United States military; promoted new technologies such as missile defense systems; and, in 1983, undertook an invasion of Grenada , the first major overseas action by U.S. troops since
29929-531: Was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant with molten salt thermal energy storage . There are plans to build many other large solar plants in the United States. Many states have set individual renewable energy goals with solar power being included in various proportions. Hawaii plans 100% renewable-sourced electricity by 2045. Governor Jerry Brown has signed legislation requiring California's utilities to obtain 100 percent of their electricity from zero-carbon sources by
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