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89-511: Solar Energy Generating Systems ( SEGS ) is a concentrated solar power plant in California , United States. With the combined capacity from three separate locations at 354 megawatt (MW), it was for thirty years the world's largest solar thermal energy generating facility, until the commissioning of the even larger Ivanpah facility in 2014. It was also for thirty years the world's largest solar generating facility of any type of technology, until
178-505: A n i c a l {\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }} is at most the Carnot efficiency, which is determined by the temperature of the receiver T H {\displaystyle T_{H}} and the temperature of the heat rejection ("heat sink temperature") T 0 {\displaystyle T^{0}} , The real-world efficiencies of typical engines achieve 50% to at most 70% of
267-460: A n i c a l {\displaystyle \eta _{mechanical}} , using Carnot's principle . The mechanical energy is then converted into electrical energy by a generator. For a solar receiver with a mechanical converter ( e.g. , a turbine), the overall conversion efficiency can be defined as follows: where η o p t i c s {\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {optics} }} represents
356-623: A hydroxyl compound such as an alcohol or phenol . Esters are usually derived from an inorganic acid or organic acid in which at least one -OH (hydroxyl) group is replaced by an -O-alkyl ( alkoxy ) group, most commonly from carboxylic acids and alcohols. That is to say, esters are formed by condensing an acid with an alcohol. Many chemically different "esters" due to their polarity and usually excellent lubricity are used for various reasons as either "additives" or "base stocks" for lubricants. The terms polyalkylene glycol and polyglycol are used interchangeably. Synthetic lubricants are about 4% of
445-542: A Greek scientist, Dr. Ioannis Sakkas, curious about whether Archimedes could really have destroyed the Roman fleet in 212 BC, lined up nearly 60 Greek sailors, each holding an oblong mirror tipped to catch the sun's rays and direct them at a tar-covered plywood silhouette 49 m (160 ft) away. The ship caught fire after a few minutes; however, historians continue to doubt the Archimedes story. In 1866, Auguste Mouchout used
534-445: A container that would diminish heat transfer. A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned at the longitudinal focal line of the parabolic mirror and filled with a working fluid. The reflector follows the sun during the daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. A working fluid (e.g. molten salt )
623-399: A dispatchable form of solar energy. As such, it is increasingly seen as competing with natural gas and PV with batteries for flexible, dispatchable power. CSP is used to produce electricity (sometimes called solar thermoelectricity, usually generated through steam ). Concentrated solar technology systems use mirrors or lenses with tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight onto
712-399: A large area of sunlight into a receiver. Electricity is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat ( solar thermal energy ), which drives a heat engine (usually a steam turbine ) connected to an electrical power generator or powers a thermochemical reaction. As of 2021, global installed capacity of concentrated solar power stood at 6.8 GW. As of 2023, the total
801-407: A location. Unlike solar PV plants, CSP with thermal energy storage can also be used economically around the clock to produce process steam, replacing polluting fossil fuels . CSP plants can also be integrated with solar PV for better synergy. CSP with thermal storage systems are also available using Brayton cycle generators with air instead of steam for generating electricity and/or steam round
890-448: A mirror dish was built by Dr. R.H. Goddard , who was already well known for his research on liquid-fueled rockets and wrote an article in 1929 in which he asserted that all the previous obstacles had been addressed. Professor Giovanni Francia (1911–1980) designed and built the first concentrated-solar plant, which entered into operation in Sant'Ilario, near Genoa, Italy in 1968. This plant had
979-687: A parabolic trough to produce steam for the first solar steam engine. The first patent for a solar collector was obtained by the Italian Alessandro Battaglia in Genoa, Italy, in 1886. Over the following years, invеntors such as John Ericsson and Frank Shuman developed concentrating solar-powered dеvices for irrigation, refrigеration, and locomоtion. In 1913 Shuman finished a 55 horsepower (41 kW) parabolic solar thermal energy station in Maadi, Egypt for irrigation. The first solar-power system using
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#17328833820121068-879: A small area. The concentrated light is then used as heat or as a heat source for a conventional power plant (solar thermoelectricity). The solar concentrators used in CSP systems can often also be used to provide industrial process heating or cooling, such as in solar air conditioning . Concentrating technologies exist in four optical types, namely parabolic trough , dish , concentrating linear Fresnel reflector , and solar power tower . Parabolic trough and concentrating linear Fresnel reflectors are classified as linear focus collector types, while dish and solar tower are point focus types. Linear focus collectors achieve medium concentration factors (50 suns and over), and point focus collectors achieve high concentration factors (over 500 suns). Although simple, these solar concentrators are quite far from
1157-488: A solar photovoltaic farm. SEGS III–VII (150 MW) were installed at Kramer Junction ( 35°00′43″N 117°33′32″W / 35.01194°N 117.55889°W / 35.01194; -117.55889 ); all five SEGS have undergone demolition. SEGS VIII–IX (160 MW) are located at Harper Lake ( 35°01′55″N 117°20′50″W / 35.03194°N 117.34722°W / 35.03194; -117.34722 ). NextEra Energy Resources operates and partially owns
1246-501: A total of 936,384 mirrors and cover more than 1,600 acres (647.5 ha). Lined up, the parabolic mirrors would have extended over 229 miles (369 km). As an example of cost, in 2002, one of the 30 MW Kramer Junction sites required $ 90 million to construct, and its operation and maintenance cost was about $ 3 million per year (4.6 cents per kilowatt hour). The installation uses parabolic trough , solar thermal technology along with natural gas to generate electricity . About 90% of
1335-470: Is 7.44 kWh /m/day (310 W/m), one of the best in the nation. This was the location of SEGS II - VII, which were retired in 2019. As of 2021, they were going to be replaced with a new solar photovoltaic array called Resurgence I. SEGS I and II were located at 34°51′47″N 116°49′37″W / 34.8631°N 116.827°W / 34.8631; -116.827 ( SEGS I and II ) and owned by Cogentrix Energy ( Carlyle Group ). SEGS II
1424-411: Is a marketing term and is not a measurable quality. Poly-alpha-olefin (poly-α-olefin, PAO) is a non-polar polymer made by polymerizing an alpha-olefin. They are designated at API Group IV and are a 100% synthetic chemical compound. It is a specific type of olefin (organic) that is used as a base stock in the production of most synthetic lubricants. An alpha-olefin (or α-olefin) is an alkene where
1513-706: Is also notable in North Africa and the Middle East, as well as China and India. There is a notable trend towards developing countries and regions with high solar radiation with several large plants under construction in 2017. The global market was initially dominated by parabolic-trough plants, which accounted for 90% of CSP plants at one point. Since about 2010, central power tower CSP has been favored in new plants due to its higher temperature operation – up to 565 °C (1,049 °F) vs. trough's maximum of 400 °C (752 °F) – which promises greater efficiency. Among
1602-470: Is directed to a central tube filled with synthetic oil , which heats to over 400 °C (750 °F). The reflected light focused at the central tube is 71 to 80 times more intense than the ordinary sunlight. The synthetic oil transfers its heat to water, which boils and drives the Rankine cycle steam turbine, thereby generating electricity. Synthetic oil is used to carry the heat (instead of water) to keep
1691-669: Is distilled and then modified physically and chemically. The actual synthesis process and composition of additives is generally a commercial trade secret and will vary among producers. Synthetic oil is used as a substitute for petroleum-refined oils when operating in extreme temperature. Aircraft jet engines , for example, require the use of synthetic oils, whereas aircraft piston engines do not. Synthetic oils are also used in metal stamping to provide environmental and other benefits when compared to conventional petroleum and animal-fat based products. These products are also referred to as "non-oil" or "oil free". A polyalcanoate synthetic oil
1780-457: Is given by the Carnot efficiency , which represents a theoretical limit to the efficiency that can be achieved by any system, set by the laws of thermodynamics . Real-world systems do not achieve the Carnot efficiency. The conversion efficiency η {\displaystyle \eta } of the incident solar radiation into mechanical work depends on the thermal radiation properties of
1869-685: Is heated to 150–350 °C (302–662 °F) as it flows through the receiver and is then used as a heat source for a power generation system. Trough systems are the most developed CSP technology. The Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) plants in California, some of the longest-running in the world until their 2021 closure; Acciona's Nevada Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada ; and Andasol , Europe's first commercial parabolic trough plant are representative, along with Plataforma Solar de Almería 's SSPS-DCS test facilities in Spain . The design encapsulates
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#17328833820121958-593: Is often compared to photovoltaic solar (PV) since they both use solar energy. While solar PV experienced huge growth during the 2010s due to falling prices, solar CSP growth has been slow due to technical difficulties and high prices. In 2017, CSP represented less than 2% of worldwide installed capacity of solar electricity plants. However, CSP can more easily store energy during the night, making it more competitive with dispatchable generators and baseload plants. The DEWA project in Dubai, under construction in 2019, held
2047-587: Is one of the few renewable electricity technologies that can generate fully dispatchable or even fully baseload power at very large scale. Therefore, it may have an important role to play in the decarbonization of power grids as a dispatchable electricity source to balance the intermittent renewables, such as wind power and PV. CSP in combination with Thermal Energy Storage (TES) is expected by some to become cheaper than PV with lithium batteries for storage durations above 4 hours per day, while NREL expects that by 2030 PV with 10-hour storage lithium batteries will cost
2136-580: Is one that is produced by combining or building individual units into a unified entity. Synthetic base stocks as described above are man-made and tailored to have a controlled molecular structure with predictable properties, unlike mineral base oils, which are complex mixtures of naturally occurring hydrocarbons and paraffins. The advantages of using synthetic motor oils include better low-and high-temperature viscosity performance at service temperature extremes, better (higher) Viscosity Index (VI), and chemical and shear stability. This also helps in decreasing
2225-399: Is pumped. Flat mirrors allow more reflective surface in the same amount of space than a parabolic reflector, thus capturing more of the available sunlight, and they are much cheaper than parabolic reflectors. Fresnel reflectors can be used in various size CSPs. Fresnel reflectors are sometimes regarded as a technology with a worse output than other methods. The cost efficiency of this model
2314-419: Is used in a steam generator to produce steam to generate electricity by steam turbo generator as required. Thus solar energy which is available in daylight only is used to generate electricity round the clock on demand as a load following power plant or solar peaker plant. The thermal storage capacity is indicated in hours of power generation at nameplate capacity . Unlike solar PV or CSP without storage,
2403-438: Is what causes some to use this instead of others with higher output ratings. Some new models of Fresnel reflectors with Ray Tracing capabilities have begun to be tested and have initially proved to yield higher output than the standard version. A dish Stirling or dish engine system consists of a stand-alone parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned at the reflector's focal point. The reflector tracks
2492-476: Is widely used to lubricate pendulum clocks . Some synthetic oils are made from Group III base stock , some from Group IV while other synthetic oils may be a blend of the two. Mobil sued Castrol and Castrol prevailed in showing that their Group III base stock oil was changed enough that it qualified as full synthetic. Since then American Petroleum Institute (API) has removed all references to synthetic in their documentation regarding standards. "Full synthetic"
2581-597: The Stefan–Boltzmann law yields: Simplifying these equations by considering perfect optics ( η O p t i c s {\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {Optics} }} = 1) and without considering the ultimate conversion step into electricity by a generator, collecting and reradiating areas equal and maximum absorptivity and emissivity ( α {\displaystyle \alpha } = 1, ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } = 1) then substituting in
2670-493: The carbon-carbon double bond starts at the α-carbon atom, i.e. the double bond is between the #1 and #2 carbons in the molecule. Group V base oils are defined by API as any other type of oil other than mineral oils or PAO lubricants. Esters are the most famous synthetics in Group V, which are 100% synthetic chemical compounds consisting of a carbonyl adjacent to an ether linkage. They are derived by reacting an oxoacid with
2759-668: The economies of scale . Construction of the tenth plant in the same locality was halted because of the bankruptcy of Luz Industries. Construction of the approved eleventh and twelfth plants never started. Each of the three planned plants would have had 80 MW of installed capacity. Abengoa Solar recently constructed the 280MW Mojave Solar Project (MSP) adjacent to the SEGS VIII and SEGS IX plants. The MSP also uses concentrating solar thermal trough technology. Starting in February 2020, SEGS VIII no longer burned natural gas. The last production month
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2848-761: The larger CSP projects are the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility (392 MW) in the United States, which uses solar power tower technology without thermal energy storage, and the Ouarzazate Solar Power Station in Morocco, which combines trough and tower technologies for a total of 510 MW with several hours of energy storage. On purely generation cost, bulk power from CSP today is much more expensive than solar PV or Wind power, however, PV and Wind power are intermittent sources . Comparing cost on
2937-606: The 2010s. With a learning rate estimated at around 20% cost reduction of every doubling in capacity, the costs were approaching the upper end of the fossil fuel cost range at the beginning of the 2020s, driven by support schemes in several countries, including Spain, the US, Morocco, South Africa, China, and the UAE: CSP deployment has slowed down considerably in OECD countries, as most of the above-mentioned markets have cancelled their support, but CSP
3026-472: The Carnot efficiency due to losses such as heat loss and windage in the moving parts. For a solar flux I {\displaystyle I} (e.g. I = 1000 W / m 2 {\displaystyle I=1000\,\mathrm {W/m^{2}} } ) concentrated C {\displaystyle C} times with an efficiency η O p t i c s {\displaystyle \eta _{Optics}} on
3115-464: The Enclosed Trough design, states its technology can produce heat for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) for about $ 5 per 290 kWh (1,000,000 BTU) in sunny regions, compared to between $ 10 and $ 12 for other conventional solar thermal technologies. A solar power tower consists of an array of dual-axis tracking reflectors ( heliostats ) that concentrate sunlight on a central receiver atop a tower;
3204-698: The Sun along two axes. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 250–700 °C (482–1,292 °F) and then used by a Stirling engine to generate power. Parabolic-dish systems provide high solar-to-electric efficiency (between 31% and 32%), and their modular nature provides scalability. The Stirling Energy Systems (SES), United Sun Systems (USS) and Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) dishes at UNLV , and Australian National University 's Big Dish in Canberra , Australia are representative of this technology. A world record for solar to electric efficiency
3293-506: The architecture of today's power tower plants, with a solar receiver in the center of a field of solar collectors. The plant was able to produce 1 MW with superheated steam at 100 bar and 500 °C. The 10 MW Solar One power tower was developed in Southern California in 1981. Solar One was converted into Solar Two in 1995, implementing a new design with a molten salt mixture (60% sodium nitrate, 40% potassium nitrate) as
3382-424: The clock. These CSP plants are equipped with gas turbines to generate electricity. These are also small in capacity (<0.4 MW), with flexibility to install in few acres' area. Waste heat from the power plant can also be used for process steam generation and HVAC needs. In case land availability is not a limitation, any number of these modules can be installed, up to 1000 MW with RAMS and cost advantages since
3471-411: The commissioning of the photovoltaic Topaz Solar Farm in 2014. It consisted of nine solar power plants in California's Mojave Desert , where insolation is among the best available in the United States. SEGS I–II (44 MW) were located at Daggett ( 34°51′45″N 116°49′45″W / 34.86250°N 116.82917°W / 34.86250; -116.82917 ); they have been replaced with
3560-413: The day, the average conversion efficiency achieved is not equal to these maximum efficiencies, and the net annual solar-to-electricity efficiencies are 7-20% for pilot power tower systems, and 12-25% for demonstration-scale Stirling dish systems. Conversion efficiencies are relevant only where real estate land costs are not low. The maximum conversion efficiency of any thermal to electrical energy system
3649-496: The efficiency of conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy, and η g e n e r a t o r {\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {generator} }} the efficiency of converting the mechanical energy into electrical power. η r e c e i v e r {\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }} is: The conversion efficiency η m e c h
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3738-416: The electricity grid, gives a different conclusion. Developers are hoping that CSP with energy storage can be a cheaper alternative to PV with BESS . Research found that PV with BESS is competitive for short storage durations, while CSP with TES gains economic advantages for long storage periods. Tipping point lies at 2–10 hours depending on cost of the composing blocks: CSP, PV, TES and BESS. As early as 2011,
3827-421: The electricity is produced by the sunlight . Natural gas is only used when the solar power is insufficient to meet the demand from Southern California Edison , the distributor of power in southern California. The parabolic mirrors are shaped like quarter-pipes. The sun shines on glass panels, which are 94% reflective, unlike a typical mirror, which is only 70% reflective. The mirrors automatically track
3916-405: The first equation gives Synthetic oil Synthetic oil is a lubricant consisting of chemical compounds that are artificially modified or synthesised. Synthetic lubricants can be manufactured using chemically modified petroleum components rather than whole crude oil , but can also be synthesized from other raw materials. The base material, however, is still overwhelmingly crude oil that
4005-518: The form of sensible heat or as latent heat (for example, using molten salt ), which enables these plants to continue supplying electricity whenever it is needed, day or night. This makes CSP a dispatchable form of solar. Dispatchable renewable energy is particularly valuable in places where there is already a high penetration of photovoltaics (PV), such as California , because demand for electric power peaks near sunset just as PV capacity ramps down (a phenomenon referred to as duck curve ). CSP
4094-413: The fraction of incident light concentrated onto the receiver, η r e c e i v e r {\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }} the fraction of light incident on the receiver that is converted into heat energy, η m e c h a n i c a l {\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }}
4183-574: The loss due to evaporation. It is resistant to oxidation, thermal breakdown, oil sludge problems and provides extended drain intervals, with the environmental benefit of less used oil waste generated. It provides better lubrication in extreme cold conditions. The use of synthetic oils promises a longer engine life with superior protection against "ash" and other deposit formation in engine hot spots (in particular in turbochargers and superchargers) for less oil burn-off and reduced chances of damaging oil passageway clogging. The performance of automobiles
4272-514: The lubricants market. PAGs are about 24% of the synthetic lubricants market. Ethylene is the basic raw material used to make the synthetic lubricant polyglycols oils. When ethylene and propylene react with oxygen we obtain ethylene oxide (EO) and propylene oxide (PO), from which the polyalkylene glycols are produced by means of polymerization. Polyalkylene glycols are usually made by combining ethylene oxide and/or propylene oxide with an alcohol or water. The mixing ratio between EO and PO, plus
4361-524: The most advanced CSP stations (with TES) against record lows of 1.32 cents per kWh for utility-scale PV (without BESS). This five-fold price difference has been maintained since 2018. Some PV-CSP plants in China have sought to operate profitably on the regional coal tariff of 5 US cents per kWh in 2021. Even though overall deployment of CSP remains limited in the early 2020s, the levelized cost of power from commercial scale plants has decreased significantly since
4450-513: The most representative demonstration plants. The Planta Solar 10 (PS10) in Sanlucar la Mayor , Spain, is the first commercial utility-scale solar power tower in the world. The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility , located in the Mojave Desert , was the largest CSP facility in the world, and uses three power towers. Ivanpah generated only 0.652 TWh (63%) of its energy from solar means, and
4539-648: The other 0.388 TWh (37%) was generated by burning natural gas . Supercritical carbon dioxide can be used instead of steam as heat-transfer fluid for increased electricity production efficiency. However, because of the high temperatures in arid areas where solar power is usually located, it is impossible to cool down carbon dioxide below its critical temperature in the compressor inlet. Therefore, supercritical carbon dioxide blends with higher critical temperature are currently in development. Fresnel reflectors are made of many thin, flat mirror strips to concentrate sunlight onto tubes through which working fluid
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#17328833820124628-1008: The oxygen bonded in the chemical structure, crucially affect the behavior of polyglycols. The gear industry predominantly uses polyglycols with an EO/PO ratio of 50:50 to 60:40, which exhibit very similar behavior. The polyglycols featuring this composition are also generally referred to as water soluble polyglycols. Polyalkylene glycol base oils are formed by reacting an alcohol with one or more alkylene oxides: Propylene oxide provides water insolubility, Ethylene oxide provides water solubility. PAGs offer properties that include: high lubricity, polarity, low traction properties, high viscosity index, controlled quenching speeds, good temperature stability and low wear. They are available in both water soluble and insoluble forms. PAGs are commonly used in quenching fluids, metalworking fluids, gear oils, chain oils, food-grade lubricants and as lubricants in HFC type hydraulics and gas compressor equipment. PAG lubricants are used by
4717-522: The per MW costs of these units are lower than those of larger size solar thermal stations. Centralized district heating round the clock is also feasible with concentrated solar thermal storage plants. An early plant operated in Sicily at Adrano . The US deployment of CSP plants started by 1984 with the SEGS plants. The last SEGS plant was completed in 1990. From 1991 to 2005, no CSP plants were built anywhere in
4806-399: The plants located at Kramer Junction. On January 26, 2018, the SEGS VIII and IX at Harper Lake were sold to renewable energy company Terra-Gen, LLC. A tenth plant (SEGS X, 80 MW) had been in construction and SEGS XI and SEGS XII had been planned by Luz Industries , but the developer filed for bankruptcy in 1992, because it was unable to secure construction financing. The site of SEGS X
4895-510: The power generation from solar thermal storage plants is dispatchable and self-sustainable , similar to coal/ gas-fired power plants , but without the pollution. CSP with thermal energy storage plants can also be used as cogeneration plants to supply both electricity and process steam round the clock. As of December 2018, CSP with thermal energy storage plants' generation costs have ranged between 5 c € / kWh and 7 c € / kWh, depending on good to medium solar radiation received at
4984-539: The presence or absence of other system losses; in addition to the conversion efficiency, the optical system which concentrates the sunlight will also add additional losses. Real-world systems claim a maximum conversion efficiency of 23-35% for "power tower" type systems, operating at temperatures from 250 to 565 °C, with the higher efficiency number assuming a combined cycle turbine. Dish Stirling systems, operating at temperatures of 550-750 °C, claim an efficiency of about 30%. Due to variation in sun incidence during
5073-452: The pressure within manageable parameters. The SEGS power plants were built by Luz Industries , and commissioned between December 20, 1984 and October 1, 1990. After Luz Industries' bankruptcy in 1991 plants were sold to various investor groups as individual projects, and expansion including three more plants was halted. Kramer Junction employs about 95 people and 45 people work at Harper Lake. Until Ivanpah Solar Power Facility
5162-399: The rapid decline of the price of photovoltaic systems led to projections that CSP (without TES) would no longer be economically viable. As of 2020, the least expensive utility-scale concentrated solar power stations in the United States and worldwide were five times more expensive than utility-scale photovoltaic power stations , with a projected minimum price of 7 cents per kilowatt-hour for
5251-652: The ratio of the synthetic base stock is used to define commodity codes among the customs declarations for tax purposes. API Group II- and API Group III-type base stocks help to formulate more economic-type semi-synthetic lubricants. API Group I-, II-, II+-, and III-type mineral-base oil stocks are widely used in combination with additive packages, performance packages, and ester and/or API Group IV poly-alpha-olefins in order to formulate semi-synthetic-based lubricants. API Group III base oils are sometimes considered fully synthetic, but they are still classified as highest-top-level mineral-base stocks. A synthetic or synthesized material
5340-432: The receiver contains a heat-transfer fluid, which can consist of water-steam or molten salt . Optically a solar power tower is the same as a circular Fresnel reflector. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 500–1000 °C (773–1,273 K or 932–1,832 °F) and then used as a heat source for a power generation or energy storage system. An advantage of the solar tower is the reflectors can be adjusted instead of
5429-405: The receiver working fluid and as a storage medium. The molten salt approach proved effective, and Solar Two operated successfully until it was decommissioned in 1999. The parabolic-trough technology of the nearby Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS), begun in 1984, was more workable. The 354 MW SEGS was the largest solar power plant in the world until 2014. No commercial concentrated solar
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#17328833820125518-412: The same as PV with 4-hour storage used to cost in 2020. Countries with no PV cell production capability and low labour cost may reduce substantially the local CSP/PV cost gap. The efficiency of a concentrating solar power system depends on the technology used to convert the solar power to electrical energy, the operating temperature of the receiver and the heat rejection, thermal losses in the system, and
5607-558: The seal. Pneumatic air cylinders and 4-ways valves commonly use Buna-N rubber seals that are coated in mineral grease. Semi-synthetic oils (also called "synthetic blends") are a mixture of mineral oil and synthetic oil, which are engineered to have many of the benefits of full synthetic oil without the cost. Motul introduced the first semi-synthetic motor oil in 1966. Lubricants that have synthetic base stocks even lower than 30% but with high-performance additives consisting of esters can also be considered synthetic lubricants. In general,
5696-426: The sky. Authorities were trying to keep flames away from two adjacent containers that held sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide . The immediate area of 0.5 square miles (1.3 km) was evacuated. Concentrated solar power plant Concentrated solar power ( CSP , also known as concentrating solar power , concentrated solar thermal ) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate
5785-421: The solar receiver and on the heat engine ( e.g. steam turbine). Solar irradiation is first converted into heat by the solar receiver with the efficiency η R e c e i v e r {\displaystyle \eta _{Receiver}} , and subsequently the heat is converted into mechanical energy by the heat engine with the efficiency η m e c h
5874-433: The solar source was around 75 MWe — , representing a 21% capacity factor . In addition, the turbines could be utilized at night by burning natural gas . NextEra claimed in 2009 that the solar plants could power 232,500 homеs (during the day, at peak power) and displace 3,800 tons of pollution pеr year that would have been produced if the electricity had been providеd by fossil fuels, such as oil. The facilities had
5963-443: The solar thermal system within a greenhouse-like glasshouse. The glasshouse creates a protected environment to withstand the elements that can negatively impact reliability and efficiency of the solar thermal system. Lightweight curved solar-reflecting mirrors are suspended from the ceiling of the glasshouse by wires. A single-axis tracking system positions the mirrors to retrieve the optimal amount of sunlight. The mirrors concentrate
6052-401: The sun throughout the day. The greatest source of mirror breakage is wind, with 3,000 mirrors typically replaced each year. Operators can turn the mirrors to protect them during intense wind storms. An automated washing mechanism is used to periodically clean the parabolic reflective panels. The term "field area" is assessed as the actual collector area. The sunlight bounces off the mirrors and
6141-423: The sunlight and focus it on a network of stationary steel pipes, also suspended from the glasshouse structure. Water is carried throughout the length of the pipe, which is boiled to generate steam when intense solar radiation is applied. Sheltering the mirrors from the wind allows them to achieve higher temperature rates and prevents dust from building up on the mirrors. GlassPoint Solar , the company that created
6230-499: The support scheme. Where not bound in other countries, the manufacturers have adopted up to 200 MW size for a single unit, with a cost soft point around 125 MW for a single unit. Due to the success of Solar Two, a commercial power plant, called Solar Tres Power Tower , was built in Spain in 2011, later renamed Gemasolar Thermosolar Plant. Gemasolar's results paved the way for further plants of its type. Ivanpah Solar Power Facility
6319-423: The system solar receiver with a collecting area A {\displaystyle A} and an absorptivity α {\displaystyle \alpha } : For simplicity's sake, one can assume that the losses are only radiative ones (a fair assumption for high temperatures), thus for a reradiating area A and an emissivity ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } applying
6408-507: The theoretical maximum concentration. For example, the parabolic-trough concentration gives about 1 ⁄ 3 of the theoretical maximum for the design acceptance angle , that is, for the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the theoretical maximum may be achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on nonimaging optics . Different types of concentrators produce different peak temperatures and correspondingly varying thermodynamic efficiencies due to differences in
6497-902: The two largest U.S. air compressor OEMs in rotary screw air compressors. PAG oils of different viscosity grades (usually either ISO VG 46 or ISO VG 100) are often used as compressor lubricants for automotive air conditioning systems employing low global warming potential refrigerants. PAGs are available in a wide range of viscosity grades and additive packages for a variety of uses. Some PAGs properties such as water solubility are not commonly provided by other synthetic lubricants, such as polyalphaolefins (PAO). PAGs prevent sludge and varnish from developing at high temperatures. PAGs have viscosity indexes that are higher than PAOs. In large gears, PAG lubricant yielded lower friction than PAO lubricant. PAG oils are polar, which means that an oil film easily develops upon all moving metal parts, reducing startup wear. PAGs can be highly biodegradable, particularly
6586-711: The water-soluble PAGs. PAGs perform better than in extreme weather condition. PAGs are not compatible with mineral oils, most seals, paints, varnishes. Synthetic oil is more expensive than mineral oils. PAG is usually compatible with fluorocarbon -based fluoroelastomer materials and vinyl methyl silicone (VMQ) silicone rubber . PAG acts as a solvent and dissolves and removes the mineral grease which causes slower motions, air leaks, and can stop 4-way valves from operating. Natural rubber, Buna-N, and most regular seals are incompatible with PAG oils, especially seals coated in mineral grease. PAG oils can cause seals to shrink or swell, thus causing severe leakage or seizure of
6675-412: The way that they track the sun and focus light. New innovations in CSP technology are leading systems to become more and more cost-effective. In 2023, Australia’s national science agency CSIRO tested a CSP arrangement in which tiny ceramic particles fall through the beam of concentrated solar energy, the ceramic particles capable of storing a greater amount of heat than molten salt, while not requiring
6764-593: The whole tower. Power-tower development is less advanced than trough systems, but they offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capability. Beam down tower application is also feasible with heliostats to heat the working fluid. CSP with dual towers are also used to enhance the conversion efficiency by nearly 24%. The Solar Two in Daggett , California and the CESA-1 in Plataforma Solar de Almeria Almeria, Spain, are
6853-457: The world record for lowest CSP price in 2017 at US$ 73 per MWh for its 700 MW combined trough and tower project: 600 MW of trough, 100 MW of tower with 15 hours of thermal energy storage daily. Base-load CSP tariff in the extremely dry Atacama region of Chile reached below $ 50/MWh in 2017 auctions. A legend has it that Archimedes used a "burning glass" to concentrate sunlight on the invading Roman fleet and repel them from Syracuse . In 1973
6942-400: The world until it was sold to United Sun Systems . Subsequently, larger parts of the installation have been moved to China to satisfy part of the large energy demand. In a CSP plant that includes storage, the solar energy is first used to heat molten salt or synthetic oil, which is stored providing thermal/heat energy at high temperature in insulated tanks. Later the hot molten salt (or oil)
7031-435: The world. Global installed CSP-capacity increased nearly tenfold between 2004 and 2013 and grew at an average of 50 percent per year during the last five of those years, as the number of countries with installed CSP was growing. In 2013, worldwide installed capacity increased by 36% or nearly 0.9 gigawatt (GW) to more than 3.4 GW. The record for capacity installed was reached in 2014, corresponding to 925 MW; however, it
7120-560: Was 8.1 GW, with the inclusion of three new CSP projects in construction in China and in Dubai in the UAE. The U.S.-based National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), which maintains a global database of CSP plants, counts 6.6 GW of operational capacity and another 1.5 GW under construction. As a thermal energy generating power station, CSP has more in common with thermal power stations such as coal, gas, or geothermal. A CSP plant can incorporate thermal energy storage , which stores energy either in
7209-429: Was October 2021. SEGS IX stopped burning natural gas starting October 2020, except for January 2021. This location ( 35°00′48″N 117°33′38″W / 35.013218°N 117.560531°W / 35.013218; -117.560531 ( SEGS III–VII ) ) receives an average of 340 days of sunshine per year, which makes it an ideal place for solar power generation. The average direct normal radiation (DNR)
7298-414: Was commissioned in 2014, SEGS VIII and SEGS IX, located at 35°01′55″N 117°20′50″W / 35.031815°N 117.347270°W / 35.031815; -117.347270 ( SEGS VIII and IX ) were the largest solar thermal power plants individually and collectively in the world. They were the last, the largest, and the most advanced of the nine plants at SEGS, designed to take advantage of
7387-411: Was constructed at the same time but without thermal storage, using natural gas to preheat water each morning. Most concentrated solar power plants use the parabolic trough design, instead of the power tower or Fresnel systems. There have also been variations of parabolic trough systems like the integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) which combines troughs and conventional fossil fuel heat systems. CSP
7476-609: Was constructed from 1990, when SEGS was completed, until 2006, when the Compact linear Fresnel reflector system at Liddell Power Station in Australia was built. Few other plants were built with this design, although the 5 MW Kimberlina Solar Thermal Energy Plant opened in 2009. In 2007, 75 MW Nevada Solar One was built, a trough design and the first large plant since SEGS. Between 2010 and 2013, Spain built over 40 parabolic trough systems, size constrained at no more than 50 MW by
7565-415: Was followed by a decline caused by policy changes, the global financial crisis, and the rapid decrease in price of the photovoltaic cells. Nevertheless, total capacity reached 6800 MW in 2021. Spain accounted for almost one third of the world's capacity, at 2,300 MW, despite no new capacity entering commercial operation in the country since 2013. The United States follows with 1,740 MW. Interest
7654-425: Was later licensed for a solar photovoltaic farm, Lockhart Solar PV II. Most of the thermal facilities were retired by 2021, and photovoltaics were built on the same sites. Before retirement and replacement of SEGS I-VII with solar photovoltaics, the plants had a 354 MW net (394 MW gross) installed capacity. The nameplate capacity, which operating continuously, would dеliver the samе net power output, coming only from
7743-402: Was originally treated as a competitor to photovoltaics, and Ivanpah was built without energy storage, although Solar Two included several hours of thermal storage. By 2015, prices for photovoltaic plants had fallen and PV commercial power was selling for 1 ⁄ 3 of contemporary CSP contracts. However, increasingly, CSP was being bid with 3 to 12 hours of thermal energy storage, making CSP
7832-694: Was set at 31.25% by SES dishes at the National Solar Thermal Test Facility (NSTTF) in New Mexico on 31 January 2008, a cold, bright day. According to its developer, Ripasso Energy, a Swedish firm, in 2015 its dish Stirling system tested in the Kalahari Desert in South Africa showed 34% efficiency. The SES installation in Maricopa, Phoenix, was the largest Stirling Dish power installation in
7921-483: Was shut down in 2014 and was replaced by Sunray 3 (EIA plant code 10438), a 13,8 MW photovoltaic system. SEGS I was shut down one year later and replaced by 20 MW PV system Sunray 2 (EIA plant code 10437). Sunray 2 and Sunray 3 started production in 2017 as per EIA data. In February 1999, a 900,000-US-gallon (3,400 m) mineral oil storage tank exploded at the SEGS I (Daggett) solar power plant, sending flames and smoke into
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