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51-515: The megalithic tomb was erected between 3500 and 2800 BC by people of the Funnelbeaker culture in the Neolithic period. The grave was excavated in 1883 and given Sprockhoff number 682. The tomb has an east-west orientation and measures ten by three meters. It consists of eleven supporting stones which carry four capstones. The inner chamber measures 6.2 by 1.65 meters and is still covered by

102-490: A standing stone . Circles of small stelae surround the graves and probably served to mark the graves and to protect the earthenware vessels. Occasionally, the cremated remains lay in a small stone box. Mainly adults were buried here, it was mostly women whose urns lay under the cobblestone pavement. In a less densely populated part of the urn cemetery a flat grave was found which dated to the Funnelbeaker culture. A stone axe

153-537: A Mesolithic lifestyle for about 1500 years after farming arrived in Central Europe. The emergence of the Neolithic British Isles through maritime colonization by Michelsberg-related groups occurred almost at the same time as the expansion of the Funnelbeaker culture into Scandinavia, suggesting that these events may be connected. Although they were largely of Early European Farmer (EEF) descent, people of

204-427: A megalithic long barrow. This is the earliest known direct evidence for wheeled vehicles in the world (i.e. not models or images). Houses were centered on a monumental grave, a symbol of social cohesion. Burial practices were varied depending on region and changed over time. Inhumation seems to have been the rule. The oldest graves consisted of wooden chambered cairns inside long barrows, but were later made in

255-598: A memorable storm in Friesland and Holland , and came from the North Sea, breaking and destroying several dams and dunes and transforming it into a bay which was then called the Zuiderzee, meaning Southern Sea . The name "Zuiderzee" came into general usage around this period. The size of this inland sea remained largely stable from the 15th century onwards due to improvements in dikes , but when storms pushed North Sea water into

306-471: A mound of earth near the supporting stones. The entrance is located on the southern long side, slightly off the center. It was built on a round hill which was raised during the Bronze Age for more burials and surrounded by a stone circle. The floor of the inner chamber was covered with granite boulders. Further investigation started in 1970 demonstrated that the tomb had been used in multiple phases. Finds from

357-721: A town in Overijssel , and later also towns in Holland such as Amsterdam, Hoorn , and Enkhuizen . These towns traded at first with ports on the Baltic Sea , in England, and in the Hanseatic League , but later also with the rest of the world when the Netherlands established its colonial empire . When that lucrative trade diminished, most of the towns fell back on fishing and some industry until

408-472: Is archaeologically and genetically strongly differentiated from the preceding post- Linear Pottery cultures of Central Europe, being distinguished by increased levels of hunter-gatherer ancestry. Its people were probably descended from farmers migrating into Central Europe out of Iberia and modern-day France, who in turn were descended from farmers of the Cardial Ware cultures who had migrated westwards from

459-708: Is divided into a northern group including northern Germany and southern Scandinavia (TRB-N, roughly the area that previously belonged to the Ertebølle-Ellerbek complex), a western group in the Netherlands between the Zuiderzee and lower Elbe that originated in the Swifterbant culture , an eastern group centered on the Vistula catchment, roughly ranging from Oder to Bug , and south-central groups (TRB-MES, Altmark) around

510-554: Is mentioned among others in a life of saints written by Anglo-Saxon Bishop Saint Boniface in 753, and a deed of gift from the town of Urk . Its etymology may be eels , in Dutch aal or ael , so: ael mere = "eel lake" Presumably, the water of Lake Almere at that time was fresh water or slightly brackish . The name of the new town of Almere in Flevoland was given in 1984 in memory of this body of water. A number of occurrences during

561-678: The Balkans along the Mediterranean coast. Connections between the Funnelbeakers and these farmers of the Atlantic coast is supported by genetic evidence. After its establishment, the Funnelbeaker culture rapidly spread into southern Scandinavia and Poland, in what appears to have been a well-organized colonizing venture. In southern Scandinavia it replaced the Ertebølle culture , which had maintained

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612-456: The Corded Ware culture . In the past, a number of other archaeologists proposed that the Corded Ware culture was a purely local development of the Funnelbeaker culture, but genetic evidence has since demonstrated that this was not the case. Ancient DNA analysis has found the people who produced the Funnelbeaker culture to be genetically different from earlier hunter-gather inhabitants of

663-434: The 20th century when tourism became the major source of income. Contained within the Zuiderzee were five small islands, the remains of what were once larger islands, peninsulas connected to the mainland , or in the case of Pampus , an artificial island. These were Wieringen , Urk , Schokland , Pampus and Marken . The inhabitants of these islands also subsisted mainly on fishing and related industries and still do in

714-625: The East (Oostelijk) Flevoland Polder, built in 1957; and the South (Zuidelijk) Flevoland Polder, completed in 1968. A fifth, Markewaard, began construction in 1963, and became partially complete, but was abandoned in the mid-1980s. Collectively, this system of dams, dikes, and polders is called the Zuiderzee Works . Around the Zuiderzee many fishing villages grew up and several developed into walled towns with extensive trade connections, in particular Kampen ,

765-722: The Elbe catchment area include the Tiefstich pottery group in northern Germany as well as the cultures of the Baalberge group (TRB-MES II and III; MES = Mittelelbe- Saale ), the Salzmünde and Walternienburg and Bernburg (all TRB-MES IV) whose centres were in Saxony-Anhalt . With the exception of some inland settlements such as the Alvastra pile-dwelling , the settlements are located near those of

816-732: The Funnelbeaker culture had a relatively high amount of hunter-gatherer admixture, particularly in Scandinavia, suggesting that hunter-gatherer populations were partially incorporated into it during its expansion into this region. People of the Funnelbeaker culture often had between 30% and 50% hunter-gatherer ancestry depending on the region. During later phases of the Neolithic, the Funnelbeaker culture re-expanded out of Scandinavia southwards into Central Europe, establishing several regional varieties. This expansion appears to have been accompanied by significant human migration. The southward expansion of

867-501: The Funnelbeaker culture had been replaced by the Corded Ware culture. Genetic studies suggest that Funnelbeaker women were incorporated into the Corded Ware culture through intermixing with incoming Corded Ware males, and that people of the Corded Ware culture continued to use Funnelbeaker megaliths as burial grounds. Subsequent cultures of Late Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age Central Europe display strong maternal genetic affinity with

918-559: The Funnelbeaker culture was accompanied by a substantial increase in hunter-gatherer lineages in Central Europe. The Funnelbeaker communities in Central Europe which emerged were probably quite genetically and ethnically mixed, and archaeological evidence suggests that they were relatively violent. From the middle of the 4th millennium BCE, the Funnelbeaker culture was gradually replaced by the Globular Amphora culture on its southeastern fringes, and began to decline in Scandinavia. In

969-771: The Funnelbeaker culture. The TRB ranges from the Elbe catchment in Germany and Bohemia with a western extension into the Netherlands , to southern Scandinavia ( Denmark up to Uppland in Sweden and the Oslofjord in Norway ) in the north, and to the Vistula catchment in Poland and the area between Dnister and Western Bug headwaters in Ukraine in the east. Variants of the Funnelbeaker culture in or near

1020-559: The Middle Ages led to the transformation of the lake to an inland sea that would be called the Zuiderzee, which are: Especially during the 12th century, particularly in 1219 and 1282, high tides and storms eroded the western banks of the Vlie and submerged large areas of land. The land between Stavoren, Texel, and Medemblik was washed away around 1170. The waterway between Stavoren and Enkhuizen, however, did not appear until around 1400. The erosion

1071-526: The TRB era. The Funnelbeaker culture is named for its characteristic ceramics, beakers and amphorae with funnel-shaped tops, which were found in dolmen burials. The Funnelbeaker culture emerged in northern modern-day Germany c.  4100 BCE . Archaeological evidence strongly suggests that it originated through a migration of colonists from the Michelsberg culture of Central Europe . The Michelsberg culture

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1122-646: The Zuiderzee became the IJsselmeer , and the outer portion of the Zuiderzee became the Wadden Sea . Large areas of land, mainly for agricultural use, were subsequently reclaimed from the water through the construction of polders with dams, pumping, and other hydrological technology. Four had been built by the early 1980s. They were the Wieringermeer Polder built in 1930; the Northeast (Noordoost) Polder, built in 1942;

1173-555: The Zuiderzee. The construction between 1927 and 1932 of a 19-mile long dam (the Afsluitdijk ), under plans originating from Cornelius Lely , enclosed the Zuiderzee. The creation of this dam was hastened by the Flood of January 1916 . Plans for closing the Zuiderzee had been made over thirty years earlier but had not yet passed in parliament . With the completion of the Afsluitdijk in 1932,

1224-726: The Zuiderzee. It was separated from the sea by a belt of marsh and fen ; at the time, the original coastline ran along the line of the Frisian Islands . A number of streams, including the Vecht , Eem , and Ysel , fed into the lake. The lake itself fed out into the North Sea through the Vlie (Latin Flevus ). It existed in Roman times and the early Middle Ages . From the Indo-European root *plew- "flow",

1275-502: The area which have been destroyed. The Urnfield culture which succeeded the Tumulus culture is also represented at the site. This culture was named after its method of burial as well, the burial of cremated remains in urnfields. An urnfield cemetery with 940 graves dating to the early Iron Age lies between the megalithic tomb and the tumulus tomb. The graves are covered by heterogeneous stone pavement of up to four meters in diameter next to

1326-403: The connection to the sea and the lake were significantly enlarged. A period of lower sea levels followed. The Marsdiep was once a river ( fluvium Maresdeop ) which may have been a distributary of the Vlie . During the early Middle Ages this began to change as rising sea levels and storms started to eat away at the coastal areas which consisted mainly of peatlands. In this period the inlet

1377-547: The context of the Kurgan hypothesis (or steppe hypothesis), the culture is seen as non-Indo-European, representing a culture of Neolithic origin, as opposed to the Indo-European-language-speaking peoples (see Yamna culture ) who later intruded from the east. Marija Gimbutas postulated that the political relationship between the aboriginal and intrusive cultures resulted in quick and smooth cultural morphosis into

1428-465: The early 3rd millennium BCE, the Corded Ware culture appeared in Northern Europe. Its peoples were of marked steppe-related ancestry and traced their origins in cultures further east. This period is distinguished by the construction of numerous defensive palisades in Funnelbeaker territory, which may be a sign of violent conflict between the Funnelbeakers, Corded Ware, and Pitted Ware. By 2650 BCE,

1479-566: The early Bronze Age the hill was surrounded halfway up with a second narrow stone circle. In the hill bed cremated remains were found that exhibit the usual burial custom of the time. South of the megalithic tomb is a Bronze Age tumulus with a stone ring around its foot. Tombs of this kind are characteristic for the Tumulus culture named after this burial practice. Soil discoloration indicated two treetrunk coffin burials. A palstave and bronze needle were found as grave goods. There were more tumuli in

1530-404: The early Funnelbeaker culture were few. Finds from the subsequent Corded Ware culture proved to be more numerous in the chamber and its surroundings. In the early Bronze Age the hill was transformed. The grave associated with the redesign had probably been destroyed accidentally during the 1883 excavation. The arm rings found then could be probably considered as grave goods from that period. In

1581-497: The family. Flint-axes and vessels were also deposited in streams and lakes near the farmlands, and virtually all of Sweden's 10,000 flint axes that have been found from this culture were probably sacrificed in water. They also constructed large cult centres surrounded by pales, earthworks and moats. The largest one is found at Sarup on Fyn . It comprises 85,000 m and is estimated to have taken 8000 workdays. Another cult centre at Stävie near Lund comprises 30,000 m . In

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1632-664: The form of passage graves and dolmens . Originally, the structures were probably covered with a mound of earth and the entrance was blocked by a stone. The Funnelbeaker culture marks the appearance of megalithic tombs at the coasts of the Baltic and of the North sea, an example of which are the Sieben Steinhäuser in northern Germany . The megalithic structures of Ireland, France and Portugal are somewhat older and have been connected to earlier archeological cultures of those areas. At graves,

1683-451: The inlet, the Zuiderzee became a volatile cauldron of water, frequently resulting in flooding and the loss of ships. For example, on 18 November 1421, a seawall at the Zuiderzee dike broke, which flooded 72 villages and killed about 10,000 people. This was the Second St. Elizabeth's flood . The process of creating polders had developed to a point by 1667 that the damming of the Zuiderzee

1734-495: The lower Elbe and middle Vistula rivers. These predecessors were the ( Danubian ) Lengyel -influenced Stroke-ornamented ware culture (STK) groups/Late Lengyel and Baden-Boleráz in the southeast, Rössen groups in the southwest and the Ertebølle-Ellerbek groups in the north. The TRB introduced farming and husbandry as major food sources to the pottery-using hunter-gatherers north of this line. The TRB techno-complex

1785-570: The middle and upper Elbe and Saale . Especially in the southern and eastern groups, local sequences of variants emerged. In the late 4th millennium BCE, the Globular Amphora culture (GAC) replaced most of the eastern and subsequently also the southern TRB groups, reducing the TRB area to modern northern Germany and southern Scandinavia. The younger TRB in these areas was superseded by the Single Grave culture (EGK) at about 2800 BCE. The north-central European megaliths were built primarily during

1836-474: The name of the body of water which lay there long ago. Over time these lakes gradually eroded their soft peat shores and spread (a process known as waterwolf ). Some part of this area of water was later called the Vlie ; it probably flowed into the sea through what is now the Vliestroom channel between the islands of Vlieland and Terschelling . During a period of rising sea level between 250 and 600 CE,

1887-470: The name was transmitted by the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela in describing this region. In his treatise on geography of 44 AD, Pomponius speaks of a Flevo Lacus . He writes: "The northern branch of the Rhine widens as Lake Flevo, and encloses an island of the same name, and then as a normal river flows to the sea". Other sources rather speak of Flevum , which could be related to today's Vlie (Vliestroom), i.e.

1938-466: The north of the Zuiderzee (cf. North Sea). In the 20th century the majority of the Zuiderzee was closed off from the North Sea by the construction of the Afsluitdijk , leaving the mouth of the inlet to become part of the Wadden Sea . The salt water inlet changed into a fresh water lake now called the IJsselmeer ( IJssel Lake) after the river that drains into it, and by means of drainage and polders , an area of some 1,500 km (580 sq mi)

1989-644: The north. A total of 62 males from sites attributed to the Funnelbeaker culture in Scandinavia and Germany have been sequenced for ancient DNA. Most belonged to haplogroup I2 while a smaller number belonged to R1b-V88, Q-FTF30 and G2a. MtDNA haplogroups included U, H, T, R and K. West Asia (6000–3500 BC) Europe (5500–2200 BC) Central Asia (3700–1700 BC) South Asia (4300–1800 BC) China (5000–2900 BC) Zuiderzee The Zuiderzee or Zuider Zee ( Dutch: [ˌzœydərˈzeː] ; old spelling Zuyderzee or Zuyder Zee ), historically called Lake Almere and Lake Flevo ,

2040-613: The northern edge of the Beskidy Mountains (northern Carpathian ring), which is indirectly dated to the time span from 3636 to 3373 BCE and is the oldest evidence for covered carriages in Central Europe. They were drawn by cattle, presumably oxen whose remains were found with the pot. Today it is housed in the Archaeological Museum of Cracow ( Muzeum Archeologiczne w Krakowie ), Poland. At Flintbek in northern Germany cart tracks dating from c. 3400 BCE were discovered underneath

2091-489: The people sacrificed ceramic vessels that contained food along with amber jewelry and flint-axes. Genetic analysis of several dozen individuals found in the Funnelbeaker passage grave Frälsegården in Sweden suggest that these burials were based on a patrilineal social organisation, with the vast majority of males being ultimately descended from a single male ancestor while the women were mostly unrelated who presumably married into

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2142-407: The previous Ertebølle culture on the coast. It was characterized by single-family daubed houses c. 12 m x 6 m. The Funnelbeaker culture was dominated by animal husbandry of sheep , cattle , pigs and goats , but there was also hunting and fishing. Primitive wheat and barley was grown on small patches that were fast depleted, due to which the population frequently moved small distances. There

2193-513: The region, and are instead closely related to other European Neolithic farmers , who ultimately traced most of their ancestry from early farmers in Anatolia , with some admixture from European hunter-gatherer groups. Genetic analysis suggests that there was some minor gene flow between the producers of the Funnelbeaker culture and those of the hunter-gatherer Pitted Ware culture (which descended from earlier Scandinavian hunter-gather groups) to

2244-523: The seaway between the Dutch islands of Vlieland and Terschelling. This last name is grammatically more probable for a geographical indication, which is why it is assumed that Pomponius confused the declension of the word giving the name Flevo. In fact the Vlie formed outfall from the lake into the North Sea . In the second half of the twentieth century the Flevopolders and a new province, Flevoland , took

2295-422: Was a shallow bay of the North Sea in the northwest of the Netherlands . It extended about 100 km (60 miles) inland and at most 50 km (30 miles) wide, with an overall depth of about 4 to 5 metres (13–16 feet) and a coastline of about 300 km (200 miles). It covered 5,000 km (1,900 sq mi). Its name is Dutch for "southern sea", indicating that the name originates in Friesland , to

2346-593: Was also mining (in the Malmö region) and collection of flintstone ( Świętokrzyskie Mountains ), which was traded into regions lacking the stone, such as the Scandinavian hinterland. The culture used copper from Silesia , especially daggers and axes . The Funnelbeaker Culture preserves the oldest dated evidence of wheeled vehicles in middle Europe. One example is the engraving on a ceramic tureen from Bronocice in Poland on

2397-431: Was found as grave good. Funnelbeaker culture The Funnel(-neck-)beaker culture , in short TRB or TBK ( German : Trichter(-rand-)becherkultur , Dutch : Trechterbekercultuur ; Danish : Tragtbægerkultur ; c.  4300–2800 BCE ), was an archaeological culture in north-central Europe . It developed as a technological merger of local neolithic and mesolithic techno-complexes between

2448-570: Was proposed, although a feasible method did not appear until the 20th century. The Netherlands was part of the First French Empire between 1810 and 1813. A département was formed in 1811 and named as Zuyderzée after the Zuiderzee, whose territory roughly corresponded to the present provinces of North Holland and Utrecht . In 1928, the 6-meter and 8-meter sailing events for the Amsterdam Summer Olympics were held on

2499-514: Was reclaimed as land. This land eventually became the province of Flevoland . Part of the IJsselmeer was also divided into the Markermeer . In classical times there was already a body of water in this location, called Lake Flevo (Flevo Lacus ) by Roman authors. This was the central and largest lake in a region filled with a mixture of lowland and freshwater lakes occupying the area later filled by

2550-498: Was referred to as the Almere , indicating it was still more of a lake, but the mouth and size of the inlet were much widened in the 12th century and especially after a disastrous flood in 1282 broke through the barrier dunes near Texel . The disaster marked the rise of Amsterdam on the southwestern end of the bay, since the seagoing traffic of the Baltic trade could now visit. Lake Almere

2601-425: Was stopped to the south and east by the high sandy shores of Gooi , Veluwe , Voorst , and Gasterland in the provinces of Utrecht , Gelderland , Overysel , and Friesland respectively. The even more massive St. Lucia's flood occurred 14 December 1287, when the seawalls broke during a storm, killing approximately 50,000 to 80,000 people in the fifth largest flood in recorded history. The flood occurred during

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