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146-626: In the 1940s, B. F. Skinner delivered a series of lectures on verbal behavior, putting forward a more empirical approach to the subject than existed in psychology at the time. In them, he proposed the use of stimulus-response theories to describe language use and development, and that all verbal behavior was underpinned by operant conditioning . He did however mention that some forms of speech derived from words and sounds that had previously been heard (echoic response), and that reinforcement from parents allowed these 'echoic responses' to be pared down to that of understandable speech. While he denied that there

292-450: A "missed shock" is detected as a stimulus, and can act as a reinforcer. Cognitive theories of avoidance take this idea a step farther. For example, a rat comes to "expect" shock if it fails to press a lever and to "expect no shock" if it presses it, and avoidance behavior is strengthened if these expectancies are confirmed. Operant hoarding refers to the observation that rats reinforced in a certain way may allow food pellets to accumulate in

438-422: A better job of capturing complexity but was much less powerful at predicting actual behavioral choices). In his theory, the social environment and individual personality created probabilities of behavior, and the reinforcement of these behaviors led to learning. He emphasized the subjective nature of the responses and effectiveness of reinforcement types. While his theory used vocabulary common to that of behaviorism,

584-758: A chief researcher, lectured and established with others the Psychological Clinic Annex . From late 1959 to early 1962, Murray was responsible for unethical experiments in which he used twenty-two Harvard undergraduates as research subjects. Among other goals, experiments sought to measure individuals' responses to extreme stress. The unwitting undergraduates were submitted to what Murray called "vehement, sweeping and personally abusive" attacks. Specifically tailored assaults to their egos, cherished ideas, and beliefs were used to cause high levels of stress and distress . The subjects then viewed recorded footage of their reactions to this verbal abuse repeatedly. Among

730-548: A classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement. Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly. Henry Murray Henry Alexander Murray (May 13, 1893 – June 23, 1988)

876-545: A conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. These neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been shown to be related to neuroplasticity in many cortical regions. Evidence also exists that dopamine is activated at similar times. There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning. Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto frontal cortex regions. Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dense even in

1022-654: A consultant for the British Government, setting up the Officer Selection Board. Murray's work at The Harvard Psychological Clinic enabled him to apply his theories in the design of the selection processes with a "situation test", an assessment based on practical tasks and activities, an analysis of specific criteria (e.g. "leadership") by a number of raters across a range of activities. Results were pooled to achieve an overall assessment. During World War II , he left Harvard and worked as lieutenant colonel for

1168-415: A craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters. In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when

1314-468: A drug is self-administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological dependence (e.g., anhedonia , restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of drug withdrawal . Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of

1460-638: A factor underlying gambling addiction. Human beings have an innate resistance to killing and are reluctant to act in a direct, aggressive way towards members of their own species, even to save life. This resistance to killing has caused infantry to be remarkably inefficient throughout the history of military warfare. This phenomenon was not understood until S.L.A. Marshall (Brigadier General and military historian) undertook interview studies of WWII infantry immediately following combat engagement. Marshall's well-known and controversial book, Men Against Fire, revealed that only 15% of soldiers fired their rifles with

1606-432: A food tray instead of retrieving those pellets. In this procedure, retrieval of the pellets always instituted a one-minute period of extinction during which no additional food pellets were available but those that had been accumulated earlier could be consumed. This finding appears to contradict the usual finding that rats behave impulsively in situations in which there is a choice between a smaller food object right away and

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1752-494: A framework for understanding the role of social factors in depression and for developing interventions that promote positive behaviors and attitudes. Social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes and beliefs of others in promoting health behaviors. Promoting positive and healthy habits is a big part of an educator's and even a social worker's job. Teachers are expected to teach their students how to behave in class. For example, if

1898-415: A global reinforcement signal to postsynaptic neurons ." This allows recently activated synapses to increase their sensitivity to efferent (conducting outward) signals, thus increasing the probability of occurrence for the recent responses that preceded the reinforcement. These responses are, statistically, the most likely to have been the behavior responsible for successfully achieving reinforcement. But when

2044-433: A great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. The following are some examples. Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence . An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding ; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it

2190-403: A larger food object after some delay. See schedules of reinforcement . The first scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in ways that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong and by R.T. Richardson. They showed that nucleus basalis neurons, which release acetylcholine broadly throughout the cerebral cortex , are activated shortly after

2336-544: A model can bring forth new ways of thinking and behaving. With a modeled emotional experience, the observer shows an affinity toward people, places and objects. They dislike what the models do not like and like what the models care about. Television helps contribute to how viewers see their social reality. "Media representations gain influence because people's social constructions of reality depend heavily on what they see, hear and read rather than what they experience directly". Any effort to change beliefs must be directed toward

2482-399: A more complex, nuanced understanding of the development and maintenance of presenting problems. Many classroom and teaching strategies draw on principles of social learning to enhance students' knowledge acquisition and retention. For example, using the technique of guided participation, a teacher says a phrase and asks the class to repeat the phrase. Thus, students both imitate and reproduce

2628-620: A multifaceted framework that extends beyond traditional behavioral conditioning. Social learning theory can be integrated with various therapeutic models and lends itself to a wide range of practical techniques and interventions. For example, therapists in many therapeutic approaches utilize modeling, where clients observe and learn from the therapist's behaviors and response patterns. Techniques such as behavioral rehearsal, role-playing, and social skills training empower clients to acquire new behaviors and enhance their coping mechanisms in various situations. Additionally, social learning theory underscores

2774-437: A neutral CS (conditioned stimulus) is paired with the aversive US (unconditioned stimulus); this idea underlies the two-factor theory of avoidance learning described below. In free-operant avoidance a subject periodically receives an aversive stimulus (often an electric shock) unless an operant response is made; the response delays the onset of the shock. In this situation, unlike discriminated avoidance, no prior stimulus signals

2920-534: A person who has played several sports develops a generalized expectancy concerning how they will do in an athletic setting. This is also termed freedom of movement. Generalized expectancies become increasingly stable as we accumulate experience, eventually taking on a trait-like consistency. Similarly, we generalize across related reinforcers, developing what Rotter termed need values. These needs (which resemble those described by Henry Murray ) are another major determinant of behavior. Generalized expectancies and needs are

3066-424: A reinterpretation of psychoanalytic theory in terms of stimulus-response. This led to their book, Social Learning and Imitation , published in 1941, which posited that personality consisted of learned habits. They used Hull's drive theory , where a drive is a need that stimulates a behavioral response, crucially conceiving a drive for imitation, which was positively reinforced by social interaction and widespread as

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3212-408: A result. This was the first use of the term 'social learning', but Miller and Dollard did not consider their ideas to be separate from Hullian learning theory, only a possible refinement. Nor did they follow up on their original ideas with a sustained research program. Julian B. Rotter , a professor at Ohio State University , published his book, Social Learning and Clinical Psychology in 1954. This

3358-411: A schedule of reinforcement. Noncontingent reinforcement is the delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism's behavior. Noncontingent reinforcement may be used in an attempt to reduce an undesired target behavior by reinforcing multiple alternative responses while extinguishing the target response. As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding

3504-460: A set of agents with their own memory and their social learning with the knowledge in the social sharing library. It has been used for solving continuous optimization , integer programming , and combinatorial optimization problems. There also several mathematical models of social learning which try to model this phenomenon using probabilistic tools. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning , also called instrumental conditioning ,

3650-433: A social worker might provide feedback and reinforcement for a client who has made progress toward a goal, such as maintaining sobriety. Social learning provides a useful framework for social workers to help their clients make positive changes by leveraging the power of social influence and modeling. Social learning theory has been explained and shown in many different examples. Depression in social learning can be discussed in

3796-572: A soldier's behavior. Other improvements to military training methods have included the timed firing course; more realistic training; high repetitions; praise from superiors; marksmanship rewards; and group recognition. Negative reinforcement includes peer accountability or the requirement to retake courses. Modern military training conditions mid-brain response to combat pressure by closely simulating actual combat, using mainly Pavlovian classical conditioning and Skinnerian operant conditioning (both forms of behaviorism ). Modern marksmanship training

3942-418: A specific action or task, usually for the purpose of entertainment, and then sharing the video with their online community. According to Bandura's social learning theory, people learn new behaviors by observing and imitating the actions of others. In the case of viral challenges, individuals watch others perform a specific task and then "imitate" the behavior by completing the challenge themselves. For example,

4088-536: A specific element of a person's life can be studied through psychology, this studied episode gives an incomplete picture of the entire life unit. To properly analyze the entire life cycle, Murray favored a narrative approach to studying personality, which he called "personology". The personological system has been used as an approach for multiple academic disciplines: philosophy, humanism, biological chemistry, and societal and cultural studies. Murray divided personology into five principles: (1) Cerebral physiology, rooted in

4234-582: A teacher desires students to be quiet while they are talking, they have to teach them that when the teacher is talking they should be quiet. The teachers are also expected to teach them how to role play and tell stories and also do classroom activities. Another example is peer led health programs they can effectively promote health behaviors among adolescents and young adults by using social learning behaviors and attitudes and provide social support for positive changes. Community based interventions can use Social learning theory principles to promote healthy behaviors at

4380-455: A total of four consequences: Schedules of reinforcement are rules that control the delivery of reinforcement. The rules specify either the time that reinforcement is to be made available, or the number of responses to be made, or both. Many rules are possible, but the following are the most basic and commonly used The effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment can be changed. Most of these factors serve biological functions. For example,

4526-402: A variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever-pulling behavior in gamblers. The variable ratio payoff from slot machines and other forms of gambling has often been cited as

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4672-924: A variety of socially significant behaviors and issues. In many cases, practitioners use operant techniques to develop constructive, socially acceptable behaviors to replace aberrant behaviors. The techniques of ABA have been effectively applied in to such things as early intensive behavioral interventions for children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research on the principles influencing criminal behavior , HIV prevention, conservation of natural resources, education, gerontology , health and exercise , industrial safety , language acquisition , littering, medical procedures , parenting, psychotherapy , seatbelt use, severe mental disorders , sports, substance abuse , phobias , pediatric feeding disorders, and zoo management and care of animals . Some of these applications are among those described below. Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors

4818-479: A variety of ways. For example, a person with depression may withdraw from social situations and avoid interacting with others. They may feel like they don't have anything to contribute to conversations or others won't understand them. Depression can make it difficult for people to find the motivation to engage in social activities. They may also feel like it takes too much energy to interact with others, and they would rather stay home alone. Social learning theory provides

4964-664: A younger brother. Carver and Scheier note that "he got on well with his father but had a poor relationship with his mother", resulting in a deep-seated feeling of depression. They hypothesize that the disruption of this relationship led Murray to be especially aware of people's needs and their importance as underlying determinants of behavior. After Groton School he attended Harvard University , where he majored in history while competing in football , rowing and boxing . His academic pursuits at Harvard were lacking, but at Columbia University he excelled in medicine and completed his M.D. and also received an M.A. in biology in 1919. For

5110-782: Is Miguel Sabido a creative writer/producer/director in the 1970s at the Mexican national television system, Televisa. Sabido spent eight years working on a method that would create social change and is known as the Sabido Method. He credits Albert Bandura 's social learning theory, the drama theory of Eric Bentley , Carl Jung 's theory of archetypes, MacLean's triune brain theory and Sabido's own soap opera theory for influencing his method. Sabido's method has been used worldwide to address social issues such as national literacy, population growth and health concerns such as HIV. Social Learning Theory has significantly influenced psychotherapy, providing

5256-529: Is "wanted" or "desired"), so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use – become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug. These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become conditioned positive reinforcers of continued use. Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues,

5402-442: Is a learning process where voluntary behaviors are modified by association with the addition (or removal) of reward or aversive stimuli. The frequency or duration of the behavior may increase through reinforcement or decrease through punishment or extinction . Operant conditioning originated with Edward Thorndike , whose law of effect theorised that behaviors arise as a result of consequences as satisfying or discomforting. In

5548-407: Is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child). In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of

5694-428: Is addressed by several theories of avoidance (see below). Two kinds of experimental settings are commonly used: discriminated and free-operant avoidance learning. A discriminated avoidance experiment involves a series of trials in which a neutral stimulus such as a light is followed by an aversive stimulus such as a shock. After the neutral stimulus appears an operant response such as a lever press prevents or terminate

5840-567: Is an important part of the personological system. and developed while personality theory in psychology was becoming dominated by the statistics of trait theory. Personology was a holistic approach that studied the person at many levels of complexity all at the same time by an interdisciplinary team of investigators. According to Murray's ideas, an individual's personality develops dynamically as each person responds to complex elements in her or his specific environment. Murray viewed an individual's entire life as one unit, and pointed out that although

5986-467: Is called "the price elasticity of demand." Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other everyday consumables may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers. As stated earlier in this article,

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6132-408: Is dependent on how strongly that grade is linked (in the subjective belief system of the student) with other outcomes – which might include parental praise, graduation with honors, offers of more prestigious jobs upon graduation, etc. – and the extent to which those other outcomes are themselves valued. Rotter's social learning theory also generated many suggestions for clinical practice. Psychotherapy

6278-520: Is entirely possible that no one intentionally sat down to use operant conditioning or behavior modification techniques to train soldiers in this area…But from the standpoint of a psychologist who is also a historian and a career soldier, it has become increasingly obvious to me that this is exactly what has been achieved. Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science , political theory and economics which argues that indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence

6424-428: Is expanded through the idea of behavioral chains, which are sequences of responses bound together by the three-term contingencies defined above. Chaining is based on the fact, experimentally demonstrated, that a discriminative stimulus not only sets the occasion for subsequent behavior, but it can also reinforce a behavior that precedes it. That is, a discriminative stimulus is also a "conditioned reinforcer". For example,

6570-429: Is expressed. Social learning theory proposes that rewards are not the sole force behind creating motivation. Thoughts, beliefs, morals, and feedback all help to motivate us. Three other ways in which we learn are vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Modeling, or the scenario in which we see someone's behaviors and adopt them as our own, aide the learning process as well as mental states and

6716-481: Is homosexual has probably developed (a) from the fact that he does show so many feminine characteristics, and (b) from the fact that there were so many homosexuals in the Party during the early days and many continue to occupy important positions. It is probably true that Hitler calls Albert Forster 'Bubi', which is a common nickname employed by homosexuals in addressing their partners." In 1947, he returned to Harvard as

6862-545: Is learned in both social and nonsocial situations through combinations of direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, explicit instruction, and observation. Both the probability of being exposed to certain behaviors and the nature of the reinforcement are dependent on group norms. In her book Theories of Developmental Psychology , Patricia H. Miller lists both moral development and gender-role development as important areas of research within social learning theory. Social learning theorists emphasize observable behavior regarding

7008-449: Is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior. Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance, but also in the study of work performance. Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as

7154-430: Is modified. These terms are defined by their effect on behavior. "Positive" and "negative" refer to whether a stimulus was added or removed, respectively. Similarly, "reinforcement" and "punishment" refer to the future frequency of the behavior. Reinforcement describes a consequence that makes a behavior occur more often in the future, whereas punishment is a consequence that makes a behavior occur less often. There are

7300-641: Is not fixed and it can change and progress, and (5) Each person has some unique characteristics and others which are shared by everyone. Murray's theory of personality is rooted in psychoanalysis, and the chief business and aim of personology is the reconstruction of the individual's past life experiences in order to explain their present behavior. To study personality, Murray used free association and dream analysis to bring unconscious material to light. Murray's personality theories have been questioned by some psychologists, and extended by others, such as David McClelland . Murray's identification of psychological needs,

7446-424: Is not necessary to maintain avoidance behavior. Some theorists suggest that avoidance behavior may simply be a special case of operant behavior maintained by its consequences. In this view the idea of "consequences" is expanded to include sensitivity to a pattern of events. Thus, in avoidance, the consequence of a response is a reduction in the rate of aversive stimulation. Indeed, experimental evidence suggests that

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7592-403: Is possible to enter numerical values if one is conducting an experiment. Rotter's 1954 book contains the results of many such experiments demonstrating this and other principles. Importantly, both expectancies and reinforcement values generalize. After many experiences ('learning trials', in behaviorist language) a person will develop a generalized expectancy for success in a domain. For example,

7738-601: Is referred to as the Father of operant conditioning, and his work is frequently cited in connection with this topic. His 1938 book "The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis", initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Following the ideas of Ernst Mach , Skinner rejected Thorndike's reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on observable behavior and its equally observable consequences. Skinner believed that classical conditioning

7884-469: Is repeatedly followed by reinforcement, and in consequence the animal begins to respond to the stimulus. For example, a response key is lighted and then food is presented. When this is repeated a few times a pigeon subject begins to peck the key even though food comes whether the bird pecks or not. Similarly, rats begin to handle small objects, such as a lever, when food is presented nearby. Strikingly, pigeons and rats persist in this behavior even when pecking

8030-687: Is shaped by subjective processes, the rationale behind the Thematic apperception test . They used the term "apperception" to refer to the process of projecting fantasy imagery onto an objective stimulus. In 1937, Murray became director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic. In 1938 he published Explorations in Personality , a classic in psychology, which includes a description of the Thematic Apperception Test. In 1938 Murray acted as

8176-540: Is such an excellent example of behaviorism that it has been used for years in the introductory psychology course taught to all cadets at the US Military Academy at West Point as a classic example of operant conditioning. In the 1980s, during a visit to West Point, B.F. Skinner identified modern military marksmanship training as a near-perfect application of operant conditioning. Lt. Col. Dave Grossman states about operant conditioning and US Military training that: It

8322-406: Is symbolic modeling and has a formula with three sets of characters with the cultural value that is to be examined is determined ahead of time: Within this formula there are at least three doubters that represent the demographic group within the target population. One of these doubters will accept the value less than halfway through, the second will accept the value two-thirds of the way through and

8468-506: Is the "In My Feelings" challenge, which took place on social media in the summer of 2018. The challenge involved people dancing to Drake's song "In My Feelings" alongside a moving car and sharing the video online. The challenge was initially started by Instagram user @theshiggyshow and quickly gained popularity across social media platforms. These examples demonstrate how the social learning theory can be applied to real-world phenomena, with individuals learning and imitating new behaviors through

8614-437: Is the concept of reciprocal determinism . This notion states that just as an individual's behavior is influenced by the environment, the environment is also influenced by the individual's behavior. In other words, a person's behavior, environment, and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each other. For example, a child who plays violent video games will likely influence their peers to play as well, which then encourages

8760-632: The Murray's system of needs , including Achievement, Affiliation and Power (1938) provided the theoretical basis for the later research of David McClelland and underpins development of competency-based models of management effectiveness such as Richard Boyatzis 's. McClelland, Boyatzis and Spencer went on to found the McBer Consultancy. However, Murray's contribution is rarely acknowledged in contemporary academic literature. Explorations in Personality underlying principles were later adopted by AT&T in

8906-905: The Office of Strategic Services (OSS). James Miller, in charge of the selection of secret agents at the OSS during World War II, said the situation test was used by British War Officer Selection Board and OSS to assess potential agents. In 1943 Murray helped complete Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler , commissioned by OSS boss Gen. William "Wild Bill" Donovan . The report was done in collaboration with psychoanalyst Walter C. Langer , Ernst Kris, New School for Social Research , and Bertram D. Lewin , New York Psychoanalytic Institute . The report used many sources to profile Hitler , including informants such as Ernst Hanfstaengl , Hermann Rauschning , Princess Stephanie von Hohenlohe , Gregor Strasser , Friedelind Wagner , and Kurt Ludecke . The groundbreaking study

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9052-423: The (aversive) stimulation of bright light in one's eyes. (This is an example of negative reinforcement, defined above.) Behavior that is maintained by preventing a stimulus is called "avoidance," as, for example, putting on sun glasses before going outdoors. Avoidance behavior raises the so-called "avoidance paradox", for, it may be asked, how can the non-occurrence of a stimulus serve as a reinforcer? This question

9198-410: The 20th century, operant conditioning was studied by behavioral psychologists , who believed that much of mind and behaviour is explained through environmental conditioning. Reinforcements are environmental stimuli that increase behaviors, whereas punishments are stimuli that decrease behaviors. Both kinds of stimuli can be further categorised into positive and negative stimuli, which respectively involve

9344-545: The ALS Ice Bucket Challenge, which went viral in the summer of 2014, involved people dumping a bucket of ice water over their heads to raise awareness for ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) and then challenging others to do the same. The challenge quickly spread across social media platforms, with celebrities and politicians also participating, and raised over $ 115 million for the ALS Association. Another example

9490-552: The CS and the US through classical conditioning and, because of the aversive nature of the US, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned emotional reaction (CER) – "fear." b) Reinforcement of the operant response by fear-reduction. As a result of the first process, the CS now signals fear; this unpleasant emotional reaction serves to motivate operant responses, and responses that terminate the CS are reinforced by fear termination. The theory does not say that

9636-653: The Medical School, to introduce psychoanalysis into the Harvard curriculum but to keep those who taught it away from the decision-making apparatus in Vienna. He and Cobb set the stage for the founding of the Boston Psychoanalytic Society after 1931, but both were excluded from membership on political grounds. In 1935, Murray and Morgan developed the concept of apperception and the assumption that everyone's thinking

9782-604: The Unabomber bombings, stating that throughout the study, he only had one unpleasant experience for just 30 minutes. In 1960, Timothy Leary started research in psychedelic drugs at Harvard, which Murray is said to have supervised. Some sources have suggested that Murray's experiments were part of, or indemnified by, the United States government's research into mind control, known as the MKUltra project. In 1962, shortly after

9928-458: The acquisition of new responses relied on the process of successive approximation, which required multiple trials, reinforcement for components of behavior, and gradual change. Rotter's theory proposed that the likelihood of a behavior occurring was a function of the subjective expectancy and value of the reinforcement. According to Bandura, this model did not account for a response that had not yet been learned – though this contention does not address

10074-507: The acquisition of these two skills. For gender-role development, the same-sex parent provides only one of many models from which the individual learns gender-roles. Social learning theory also emphasizes the variable nature of moral development due to the changing social circumstances of each decision: "The particular factors the child thinks are important vary from situation to situation, depending on variables such as which situational factors are operating, which causes are most salient, and what

10220-404: The addition or removal of environmental stimuli. Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning , which is a process where stimuli are paired with biologically significant events to produce involuntary and reflexive behaviors. In contrast, operant conditioning is voluntary and depends on the consequences of a behavior. The study of animal learning in the 20th century was dominated by

10366-414: The age of 33, Murray became assistant director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic. He developed the concepts of latent needs (not openly displayed), manifest needs (observed in people's actions), "press" (external influences on motivation) and "thema"—"a pattern of press and need that coalesces around particular interactions". Murray collaborated with Stanley Cobb , Bullard Professor of Neuropathology at

10512-536: The age of 95. Murray was a leading authority on the works of American author Herman Melville and amassed a collection of books, manuscripts and artifacts relating to Melville which he donated to the Berkshire Athenaeum in Pittsfield, Massachusetts . Murray's Theory of Personality, also called personology , is explained in his book, Explorations in Personality , written in 1938. Murray's system of needs

10658-478: The analysis of these two sorts of learning, and they are still at the core of behavior analysis. They have also been applied to the study of social psychology , helping to clarify certain phenomena such as the false consensus effect . Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental learning , was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949), who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home-made puzzle boxes. A cat could escape from

10804-402: The application of reinforcement is either less immediate or less contingent (less consistent), the ability of dopamine to act upon the appropriate synapses is reduced. A number of observations seem to show that operant behavior can be established without reinforcement in the sense defined above. Most cited is the phenomenon of autoshaping (sometimes called "sign tracking"), in which a stimulus

10950-405: The autoshaping procedure has, in fact, become one of the most common ways to measure classical conditioning. In this view, many behaviors can be influenced by both classical contingencies (stimulus-response) and operant contingencies (response-reinforcement), and the experimenter's task is to work out how these interact. Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and

11096-416: The aversive stimulus. In early trials, the subject does not make the response until the aversive stimulus has come on, so these early trials are called "escape" trials. As learning progresses, the subject begins to respond during the neutral stimulus and thus prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring. Such trials are called "avoidance trials." This experiment is said to involve classical conditioning because

11242-480: The basic findings from which Skinner developed his account of operant conditioning. He also drew on many less formal observations of human and animal behavior. Many of Skinner's writings are devoted to the application of operant conditioning to human behavior. In 1948 he published Walden Two , a fictional account of a peaceful, happy, productive community organized around his conditioning principles. In 1957, Skinner published Verbal Behavior , which extended

11388-676: The box by a simple response such as pulling a cord or pushing a pole, but when first constrained, the cats took a long time to get out. With repeated trials ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, so the cats escaped more and more quickly. Thorndike generalized this finding in his law of effect , which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In short, some consequences strengthen behavior and some consequences weaken behavior. By plotting escape time against trial number Thorndike produced

11534-427: The brain, governs all aspects of personality. (2) People act to reduce physiological and psychological tension to gain satisfaction, but do not strive to be tension-free, and rather cycle between seeking excitement, activity and movement in their lives and then relaxing. (3) An individual's personality continues to develop over time and is influenced by all of the events that occur over a person's lifetime. (4) Personality

11680-403: The child processes cognitively. Moral judgments involve a complex process of considering and weighing various criteria in a given social situation." For social learning theory, gender development has to do with the interactions of numerous social factors, involving all the interactions the individual encounters. For social learning theory, biological factors are important but take a back seat to

11826-412: The child to play more often. Social Learning Theory draws heavily on the concept of modeling as described above. Bandura outlined three types of modeling stimuli: Exactly what information is gleaned from observation is influenced by the type of model, as well as a series of cognitive and behavioral processes, including: Social Learning Theory has more recently applied alongside and been used to justify

11972-412: The clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this article, a few of the most salient are the following: (a) availability of primary reinforcement (e.g. a bag of dog yummies); (b) the use of secondary reinforcement, (e.g. sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response, then giving yummy); (c) contingency, assuring that reinforcement (e.g.

12118-449: The clicker) follows the desired behavior and not something else; (d) shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; (e) intermittent reinforcement, as in gradually reducing the frequency of reinforcement to induce persistent behavior without satiation; (f) chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually constructed from smaller units. Applied behavior analysis is the discipline initiated by B. F. Skinner that applies

12264-581: The cognitive process. Principles of social learning theory have been applied extensively to the study of media violence. Akers and Burgess hypothesized that observed or experienced positive rewards and lack of punishment for aggressive behaviors reinforces aggression. Many research studies and meta-analyses have discovered significant correlations between viewing violent television and aggression later in life and many have not, as well as playing violent video games and aggressive behaviors. The role of observational learning has also been cited as an important factor in

12410-573: The community levels. Addiction is related to the social learning theory as it emphasizes the role of social influences and reinforces the development and maintenance of addictive behaviors. The social learning theory suggests that people learn and adopt behaviors through observation, experience, and reinforcement from social interactions with others. In the case of addiction, individuals may learn and adopt substance use behaviors from peers, family members, or media exposure, and through positive reinforcement such as pleasure or relief from stress. Additionally,

12556-836: The death of his wife, Murray became emeritus professor, and earned the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the American Psychological Association and the Gold Medal Award for lifetime achievement from the American Psychological Foundation . He later married Caroline "Nina" Fish, a child psychologist at Boston University and the Massachusetts Mental Health Center who was a former student of Jean Piaget . Murray died from pneumonia at

12702-400: The desired final (or "target") behavior. Next, the trainer chooses a behavior that the animal or person already emits with some probability. The form of this behavior is then gradually changed across successive trials by reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior more and more closely. When the target behavior is finally emitted, it may be strengthened and maintained by the use of

12848-495: The development of the Assessment Centre methodology, now widely used to assess management potential in both private and public sector organisations. However, Murray's legacy is also marked by the ethical concerns raised regarding the Harvard experiments he conducted between 1959 and 1962. These experiments, which involved subjecting undergraduate students, including Ted Kaczynski, to significant psychological stress, have been

12994-421: The effectiveness and efficiency of the social learning algorithm, which has in turn also verified through computer simulations the outcomes of the social learning behavior in human society. Another example is the social cognitive optimization , which is a population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm. This algorithm is based on the social cognitive theory , simulating the process of individual learning of

13140-529: The first known animal learning curves through this procedure. Humans appear to learn many simple behaviors through the sort of process studied by Thorndike, now called operant conditioning. That is, responses are retained when they lead to a successful outcome and discarded when they do not, or when they produce aversive effects. This usually happens without being planned by any "teacher", but operant conditioning has been used by parents in teaching their children for thousands of years. B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)

13286-442: The focus on internal functioning and traits differentiated his theories, and can be seen as a precursor to more cognitive approaches to learning. Rotter's theory is also known as expectancy-value theory due to its central explanatory constructs. Expectancy is defined as the individual's subjectively held probability that a given action will lead to a given outcome. It can range from zero to one, with one representing 100% confidence in

13432-452: The following two years he was an instructor in physiology at Harvard. He received his doctorate in biochemistry from the University of Cambridge in 1928, aged 35. In 1916, Murray married at age 23 to Josephine Lee Rantoul. In 1923, after seven years of marriage, he met and fell in love with Christiana Morgan ; he experienced a serious conflict as he did not want to leave his wife. This

13578-551: The human mirror neuron system activating when observing another person perform a physical task. The activation of the mirror neuron system is thought to be critical for the understanding of goal directed behaviors and understanding their intention. Although still controversial, this provides a direct neurological link to understanding social cognition. In social work, some theories can be taken from many disciplines, such as criminology and education. Even though social learning theory comes from psychology, this theory can also be applied to

13724-516: The idea that we have selected for methods of social learning. Some academics have suggested that our ability to learn socially and culturally have led to our success as a species. Recent research in neuroscience has implicated mirror neurons as a neurophysiology basis for social learning, observational learning , motor cognition and social cognition . Mirror neurons have been heavily linked to social learning in humans. Mirror neurons were first discovered in primates in studies which involved teaching

13870-414: The importance of learned, observable behavior. Because of the highly gendered society in which an individual might develop, individuals begin to distinguish people by gender even as infants. Bandura's account of gender allows for more than cognitive factors in predicting gendered behavior: for Bandura, motivational factors and a broad network of social influences determine if, when, and where gender knowledge

14016-433: The key or pressing the lever leads to less food (omission training). Another apparent operant behavior that appears without reinforcement is contrafreeloading . These observations and others appear to contradict the law of effect , and they have prompted some researchers to propose new conceptualizations of operant reinforcement (e.g. ) A more general view is that autoshaping is an instance of classical conditioning ;

14162-399: The light that sets the occasion for lever pressing may be used to reinforce "turning around" in the presence of a noise. This results in the sequence "noise – turn-around – light – press lever – food". Much longer chains can be built by adding more stimuli and responses. In escape learning, a behavior terminates an (aversive) stimulus. For example, shielding one's eyes from sunlight terminates

14308-401: The likelihood that a given action will be performed. The nature of the interaction is not specified, though Rotter suggests that it is likely to be multiplicative. The basic predictive equation is: B P = f ( E & R V ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {BP} =f(\mathrm {E\&RV} )} Where: Although the equation is essentially conceptual, it

14454-436: The likelihood that generalization from related situations would produce behaviors in new ones. Bandura went on to write the book Social Learning Theory in 1977. Social Learning Theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning in order to provide a comprehensive model that could account for the wide range of learning experiences that occur in the real world. As initially outlined by Bandura and Walters in 1963,

14600-517: The major personality variables in Rotter's theory. The influence of a generalized expectancy will be greatest when encountering novel, unfamiliar situations. As experience is gained, specific expectancies are developed regarding that situation. For example, a person's generalized expectancy for success in sports will have less influence on their actions in a sport with which they have long experience. Another conceptual equation in Rotter's theory proposes that

14746-488: The monkey motor activity tasks. One such study focused on teaching primates to crack nuts with a hammer. When the primate witnessed another individual cracking nuts with a hammer, the mirror neuron systems became activated as the primate learned to use the hammer to crack nuts. However, when the primate was not presented with a social learning opportunity, the mirror neuron systems did not activate and learning did not occur. Similar studies with humans also show similar evidence to

14892-410: The motives, incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively – if not more effectively – than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement. The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior

15038-522: The observation of others on social media platforms. Social learning theory has been used to explain the emergence and maintenance of deviant behavior , especially aggression. Criminologists Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess integrated the principles of social learning theory and operant conditioning with Edwin Sutherland 's differential association theory to create a comprehensive theory of criminal behavior. Burgess and Akers emphasized that criminal behavior

15184-485: The occasion for responses that produce reward or punishment. Example: a rat may be trained to press a lever only when a light comes on; a dog rushes to the kitchen when it hears the rattle of his/her food bag; a child reaches for candy when s/he sees it on a table. Most behavior is under stimulus control. Several aspects of this may be distinguished: Most behavior cannot easily be described in terms of individual responses reinforced one by one. The scope of operant analysis

15330-428: The opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when dopamine activity is high. A neurochemical process involving dopamine has been suggested to underlie reinforcement. When an organism experiences a reinforcing stimulus, dopamine pathways in the brain are activated. This network of pathways "releases a short pulse of dopamine onto many dendrites , thus broadcasting

15476-542: The organism "avoids" the US in the sense of anticipating it, but rather that the organism "escapes" an aversive internal state that is caused by the CS. Several experimental findings seem to run counter to two-factor theory. For example, avoidance behavior often extinguishes very slowly even when the initial CS-US pairing never occurs again, so the fear response might be expected to extinguish (see Classical conditioning ). Further, animals that have learned to avoid often show little evidence of fear, suggesting that escape from fear

15622-591: The origins of presenting problems. Presenting problems are often conceptualized as behaviors and coping mechanisms that can be transmitted across generations through observational learning and operant conditioning. Frequently, issues are rooted in learned behaviors and coping strategies acquired through observation and modeling. Social learning theory enriches psychotherapy by providing a holistic perspective that encompasses historical context, cultural considerations, family dynamics and interpersonal relationships, and intergenerational patterns. These allow therapists to have

15768-480: The outcome. For example, a person may entertain a given level of belief that they can make a foul shot in basketball or that an additional hour of study will improve their grade on an examination. Reinforcement value is defined as the individual's subjective preference for a given outcome, assuming that all possible outcomes were equally available. In other words, the two variables are independent of each other. These two variables interact to generate behavior potential, or

15914-411: The position of observer, the teacher can make knowledge and practices explicit to students, enhancing their learning outcomes. In modern field of computational intelligence, the social learning theory is adopted to develop a new computer optimization algorithm, the social learning algorithm. Emulating the observational learning and reinforcement behaviors, a virtual society deployed in the algorithm seeks

16060-423: The posterior cortical regions like the primary visual cortex . A study of patients with Parkinson's disease , a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement. It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on their medication showed

16206-443: The principles of conditioning to the modification of socially significant human behavior. It uses the basic concepts of conditioning theory, including conditioned stimulus (S ), discriminative stimulus (S ), response (R), and reinforcing stimulus (S or S for reinforcers, sometimes S for aversive stimuli). Practitioners of applied behavior analysis (ABA) bring these procedures, and many variations and developments of them, to bear on

16352-399: The principles of operant conditioning to language, a form of human behavior that had previously been analyzed quite differently by linguists and others. Skinner defined new functional relationships such as "mands" and "tacts" to capture some essentials of language, but he introduced no new principles, treating verbal behavior like any other behavior controlled by its consequences, which included

16498-555: The process of language acquisition, an argument that contributed significantly to psychology's cognitive revolution . He theorized that "human beings are somehow specially designed to" understand and acquire language, ascribing a definite but unknown cognitive mechanism to it. Within this context, Albert Bandura studied learning processes that occurred in interpersonal contexts and were not, in his view, adequately explained either by theories of operant conditioning or by existing models of social learning. Bandura began to conduct studies of

16644-540: The process of satiation helps the organism maintain a stable internal environment ( homeostasis ). When an organism has been deprived of sugar, for example, the taste of sugar is an effective reinforcer. When the organism's blood sugar reaches or exceeds an optimum level the taste of sugar becomes less effective or even aversive. Shaping is a conditioning method often used in animal training and in teaching nonverbal humans. It depends on operant variability and reinforcement, as described above. The trainer starts by identifying

16790-531: The profound influence of culture on human development, and posits that cultural norms, values, and social contexts significantly shape individual development. Therapists must assess for the influence of culture in understanding their clients and adapt interventions to align with clients cultural backgrounds. In systemic therapy, such as couples or family therapy, social learning theory assists therapists in identifying intergenerational patterns of behavior. Systemic therapists may assist clients in gaining insights into

16936-830: The purpose of killing in combat. Following acceptance of Marshall's research by the US Army in 1946, the Human Resources Research Office of the US Army began implementing new training protocols which resemble operant conditioning methods. Subsequent applications of such methods increased the percentage of soldiers able to kill to around 50% in Korea and over 90% in Vietnam. Revolutions in training included replacing traditional pop-up firing ranges with three-dimensional, man-shaped, pop-up targets which collapsed when hit. This provided immediate feedback and acted as positive reinforcement for

17082-497: The rapid acquisition of novel behaviors via social observation, the most famous of which were the Bobo doll experiments (1961-63). In their 1963 book Social Learning and Personality Development , Bandura and Richard Walters argued that "the weaknesses of learning approaches that discount the influence of social variables are nowhere more clearly revealed than in their treatment of the acquisition of novel responses." Skinner's explanation of

17228-437: The reactions of the speaker's audience. Operant behavior is said to be "emitted"; that is, initially it is not elicited by any particular stimulus. Thus one may ask why it happens in the first place. The answer to this question is like Darwin's answer to the question of the origin of a "new" bodily structure, namely, variation and selection. Similarly, the behavior of an individual varies from moment to moment, in such aspects as

17374-440: The rise of rating systems for TV, movies, and video games. Entertainment-education in the form of a telenovela or soap opera can help viewers learn socially desired behaviors in a positive way from models portrayed in these programs. The telenovela format allows the creators to incorporate elements that can bring a desired response. These elements may include music, actors, melodrama, props or costumes. Entertainment education

17520-544: The shock. Two crucial time intervals determine the rate of avoidance learning. This first is the S-S (shock-shock) interval. This is time between successive shocks in the absence of a response. The second interval is the R-S (response-shock) interval. This specifies the time by which an operant response delays the onset of the next shock. Each time the subject performs the operant response, the R-S interval without shock begins anew. This theory

17666-445: The small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations"). Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences consumption

17812-444: The social learning algorithm can improve the efficiency of the algorithms mimicking natural evolution. Second, compared with the interaction and learning behaviors in animal groups, the social learning process of human beings exhibits a higher level of intelligence. By emulating human learning behaviors, it is possible to arrive at more effective optimizers than existing swarm intelligence algorithms. Experimental results have demonstrated

17958-483: The social learning theory highlights the importance of social context in reinforcing addictive behaviors, as social situations and norms may influence the decision to engage in substance use. The social learning theory proposes that addiction is a learned behavior influenced by environmental and social factors. One modern-day example of the social learning theory in action is the phenomenon of "viral challenges" on social media. These challenges involve individuals performing

18104-426: The sociocultural norms and practices at the social system level. Before a drama is developed, extensive research is done through focus groups that represent the different sectors within a culture. Participants are asked what problems in society concern them most and what obstacles they face, giving creators of the drama culturally relevant information to incorporate into the show. The pioneer of entertainment-education

18250-402: The specific motions involved, the amount of force applied, or the timing of the response. Variations that lead to reinforcement are strengthened, and if reinforcement is consistent, the behavior tends to remain stable. However, behavioral variability can itself be altered through the manipulation of certain variables. Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools through which operant behavior

18396-506: The stimulus) to inform behavior. Bandura opens up the scope of learning mechanisms by introducing observation as a possibility. He adds to this the ability of modeling – a means by which humans "represent actual outcomes symbolically". These models, cognitively mediated, allow future consequences to have as much of an impact as actual consequences would in a typical stimulus-response theory. An important factor in Social Learning Theory

18542-420: The strongest behavioral patterns with the best outcome. This corresponds to searching for the best solution in solving optimization problems. Compared with other bio-inspired global optimization algorithms that mimic natural evolution or animal behaviors, the social learning algorithm has its prominent advantages. First, since the self-improvement through learning is more direct and rapid than the evolution process,

18688-441: The study of social work. Social learning theory is important in social work because of the observation of others. For example, if a child watches their sibling do their daily routine they are more likely going to want to copy the routine step by step. Feedback and reinforcement can help individuals learn and adopt new behaviors. Social workers can use feedback and reinforcements to help their clients make positive changes. For example,

18834-594: The subject to make one or two simple, repeatable responses, and the rate of such responses became Skinner's primary behavioral measure. Another invention, the cumulative recorder, produced a graphical record from which these response rates could be estimated. These records were the primary data that Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules. A reinforcement schedule may be defined as "any procedure that delivers reinforcement to an organism according to some well-defined rule". The effects of schedules became, in turn,

18980-505: The subjects was 17-year-old Ted Kaczynski , a mathematician who went on to become the domestic terrorist known as the 'Unabomber', who targeted academics and technologists for 17 years. Alston Chase's book Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist connects Kaczynski's abusive experiences under Murray to his later criminal career. Kaczynski himself disputed connections made between Murray's experiments and

19126-412: The teacher's action, aiding retention. An extension of guided participation is reciprocal learning, in which both student and teacher share responsibility in leading discussions. Additionally, teachers can shape the classroom behavior of students by modelling appropriate behavior and visibly rewarding students for good behavior. By emphasizing the teacher's role as model and encouraging the students to adopt

19272-667: The theory of cultural intelligence. The cultural intelligence hypothesis argues that humans possess a set of specific behaviors and skills that allow them to exchange information culturally. This hinges on a model of human learning where social learning is key, and that humans have selected for traits that maximize opportunities for social learning. The theory builds on extant social theory by suggesting that social learning abilities, like Bandura's cognitive processes required for modeling, correlate with other forms of intelligence and learning. Experimental evidence has shown that humans overimitate behavior compared to chimpanzees, lending credence to

19418-450: The theory was entirely behavioral in nature; the crucial element that made it innovative and increasingly influential was its emphasis upon the role of imitation. Over the years, however, Bandura shifted to a more cognitive perspective, and this led to a major revision of the theory in 1977. At this time, the key tenets of Social Learning Theory were stated as follows: Typical stimulus-response theories rely entirely upon direct experience (of

19564-431: The third doubter does not accept the value and is seriously punished. This doubter is usually killed. Positive social behaviors are reinforced with rewards and negative social behaviors are reinforced with punishment. At the end of the episode a short epilogue done by a recognizable figure summarizes the educational content and within the program viewers are given resources in their community. Through observational learning

19710-413: The use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement". Though initially operant behavior is emitted without an identified reference to a particular stimulus, during operant conditioning operants come under the control of stimuli that are present when behavior is reinforced. Such stimuli are called "discriminative stimuli." A so-called " three-term contingency " is the result. That is, discriminative stimuli set

19856-408: The value of a given reinforcer is a function of the expectancy that it will lead to another reinforcing outcome and the value set upon that outcome. This is important because many social reinforcers are what behaviorists term secondary reinforcers – they have no intrinsic value, but have become linked with other, primary, reinforcers. For example, the value set on obtaining a high grade on an examination

20002-536: Was a turning point in Murray's life as it raised his awareness of conflicting needs, the pressure that can result, and the links to motivation. Carver and Scheier note that it was Morgan who was "fascinated by the psychology of Carl Jung" and it was as a result of her urging that he met Carl Jung in Switzerland. He described Jung as "The first full blooded, spherical—and Goethean, I would say, intelligence I had ever met." He

20148-600: Was also a co-developer, with Christiana Morgan , of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which he referred to as "the second best-seller that Harvard ever published, second only to the Harvard Dictionary of Music ". Murray was born in New York City into a wealthy family of Henry Alexander Murray Sr. and Fannie Morris Babcock, daughter of financier Samuel Denison Babcock . Murray had an older sister and

20294-528: Was an American psychologist at Harvard University . From 1959 to 1962, he conducted a series of psychologically damaging and purposefully abusive experiments on minors and undergraduate students. One of those students was Ted Kaczynski , later known as the Unabomber. Murray was Director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic in the School of Arts and Sciences after 1930. Murray developed a theory of personality called personology, based on " need " and "press". Murray

20440-448: Was analyzed by him and studied his works. "The experience of bringing a problem to a psychologist and receiving an answer that seemed to work had a great impact on Murray, leading him to seriously consider psychology as a career". During his period at Harvard, Murray sat in on lectures by Alfred North Whitehead , whose process philosophy marked his philosophical and metaphysical thinking throughout his professional career. In 1927, at

20586-417: Was any "instinct or faculty of imitation", Skinner's behaviorist theories formed a basis for redevelopment into Social Learning Theory. At around the same time, Clark Leonard Hull , an American psychologist, was a strong proponent of behaviorist stimulus-response theories, and headed a group at Yale University 's Institute of Human Relations. Under him, Neal Miller and John Dollard aimed to come up with

20732-403: Was largely conceptualized as expectancy modification and, to some extent, as values modification. This may be seen as an early form of cognitive-behavioral therapy . In 1959, Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner 's book Verbal Behavior , an extension of Skinner's initial lectures. In his review, Chomsky stated that pure stimulus-response theories of behavior could not account for

20878-485: Was originally proposed in order to explain discriminated avoidance learning, in which an organism learns to avoid an aversive stimulus by escaping from a signal for that stimulus. Two processes are involved: classical conditioning of the signal followed by operant conditioning of the escape response: a) Classical conditioning of fear. Initially the organism experiences the pairing of a CS with an aversive US. The theory assumes that this pairing creates an association between

21024-440: Was the first extended statement of a comprehensive social learning theory. Rotter moved away from the strictly behaviorist learning of the past, and considered instead the holistic interaction between the individual and the environment. Essentially he was attempting an integration of behaviorism (which generated precise predictions but was limited in its ability to explain complex human interactions) and gestalt psychology (which did

21170-401: Was the pioneer of offender profiling and political psychology. In addition to predicting that Hitler would choose suicide if defeat for Germany was near, Murray's collaborative report stated that Hitler was impotent as far as heterosexual relations were concerned and that there was a possibility that Hitler had participated in a homosexual relationship. The report stated: "The belief that Hitler

21316-489: Was too simplistic to be used to describe something as complex as human behavior. Operant conditioning, in his opinion, better described human behavior as it examined causes and effects of intentional behavior. To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber , or " Skinner Box ", in which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated and could be exposed to carefully controlled stimuli. Unlike Thorndike's puzzle box, this arrangement allowed

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