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158-526: The city of Smyrna (modern-day İzmir ) and surrounding areas were under Greek military occupation from 15 May 1919 until 9 September 1922. The Allied Powers authorized the occupation and creation of the Zone of Smyrna ( Greek : Ζώνη Σμύρνης , romanized :  Zóni Smýrnis ) during negotiations regarding the partition of the Ottoman Empire to protect the ethnic Greek population living in and around

316-842: A Greek administration but with limited Turkish sovereignty and a 5-year limit, were included in the text of the Treaty of Sèvres agreed to on 10 August 1920. Because the treaty largely ignored the rise of nationalist forces and the ethnic tension in the Smyrna zone, Montgomery has described the Treaty of Sèvres as "stillborn". However, with the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres, the Ottoman Vali Izzet Bey handed over authority over Smyrna to Stergiadis. In October 1920, Venizelos lost his position as Prime Minister of Greece. French and Italians used this opportunity to remove their support and financial obligations to

474-539: A Greek military occupation of Smyrna. Although Smyrna would be occupied by Greek troops, authorized by the Allies, the Allies did not agree that Greece would take sovereignty over the territory until further negotiations settled this issue. The Italian delegation acquiesced to this outcome and the Greek occupation was authorized. On 14 May 1919, the Greek mission in Smyrna read a statement announcing that Greek troops would be arriving

632-684: A border that would separate the Smyrna zone from the rest of Anatolia. The council of Great Britain, France, U.S. and Italy approved the Milne line beyond which Greek troops were not to cross, except to pursue attackers but not more than 3 km beyond the line. Aristeidis Stergiadis was appointed the high commissioner of Smyrna in February and arrived in the city four days after the 15 May landing. Stergiadis immediately went to work in setting up an administration, easing ethnic violence, and making way for permanent annexation of Smyrna. Stergiadis immediately punished

790-487: A breakdown of discipline. Most significantly, this resulted in the 1/38 Evzone Regiment landing north of where they were to take up their post. They had to march south, passing a large part of the Greek celebratory crowds, the Ottoman governor's konak and the barracks of Ottoman troops. Someone other than the Greek soldiers fired a shot (Smith states that no one knows who despite multiple investigations) and chaos resulted, with

948-570: A certainty, like many of Curzon's other friends, that Curzon would inevitably become Foreign Secretary : he wrote to Curzon in 1891, 'When you are Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs I hope you will restore the vanished glory of England, lead the European concert, decide the fate of nations, and give me three months' leave instead of two'. Old texts state that he spent few months in a cottage in Dehradun, India. Though exact records are not available there

1106-533: A cult of Rome to establish a bond, and the cult eventually became widespread throughout the Roman Empire. As of 195 BC, the city of Rome started to be deified, in the cult to the goddess Roma . In this sense, the Smyrneans can be considered as the creators of the goddess Roma. In 133 BC, when the last Attalid king, Attalus III, died without an heir, his will conferred his entire kingdom, including Smyrna, to

1264-567: A destructive earthquake in 178 AD, Smyrna was rebuilt in the Roman period (2nd century AD) under the emperor Marcus Aurelius . Aelius Aristides wrote a letter to Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus , inviting them to become the new founders of the city. The bust of the emperor's wife Faustina on the second arch of the western stoa confirms this fact. Polycrates reports a succession of bishops including Polycarp of Smyrna, as well as others in nearby cities such as Melito of Sardis . Of that time,

1422-546: A few days later the Great Fire of Smyrna burnt large parts of the city (including most of the Greek and Armenian areas). Estimated Greek and Armenian deaths range from 10,000 to 100,000. With the end of the occupation of Smyrna, major combat in Anatolia between Greek and Turkish forces largely ended, and on 24 July 1923, the parties signed the Treaty of Lausanne ending the war. At the end of World War I (1914–1918), attention of

1580-559: A few would be given officer commissions in the Indian Army but these commissions were "special commissions" which did not empower their holders to command any troops. Predictably, this was a major stumbling block to the ICC's success, as it caused much resentment among former cadets. Though the ICC closed in 1914, it was a crucial stage in the drive to Indianise the Indian Army's officer corps, which

1738-424: A firm and happy marriage: Mary Irene (known as Irene), who inherited her father's Barony of Ravensdale and was created a life peer in her own right; Cynthia Blanche , who became the first wife of the fascist politician Sir Oswald Mosley ; and Alexandra Naldera ("Baba"), Curzon's youngest daughter; she married Edward "Fruity" Metcalfe , the best friend, best man and equerry of Edward VIII . Mosley exercised

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1896-656: A hereditary peer, although he later took to signing himself "Curzon of Kedleston"). A difference of opinion with Kitchener regarding the status of the military member of the Viceroy's Executive Council (who controlled army supply and logistics, which Kitchener wanted under his own control), led to a controversy in which Curzon failed to obtain the support of the home government. He resigned in August 1905 and returned to England. A major famine coincided with Curzon's time as viceroy in which 1 to 4.5 million people died. Curzon implemented

2054-400: A large crowd gathered waving the Greek kingdom flags on the docks where the Greek troops were expected to arrive. The Metropolitan of Smyrna, Chrysostomos , blessed the first troops as they arrived. An inexperienced colonel was in charge of the operation and neither the appointed high commissioner nor high-ranking military individuals were there for the landing, resulting in miscommunication and

2212-546: A meeting at Sultanahmet square organized by the Karakol society and Türk Ocağı. In Great Britain and France, the reports of violence increased opposition in the governments to a permanent Greek control over the area. As a response to the claims of violence, the French Prime Minister Clemenceau suggested an Interallied Commission of Inquiry to Smyrna: the commission was made up of Admiral Mark Lambert Bristol for

2370-661: A meeting of the parties in Sanremo which was designed to discuss mostly issues of Germany, but because of increasing power of the nationalist forces under Kemal, the discussion shifted to focus on Smyrna. French pressure and divisions within the British government resulted in Lloyd George accepting a time frame of 5 years for Greek control over Smyrna with the issue to be decided by the League of Nations at that point. These decisions, i.e. regarding

2528-686: A metal corset for the remainder of his life. Curzon was President of the Union and Secretary of the Oxford Canning Club (a Tory political club named after George Canning ), but as a consequence of the extent of his time-expenditure on political and social societies, he failed to achieve a first class degree in Greats , although he subsequently won both the Lothian Prize Essay and the Arnold Prize,

2686-457: A military administration. The Greek premier Venizelos had plans to annex Smyrna and he seemed to be realizing his objective in the Treaty of Sèvres , signed 10 August 1920. (However, this treaty was not ratified by the parties; the Treaty of Peace of Lausanne replaced it.) The occupation of Smyrna came to an end when the Turkish army of Kemal Atatürk entered the city on September 9, 1922, at

2844-447: A mission under the foreign minister in the city. Moreover, the Greek claim over the Smyrna area (which appeared to have a clear Greek majority, although exact percentages varied depending on the source) were supported by Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points which emphasized the right to autonomous development for minorities in Anatolia. In negotiations, despite French and Italian objections, by the middle of February 1919 Lloyd George shifted

3002-562: A monopoly over in the 17th century. The Armenians traded Iranian silk with European and Greek merchants in Smyrna; this trade made the Armenians very rich. Besides trade, the Armenians were involved in manufacturing, banking, and other highly productive professions. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Smyrna was an important financial and cultural center of the Greek world. Of its 391 factories, 322 belonged to local Greeks, while 3 of its 9 banks were backed by Greek capital. Education

3160-468: A neighbouring multi-storey car park , which is known to cover an important part of the ancient settlement. During the present renovations the old restorations in concrete are gradually being replaced by marble. The new excavation has uncovered the agora's northern gate. It has been concluded that embossed figures of the goddess Hestia found in these digs were a continuation of the Zeus altar uncovered during

3318-540: A number of commissions to inquire into education, irrigation, police and other branches of administration, on whose reports legislation was based during his second term of office as viceroy. Reappointed Governor-General in August 1904, he presided over the 1905 partition of Bengal . In 'Lion and the Tiger ;: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947', Denis Judd wrote: "Curzon had hoped… to bind India permanently to

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3476-507: A number of troops, entered the city and was greeted by enthusiastic Turkish crowds. Atrocities by Turkish troops and irregulars against the Greek and Armenian population occurred immediately after the takeover. Most notably, Chrysostomos, the Orthodox Bishop, was lynched by a mob of Turkish citizens. A few days afterward, a fire destroyed the Greek and Armenian quarters of the city, while the Turkish and Jewish quarters remained undamaged. On

3634-587: A policy of forceful control mingled with conciliation. In response to what he called "a number of murderous attacks upon Englishmen and Europeans", Curzon advocated at the Quetta Durbar extremely draconian punishments which he believed would stop what he viewed as such especially abominable crimes. In his own private correspondence, Curzon pondered "Is it possible, under the law, to flog these horrible scoundrels before we execute them? Supposing we remove them for execution to another and distant jail, could we flog them in

3792-520: A result of Ottoman discrimination, were resettled under Stergiadis, given generous credit, and access to farm tools. Following the Treaty of Sèvres, all sections of the Ottoman administration that dealt with issues pertaining to Muslim religion, education and family affairs were organized by the High Commission. Under this context a special polytechnic school was established in Smyrna which soon operated with 210 Muslim students and with costs covered by

3950-450: A sermon by the bishop Chrysostomos that he believed to be incendiary. Troops would disobey his orders to not abuse the Turkish population often putting him in conflict with the military. On 14 July 1919, the acting foreign secretary sent a long critical telegraph to Venizelos suggesting that Stergiadis be removed and writing that "His sick neuroticism has reached a climax." Venizelos continued to support Stergiadis despite this opposition, while

4108-421: A strain on their marriage. Letters written between them in the early 1920s imply that they still lived together, and remained devoted to each other. In 1923, Curzon was passed over for the office of Prime Minister partly on the advice of Arthur Balfour , who joked that Curzon "has lost the hope of glory but he still possesses the means of Grace" (a humorous allusion to the well known "General Thanksgiving" prayer of

4266-480: A strange fascination for the Curzon women: Irene had a brief romance with him before either were married; Baba became his mistress; and Curzon's second wife, Grace , had a long affair with him. Curzon, in 1901, had famously said, "As long as we rule India we are the greatest power in the world. If we lose it, we shall drop straightaway to a third-rate power." In January 1899 Curzon was appointed as Viceroy of India . He

4424-450: A valuable defensive buffer to India from Russian encroachment. Years later Curzon would lament that "Persia has alternatively advanced and receded in the estimation of British statesmen, occupying now a position of extravagant prominence, anon one of unmerited obscurity." On 22 April 1895, Curzon married Mary Victoria Leiter , the eldest daughter and co-heiress of Levi Leiter , an American millionaire of Swiss descent, who co-founded

4582-409: A variety of measures, including opening up famine relief works that fed between 3 and 5 million, reducing taxes and spending vast amounts of money on irrigation works. In Late Victorian Holocausts , the historian Mike Davis criticised Curzon for cutting back rations and raising relief eligibility. At the time, Curzon stated that "any government which imperiled the financial position of India in

4740-526: A withdrawal from Batum early in June 1920. For the rest of 1920 Curzon, supported by Milner (Colonial Secretary), argued that Britain should retain control of Persia. When Wilson asked (15 July 1920) to pull troops out of Persia to put down the rebellions in Iraq and Ireland , Lloyd George blocked the move, saying that Curzon "would not stand it". In the end, financial retrenchment forced a British withdrawal from Persia in

4898-514: Is a road named after him there (probably near his erstwhile cottage). During his youth years, Curzon regularly attended debates at the House of Commons. Curzon became Assistant Private Secretary to the Marquess of Salisbury in 1885, and in 1886 entered Parliament as Member for Southport in south-west Lancashire . His maiden speech , which was chiefly an attack on home rule and Irish nationalism ,

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5056-484: Is commonly referred to as "Agora" by the city's inhabitants. Situated on the northern slopes of the Pagos hills, it was the commercial, judicial and political nucleus of the ancient city, its center for artistic activities and for teaching. İzmir Agora Open Air Museum consists of five parts, including the agora area, the base of the northern basilica gate, the stoa and the ancient shopping centre. The agora of Smyrna

5214-465: Is famous in literature and was worshipped in the valley. A common and consistent tradition connects Homer with the valley of Smyrna and the banks of the Meles; his figure was one of the stock types on coins of Smyrna, one class of which numismatists call "Homerian." The epithet Melesigenes was applied to him; the cave where he was wont to compose his poems was shown near the source of the river; his temple,

5372-535: Is preserved in the large area of İzmir Agora Open Air Museum at this site. Research is being pursued at the sites of both the old and the new cities. This has been conducted since 1997 for Old Smyrna and since 2002 for the Classical Period city, in collaboration between the İzmir Archaeology Museum and the Metropolitan Municipality of İzmir. Smyrna was at the mouth of the small river Hermus and at

5530-509: The 1911 Parliament Crisis . The Prime Minister thought him overly pompous and self-important, and it was said that he used him as if he were using a Rolls-Royce to deliver a parcel to the station; Lloyd George said much later that Winston Churchill treated his ministers in a way that Lloyd George would never have treated his: "They were all men of substance — well, except Curzon." Multiple drafts of resignation letters written at this time were found upon Curzon's death. Despite their antagonism,

5688-851: The Allied Powers (Entente Powers) focused on the partition of the territory of the Ottoman Empire . As part of the Treaty of London (1915) , by which Italy left the Triple Alliance (with Germany and Austria-Hungary) and joined France, Great Britain and Russia in the Triple Entente , Italy was promised the Dodecanese and, if the partition of the Ottoman Empire were to occur, land in Anatolia including Antalya and surrounding provinces presumably including Smyrna. But in later 1915, as an inducement to enter

5846-700: The Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Entente powers and the Ottoman Empire ending the Ottoman front of World War I . Great Britain, Greece, Italy, France, and the United States began discussing what the treaty provisions regarding the partition of Ottoman territory would be, negotiations which resulted in the Treaty of Sèvres . These negotiations began in February 1919 and each country had distinct negotiating preferences about Smyrna. The French, who had large investments in

6004-605: The Battle of Aydın on 27 June 1919. The landing and reports of the violence had a large impact on many parties. The landing helped bring together the various groups of Turkish resistance into an organized movement (further assisted by the landing of Mustafa Kemal in Samsun on 19 May 1919). Several demonstrations were held by Turkish people in Constantinople condemning the occupation of Smyrna. Between 100,000 and 150,000 people gathered in

6162-627: The Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) General William Robertson sent Haig a biting description of the members of the War Cabinet, who he said were all frightened of Lloyd George; he described Curzon as "a gasbag". During the crisis of February 1918, Curzon was one of the few members of the government to support Robertson, threatening in vain to resign if he were removed. Despite his opposition to women's suffrage (he had been co-president of

6320-641: The Curzon Line . He also oversaw the division of the British Mandate of Palestine and the creation of the Emirate of Transjordan , and was the chief Allied negotiator of the 1922 Treaty of Lausanne which defined the borders of modern Turkey . In 1921, he was created a marquess . On Bonar Law 's retirement as Prime Minister in 1923, Curzon was a contender for the office but was passed over in favour of Stanley Baldwin . He remained as Foreign Secretary until 1924 when

6478-653: The Homereum , stood on its banks. The steady, equable flow of the Meles, alike in summer and winter, and its short course, beginning and ending near the city, are celebrated by Aristides and Himerius. The stream rises from abundant springs east of the city and flows into the southeast extremity of the gulf. Alexander the Great conceived the idea of restoring the Greek city in a scheme that was, according to Strabo , actually carried out under Antigonus (316–301 BC) and Lysimachus (301 BC—281 BC), who enlarged and fortified

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6636-637: The National League for Opposing Woman Suffrage ), the House of Lords voted conclusively in its favour. After a long affair with the romantic novelist Elinor Glyn , Curzon married the former Grace Elvina Hinds in January 1917. She was the wealthy Alabama -born widow of Alfredo Huberto Duggan (died 1915), a first-generation Irish Argentinian appointed to the Argentine Legation in London in 1905. Elinor Glyn

6794-489: The Taj Mahal , and sent a British expedition to Tibet to counter Russian ambitions. He also presided over the 1905 Partition of Bengal . Curzon later came into conflict with Lord Kitchener , Commander-in-Chief, India , over issues of military organisation. Unable to secure the backing of the government in London, he resigned later that year and returned to England. In 1907, Curzon became Chancellor of Oxford University , and

6952-501: The Treaty of Lhasa was signed in September 1904. During his tenure, Curzon undertook the restoration of the Taj Mahal and expressed satisfaction that he had done so. Curzon was influenced by Hindu philosophy and quoted: India has left a deeper mark upon the history the philosophy and the religion of mankind than any other terrestrial unit in the universe. Within India, Curzon appointed

7110-420: The 12th century. His mother, exhausted by childbirth, died when George was 16; her husband survived her by 41 years. Neither parent exerted a major influence on Curzon's life. Scarsdale was an austere and unindulgent father who believed that landowners should stay on their land and not indefinitely tour the world for pleasure. He disapproved of the journeys across Asia between 1887 and 1895 which made his son one of

7268-674: The 1920s the Foreign Office was often a passive participant in decisions which were mainly reactive and dominated by the prime minister. The creation of the job of Colonial Secretary , the Cabinet Office and the League of Nations added to the Foreign Office's insecurity. After nine months as acting Secretary while Balfour was at the Paris Peace Conference , Curzon was appointed Foreign Secretary in October 1919. He gave his name to

7426-474: The 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey resulting in migration to Greece and elsewhere. Smyrna Two sites of the ancient city are today within İzmir's boundaries. The first, probably founded by indigenous peoples, rose to prominence during the Archaic Period as one of the principal ancient Greek settlements in western Anatolia. The second, whose foundation is associated with Alexander

7584-858: The 19th century through the early 20th century. In 1879 Russia had begun construction of the Transcaspian Railway along the Silk Road , officially solely to enforce local control. The line starts from the city of Kyzyl-Su, formerly Krasnovodsk (nowadays Turkmenbashi ) (on the Caspian Sea ), travels southeast along the Karakum Desert , through Ashgabat , continues along the Kopet Dagh Mountains until it reaches Tejen . Curzon dedicated an entire chapter in his book Russia in Central Asia to discussing

7742-860: The 6th century Basilica of St. John the Theologian in Ephesus. In general, the excavations undertaken by the Greek administration provided interesting material concerning the history of Ancient Greek and Byzantine Art. Another important project undertaken during the Greek administration was the institution and organization of the Ionian University of Smyrna . Originally conceived by the Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos and entrusted to Professor German-Greek mathematician Constantin Carathéodory of Göttingen University , as head of

7900-529: The Archaic Period by the Ionians . Smyrna proper was the new city to which residents moved as of the 4th century BC and whose foundation was inspired by Alexander the Great. Old Smyrna was on a small peninsula connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus at the northeastern corner of the inner Gulf of İzmir , at the edge of a fertile plain and at the foot of Mount Yamanlar . This Anatolian settlement commanded

8058-673: The Baldwin government fell, and died a year later at the age of 66. Curzon was the eldest son and the second of the eleven children of Alfred Curzon, 4th Baron Scarsdale (1831–1916), who was the Rector of Kedleston in Derbyshire. George's mother was Blanche (1837–1875), the daughter of Joseph Pocklington-Senhouse of Netherhall in Cumberland. He was born at Kedleston Hall , built on the site where his family, who were clergymen and priests, had lived since

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8216-437: The British government's proposed Soviet-Polish boundary, the Curzon Line of December 1919. Although during the subsequent Polish-Soviet War , Poland conquered territory in the east , after World War II , Poland was shifted westwards, leaving the border between Poland and its eastern neighbours today approximately at the Curzon Line. Curzon was largely responsible for the Peace Day ceremonies on 19 July 1919. These included

8374-417: The British to administer efficiently but actually his intention was to divide Bengalis into religious and territorial grounds to weaken the growing nationalism in Bengal. He said, "Partition of Bengal is a settled fact and what is settled cannot be unsettled." Huge protest ( Swadeshi movement ) was seen from every corner of Bengal and on 1911 this so-called "settled fact" became "unsettled" by Lord Hardinge . It

8532-405: The British withdrew from Baku (the small British naval presence was also withdrawn from the Caspian Sea), at the end of August 1919 leaving only three battalions at Batum. In January 1920 Curzon insisted that British troops remain in Batum, against the wishes of Wilson and the Prime Minister. In February, while Curzon was on holiday, Wilson persuaded the Cabinet to allow withdrawal, but Curzon had

8690-401: The Chicago department store Field & Leiter (later Marshall Field ). While he married Mary for her wealth so he could save his estate, he later developed feelings for her. Mary had a long and nearly fatal illness near the end of summer 1904, from which she never really recovered. Falling ill again in July 1906, she died on the 18th of that month in her husband's arms, at the age of 36. It was

8848-466: The Church in Smyrna...always taught the things which he had learned from the apostles, and which the Church has handed down, and which alone are true. To these things all the Asiatic Churches testify, as do also those men who have succeeded Polycarp. Tertullian wrote c. 208 AD: Anyhow the heresies are at best novelties, and have no continuity with the teaching of Christ. Perhaps some heretics may claim Apostolic antiquity: we reply: Let them publish

9006-501: The Church of England, which thanks God for "the means of grace, and for the hope of glory"). In 1917, Curzon bought Bodiam Castle in East Sussex, a 14th-century building that had been gutted during the English Civil War . He restored it extensively, and then bequeathed it to the National Trust . From 1915 he also rented Montacute House as a residence for himself and Elinor Glyn. Curzon did not have David Lloyd George 's support. Curzon and Lloyd George had disliked one another since

9164-432: The County of Derby, with the normal remainder, all in the Peerage of the United Kingdom . He became involved with saving Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire , from destruction. This experience strengthened his resolve for heritage protection. He was one of the sponsors of the Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act 1913 . He served as President of the Committee commissioning the Survey of London which documented

9322-406: The European community in India by pressing for severe punishment for Europeans who had attacked Indians. On two occasions, he imposed collective punishment on British Army units which had attacked Indians: when soldiers of the West Kent Regiment raped a Burmese woman, he had the whole regiment exiled to Aden without leave. He later imposed similar punishment on the 9th Queen's Royal Lancers for

9480-411: The Foreign Secretary should be non-partisan, he would objectively present all the information on a subject to the Cabinet, as if placing faith in his colleagues to reach the appropriate decision. Conversely, Curzon would take personally and respond aggressively to any criticism. It has been suggested that Curzon's defensiveness reflected institutional insecurity by the Foreign Office as a whole. During

9638-406: The German archaeologist Rudolf Naumann and Selâhattin Kantar , the director of İzmir and Ephesus museums. They uncovered a three-floor, rectangular compound with stairs in the front, built on columns and arches around a large courtyard in the middle of the building. New excavations in the agora began in 1996 by the Directorate of Archaeology Museum in Izmir. They have continued since 2002 under

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9796-410: The German historian W. Bauer wrote: Asian Jewish Christianity received in turn the knowledge that henceforth the "church" would be open without hesitation to the Jewish influence mediated by Christians, coming not only from the apocalyptic traditions, but also from the synagogue with its practices concerning worship, which led to the appropriation of the Jewish passover observance. Even the observance of

9954-424: The Great , reached metropolitan proportions during the period of the Roman Empire . Most of the ancient city's present-day remains date to the Roman era, the majority from after a 2nd-century AD earthquake. In practical terms, a distinction is often made between these. Old Smyrna was the initial settlement founded around the 11th century BC, first as an Aeolian settlement, and later taken over and developed during

10112-448: The Greek Kingdom as a result of the deportations and persecutions by the Ottoman authorities, assumed top priority, already from May 1919. The Greek authorities wanted to avoid a situation where refugees would return without the necessary supervision and planning. For this purpose, a special department was created within the High Commission. A survey conducted by the refugees department indicated that more than 150 towns and villages along

10270-401: The Greek administration. However, nationalist sentiments and suspicion continued to limit the impacts of Stergiadis' administration. The resettlement of Greeks and harsh treatment by the army and local Greek population led many Turkish residents to leave which created a refugee problem. Discrimination by junior Greek administrators and military members further contributed to Turkish hostility in

10428-418: The Greek soldiers responsible for violence on 15–16 May with court martial and created a commission to decide on payment for victims (made up of representatives from Great Britain, France, Italy and other allies). Stergiadis took a strict stance against discrimination of the Turkish population and opposed church leaders and the local Greek population on a number of occasions. Historians disagree about whether this

10586-470: The Greek troops firing multiple shots into the konak and the barracks. The Ottoman troops surrendered and the Greek regiment began marching them up the coast to a ship to serve as a temporary prison. A British subject at the scene claimed he witnessed the shooting deaths of thirty unarmed prisoners during this march, by both Greeks in the crowd and Greek troops. British officers in the harbor reported seeing Greek troops bayoneting multiple Turkish prisoners during

10744-420: The High Commissioner of Smyrna (appointed over political riser Themistoklis Sofoulis ). In April 1919, the Italians landed and took over Antalya and began showing signs of moving troops towards Smyrna. During the negotiations at about the same time, the Italian delegation walked out when it became clear that Fiume (Rijeka) would not be given to them in the peace outcome. Lloyd George saw an opportunity to break

10902-400: The Knights Hospitallers of Rhodes, the Republic of Venice, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of Cyprus captured both the harbor and city from the Turks, which they held for nearly 60 years; the citadel fell in 1348, with the death of the governor Umur Baha ad-Din Ghazi. In 1402, Tamerlane stormed the town and massacred almost all the inhabitants. His conquest was only temporary, but Smyrna

11060-400: The Liberal government's proposal to abolish the legislative veto of the House of Lords, and in 1911 was created Baron Ravensdale , of Ravensdale in the County of Derby, with remainder (in default of heirs male) to his daughters, Viscount Scarsdale , of Scarsdale in the County of Derby, with remainder (in default of heirs male) to the heirs male of his father, and Earl Curzon of Kedleston , in

11218-432: The Milne line around the Smyrna zone and began military operations in the rest of Anatolia. International negotiations between the allies and the Ottoman administration largely ignored the increasing conflict. In early 1920, Lloyd George was able to convince the new French Prime Minister, Alexandre Millerand to accept Greek control of Smyrna, but under Turkish suzerainty . Negotiations were further refined in April 1920 at

11376-573: The Persian Question , written in 1892, has been considered Curzon's magnum opus and can be seen as a sequel to Russia in Central Asia. Curzon was commissioned by The Times to write several articles on the Persian political environment, but while there he decided to write a book on the country as whole. This two-volume work covers Persia's history and governmental structure, as well as graphics, maps and pictures (some taken by Curzon himself). Curzon

11534-520: The Raj. Ironically, his partition of Bengal, and the bitter controversy that followed, did much to revitalize Congress . Curzon, typically, had dismissed the Congress in 1900 as 'tottering to its fall'. But he left India with Congress more active and effective than at any time in its history." Curzon was determined to address the British maltreatment of Indians. In particular, he incurred the displeasure of many in

11692-452: The Romans. They organized it into the Roman province of Asia , making Pergamum the capital. As a major seaport, Smyrna became a leading city in the newly constituted province. As one of the principal cities of Roman Asia , Smyrna vied with Ephesus and Pergamum for the title "First City of Asia." A Christian church and a bishopric existed there from earliest times, probably originating in

11850-501: The Smyrna occupation and this left the British as the only force supporting the Greek occupation. Smyrna remained a key base of operations for the ongoing war through the rest of 1920 and 1921, particularly under General Georgios Hatzianestis . A significant loss at the Battle of Sakarya in September 1921 resulted in a retreat of Greek forces to the 1920 lines. The ensuing retreat resulted in massive civilian casualties and atrocities committed by Greek and Turkish troops. Jensen summarizes

12008-623: The Smyrna zone. Archaeological missions in Asia Minor were of significant importance for the High Commission. Excavations were focused on ancient Greek settlements in the area, mainly found in the surroundings of the urban areas, as well as along the coastal zone. The most important excavation were conducted during 1921–1922, where important findings were unearthed in the Ionian sites of Klazomenai , Ephesus and Nysa . Apart from ancient Greek antiquities, Byzantine monuments were also unearthed, such as

12166-560: The Turkish side, the events are known as the Liberation of İzmir , while on the Greek side, they are known as the Catastrophe of Smyrna . The evacuation of Smyrna by Greek troops ended most of the large scale fighting in the Greco-Turkish war which was formally ended with an Armistice and a final treaty on 24 July 1923 with the Treaty of Lausanne. Much of the Greek population was included in

12324-609: The Turks, and had become quite ruinous when the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes rebuilt it about 1222. Ibn Batuta found Smyrna still in great part a ruin when the homonymous chieftain of the Beylik of Aydın had conquered it about 1330 and made his son, Umur, governor. It became the port of the emirate. During the Smyrniote Crusade in 1344, on October 28, the combined forces of

12482-416: The United States, General Bunoust for France, General Hare for England, General Dall'olio for Italy and, as a non-voting observer, Colonel Mazarakis for Greece. It began work in August 1919 and interviewed 175 witnesses and visited multiple sites of alleged atrocities. The decision reached was that when a Greek witness and Turkish witness disagreed, a European witness would be used to provide the conclusions for

12640-742: The boxes was imported from Austria and Romania . Several American cities have been named after Smyrna, including Smyrna, Georgia ; Smyrna, Tennessee ; Smyrna, North Carolina ; Smyrna, South Carolina ; Smyrna, Delaware ; Smyrna, Michigan ; Smyrna, Maine and New Smyrna Beach, Florida . George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston , KG , GCSI , GCIE , PC , FRS , FRGS , FBA (11 January 1859 – 20 March 1925), styled The Honourable between 1858 and 1898, then known as The Lord Curzon of Kedleston between 1898 and 1911, and The Earl Curzon of Kedleston between 1911 and 1921,

12798-637: The capital's principal buildings and public art. On 5 May 1914, he spoke out against a bill in the House of Lords that would have permitted women who already had the right to vote in local elections the right to vote for members of Parliament. Curzon joined the Cabinet, as Lord Privy Seal , when Asquith formed his coalition in May 1915. Like other politicians (e.g. Austen Chamberlain , Arthur Balfour ) Curzon favoured British Empire efforts in Mesopotamia , believing that

12956-516: The city's patroness. The name is from nearby Mount Sipylus, which bounds the valley of the city's backlands. The plain towards the sea was too low to be properly drained, and in rainy weather, the lower town's streets were deep with mud and water. At the end of the Hellenistic period, in 197 BC, the city suddenly cut its ties with King Eumenes of Pergamum and appealed to Rome for help. Because Rome and Smyrna had no ties until then, Smyrna created

13114-538: The city. The Greek landing on 15 May 1919 was celebrated by the substantial local Greek population but quickly resulted in ethnic violence in the area. This violence decreased international support for the occupation and led to a rise in Turkish nationalism. The high commissioner of Smyrna, Aristeidis Stergiadis , firmly opposed discrimination against the Turkish population by the administration; however, ethnic tensions and discrimination remained. Stergiadis also began work on projects involving resettlement of Greek refugees,

13272-456: The city. The ruined acropolis of the ancient city, the "crown of Smyrna", had been on a steep peak about 380 metres (1,250 ft) high, which overhangs the northeast extremity of the gulf. Modern İzmir was constructed atop the later Hellenistic city, partly on the slopes of a rounded hill the Greeks called Pagos near the southeast end of the gulf, and partly on the low ground between the hill and

13430-573: The coastal area (from Edremit to Söke ) had been destroyed during World War I. Especially from the 45,000 households belonging to local Greeks, 18,000 were partially damaged, while 23,000 completely destroyed. In general the period of the Greek administration experienced a continuous movement of refugee populations aided by charitable institutions such as the Red Cross and the Greek "Patriotic Institution" ( Greek : Πατριωτικό Ίδρυμα ). In total, 100,000 Greeks who had lost their land during World War I, many

13588-446: The conclusions questioned the fundamental justification for the Greek occupation and suggested Greek troops be replaced by an allied force. Eyre Crowe , a main British diplomat, dismissed the larger conclusion by saying the commission had overstepped its mandate. In the negotiations after the report, Clemenceau reminded Venizelos that the occupation of Smyrna was not permanent and merely a political solution. Venizelos responded angrily and

13746-519: The considerable Jewish colony. It was one of the seven churches addressed in the Book of Revelation . Saint Ignatius of Antioch visited Smyrna and later wrote letters to its bishop, Polycarp . A mob of Jews and pagans abetted the martyrdom of Polycarp in AD 153. Saint Irenaeus , who heard Polycarp as a boy, was probably a native of Smyrna. Another famous resident of the same period was Aelius Aristides . After

13904-469: The day after Curzon returned to England. In deference to the wishes of the King and the advice of his doctors, Curzon did not stand in the general election of 1906 and thus found himself excluded from public life for the first time in twenty years. It was at this time, the nadir of his career, that Mary died. After the death of Lord Goschen in 1907, the post of Chancellor of Oxford University fell vacant. Curzon

14062-589: The decision reversed on his return, although to Curzon's fury (he thought it "abuse of authority") Wilson gave Milne permission to withdraw if he deemed it necessary. At Cabinet on 5 May 1920 Curzon "by a long-winded jaw" (in Wilson's description) argued for a stay in Batum. After a British garrison at Enzeli (on the Persian Caspian coast) was taken prisoner by Bolshevik forces on 19 May 1920, Lloyd George finally insisted on

14220-598: The department of health became the first fields of instruction at the new university. In 1920, the Smyrna zone became a key base for the Greek summer offensive in the Greco-Turkish War. Early in July 1920, the allies approved operations by the Greeks to take over Eastern Thrace and territory around Smyrna as part of ongoing hostilities with the Turkish Nationalist movement. On 22 July 1920, Greek military divisions crossed

14378-404: The discussion to how Greek administration would work and not whether Greek administration would happen. To further this aim, he brought in a set of experts, including Arnold J. Toynbee , to discuss how the zone of Smyrna would operate and what its impacts would be on the population. Following this discussion, in late February 1919, Venezilos appointed Aristeidis Stergiadis , a close political ally,

14536-467: The end of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) . In the immediate aftermath, a fire broke out in the Greek and Armenian quarters of the city on September 13, 1922, known as the Great Fire of Smyrna . The death toll is estimated to range from 10,000 to 100,000. The remains of the ancient agora of Smyrna constitute today the space of İzmir Agora Museum in İzmir's Namazgah quarter, although its area

14694-605: The first digs. Statues of the gods Hermes , Dionysos , Eros and Heracles have also been found, as well as many statues, heads, embossments, figurines and monuments of people and animals, made of marble, stone, bone, glass, metal and terracotta. Inscriptions found here list the people who provided aid to Smyrna after the earthquake of 178 AD. In the early 20th-century, Smyrna had a number of mills spinning thread . As of 1920, there were two factories in Smyrna dyeing yarn , which were owned by British companies. These companies employed over 60,000 people. During this time, there

14852-402: The first jail before removal? I believe that if we could postpone the execution for a few weeks and give the criminal a few good public floggings – or even one, were more not possible – it would act as a real deterrent. But I have a suspicion that British law does not smile upon anything so eminently practical." The only major armed outbreak on this frontier during the period of his administration

15010-625: The following year he was elected to the House of Lords . During the First World War , he served in H. H. Asquith 's coalition cabinet as Lord Privy Seal , and from late 1916 he was Leader of the House of Lords and served in the war cabinet of Prime Minister David Lloyd George and the War Policy Committee . He was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in October 1919 and lent his name to Britain's proposed Soviet-Polish boundary,

15168-512: The foundations for a university, and some public health projects. Smyrna was a major base of operations for Greek troops in Anatolia during the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) . The Greek occupation of Smyrna ended on 9 September 1922 with the Turkish capture of Smyrna by troops commanded by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . After the Turkish advance on Smyrna, a mob murdered the Orthodox bishop Chrysostomos and

15326-485: The greatest personal loss of his life. She was buried in the church at Kedleston, where Curzon designed his memorial for her, a Gothic chapel added to the north side of the nave. Although he was neither a devout nor a conventional churchman, Curzon retained a simple religious faith; in later years he sometimes said that he was not afraid of death because it would enable him to join Mary in heaven. They had three daughters during

15484-523: The gulf. Today, the archaeological site, named Bayraklı Höyüğü, is approximately 700 metres (770 yd) inland, in the Tepekule neighbourhood of Bayraklı . New Smyrna developed simultaneously on the slopes of the Mount Pagos ( Kadifekale today) and alongside the coastal strait, immediately below where a small bay existed until the 18th century. The core of the late Hellenistic and early Roman Smyrna

15642-505: The head of a deep arm of the sea ( Smyrnaeus Sinus ) that reached far inland. This enabled Greek trading ships to sail into the heart of Lydia , making the city part of an essential trade route between Anatolia and the Aegean. During the 7th century BC, Smyrna rose to power and splendor. One of the great trade routes that cross Anatolia descends the Hermus valley past Sardis , and then, diverging from

15800-673: The high economic cost. Small British forces had twice occupied Baku on the Caspian in 1918, while an entire British division had occupied Batum on the Black Sea, supervising German and Turkish withdrawal. Against Curzon's wishes, but on the advice of Sir George Milne , the commander on the spot, the CIGS Sir Henry Wilson , who wanted to concentrate troops in Britain, Ireland, India, and Egypt, and of Churchill ( Secretary of State for War ),

15958-477: The impasse over Smyrna with the absence of the Italian delegation and, according to Jensen, he "concocted a report that an armed uprising of Turkish guerrillas in the Smyrna area was seriously endangering the Greek and other Christian minorities." Both to protect local Christians and also to limit increasing Italian action in Anatolia, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson supported

16116-732: The increase in British prestige would discourage a German-inspired Muslim revolt in India. Curzon was a member of the Dardanelles Committee and told that body (October 1915) that the recent Salonika expedition was "quixotic chivalry". Early in 1916 Curzon visited Sir Douglas Haig (newly appointed Commander-in-Chief of British forces in France) at his headquarters in France. Haig was impressed by Curzon's brains and decisiveness, and considered that he had mellowed since his days as viceroy (Major-General Haig had been Inspector-General of Cavalry, India, at

16274-463: The interests of prodigal philanthropy would be open to serious criticism; but any government which by indiscriminate alms-giving weakened the fibre and demoralized the self-reliance of the population, would be guilty of a public crime." Arthur Balfour 's refusal to recommend an earldom for Curzon in 1905 was repeated by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman , the Liberal prime minister, who formed his government

16432-432: The latter for an essay on Sir Thomas More , about whom he knew little. In 1883, Curzon received the most prestigious fellowship at the university, a Prize Fellowship at All Souls College . While at Eton and at Oxford, Curzon was a contemporary and close friend of Cecil Spring Rice and Edward Grey . Spring Rice contributed, alongside John William Mackail , to the composition of a famous sardonic doggerel about Curzon that

16590-461: The latter oversaw a number of projects planning for a permanent Greek administration of Smyrna. The Greek consulate building became the center of government. Since Ottoman sovereignty was not replaced with the occupation, their administrative structure continued to exist but Stergiadis simply replaced senior positions with Greeks (except for the post for Muslim Affairs) while Turkish functionaries remained in low positions. Urgent steps were required for

16748-461: The lower part of the city Christian. The Armenians, alongside the Greeks, played a significant role in the city's development, most notably during the age of exploration, where Armenians became a crucial player in the trade sector. The Armenians had trade routes stretching from the far east to Europe. One most notable good the Armenians traded was Iranian silk, which the Shah Abbas of Iran gave them

16906-465: The main street, called the Golden, ran across the city from west to east, beginning probably from the temple of Zeus Akraios on the west slope of Pagus, and running round the lower slopes of Pagus (like a necklace on the statue, to use the favorite terms of Aristides the orator) towards Tepecik outside the city on the east, where probably stood the temple of Cybele , worshipped under the name of Meter Sipylene,

17064-403: The march and then saw them thrown into the sea. In the chaos, looting of Turkish houses began, and by the end of the day three to four hundred Turks had been killed. One hundred Greeks were also killed, including two soldiers. Violence continued the next day and for the next months as Greek troops took over towns and villages in the region and atrocities were committed by both ethnic groups, notably

17222-475: The meantime Curzon had travelled around the world: Russia and Central Asia (1888–1889); Persia (September 1889 – January 1890); Siam , French Indochina , China , Korea and Japan (1892); and a daring foray into Afghanistan and the Pamirs (1894–1895). He published several books describing central and eastern Asia and related foreign policy issues. A bold and compulsive traveller, driven by orientalism , he

17380-512: The mid-3rd century, most became affiliated with the Greco-Roman churches. When Constantinople became the seat of government, the trade between Anatolia and the West diminished in importance, and Smyrna declined. The Seljuq commander Tzachas seized Smyrna in 1084 and used it as a base for naval raids, but the city was recovered by the general John Doukas . The city was several times ravaged by

17538-401: The most travelled men to be a member of any British cabinet. An influential presence in Curzon's childhood was that of his brutal, sadistic governess, Ellen Mary Paraman , whose tyranny in the nursery stimulated his combative qualities and encouraged the obsessional side of his nature. Paraman used to beat him and periodically forced him to parade through the village wearing a conical hat bearing

17696-451: The murder of an Indian cook. Mahatma Gandhi lauded Curzon as the first viceroy to express sympathy for indentured Indian labourers and question why the system should continue. Curzon was especially concerned with the treatment of Indian emigrants to the Transvaal and Natal . After learning about the realities of labour conditions for indentured Indians, he deemed it impossible to defend

17854-477: The negotiators moved on. At about the same time, British Field Marshal George Milne was tasked by the allies with devising a solution to Italian and Greek tension in the Menderes River Valley . Milne warned in his report that Turkish guerrilla action would continue as long as the Greeks continued to occupy Smyrna and questioned the justification for Greek occupation. Most importantly, his report developed

18012-413: The new university. In the summer of 1922, its facilities were completed at a cost of 110,000 Turkish liras. The latter included 70 lecture rooms, a large amphitheatre, a number of laboratories and separate smaller structures for the university personnel. Its various schools and departments of the university were to start operating gradually. Moreover, a microbiology laboratory, the local Pasteur institute and

18170-454: The next day in the city. Smith reports that this news was "received with great emotion" by the Greek population of the city while thousands of Turkish residents gathered in the hill that night lighting fires and beating drums in protest. The same night, thousands of Turkish prisoners were released from a prison with the complicity of the Ottoman and Italian commanders in charge of the prison. Greek occupation of Smyrna started on 15 May 1919 where

18328-450: The oilfields at Abadan and watching the Afghan frontier – Curzon believed that British economic and military aid, sent via India, could prop up the Persian government and make her a British client state. The Anglo-Persian Agreement of August 1919 was never ratified and the British government rejected the plan as Russia had the geographical advantage and the defensive benefits would not justify

18486-424: The organization of a local administration as soon as the Greek army secured control of the region. A significant obstacle during the first period of the Greek administration was the absence of a clear definition of the Greek mandate. In this context the coexistence of interallied authorities whose functions often overlapped with that of the Greek authorities resulted in a series of misunderstandings and friction between

18644-507: The origins of their churches and unroll the catalogue of their bishops till now from the Apostles or from some bishop appointed by the Apostles, as the Smyrnaeans count from Polycarp and John, and the Romans from Clement and Peter; let heretics invent something to match this. Hence, the church in Smyrna was apparently one of the churches that Tertullian felt had real apostolic succession. During

18802-509: The perceived threat to British control of India. This railway connected Russia with the most wealthy and influential cities in Central Asia at the time, including the Persian Khorasan Province , and would allow the rapid deployment of Russian supplies and troops into the area. Curzon also believed that the resulting greater economic interdependence between Russia and Central Asia would be damaging to British interests. Persia and

18960-639: The plaster Cenotaph , designed by the noted architect Sir Edwin Lutyens , for the Allied Victory parade in London. It was so successful that it was reproduced in stone, and still stands. In 1918, during World War I, as Britain occupied Mesopotamia , Curzon tried to convince the Indian government to reconsider his scheme for Persia to be a buffer against Russian advances. British and Indian troops were in Persia protecting

19118-461: The region in which he detailed his geopolitical outlook and underlined the perceived Russian threat to British control of India. In 1891, Curzon was named Under-Secretary of State for India , and in 1899 he was appointed Viceroy of India. During his tenure, he pursued a number of reforms of the British administration , attempted to address the British maltreatment of Indians, undertook the restoration of

19276-541: The region, took a position for territorial integrity of a Turkish state that would include the zone of Smyrna. The British were at a loggerhead over the issue with the War Office and India Office promoting the territorial integrity idea and Prime Minister David Lloyd George and the Foreign Office , headed by Lord Curzon , opposed this suggestion and wanting Smyrna to be under separate administration. The Italian position

19434-471: The remaining zone was divided into one province ( Greek : Νομαρχία Nomarchia ): that of Manisa, as well as the following counties ( Greek : Υποδιοικήσεις Ypodioikiseis ): Ödemiş , Tire (Thira), Bayındır (Vaindirion), Nympheon , Krini , Karaburna, Sivrihisar, Vryula , Palea Phocaea , Menemen, Kasaba , Bergama and Ayvali . The repatriation of the Asia Minor Greeks who had sought refuge in

19592-463: The report. This system was dismissed by Venizelos because he claimed that the Europeans living in Smyrna benefited from privileges given to them under the Ottoman rule and were thus opposed to Greek rule. The report was released to negotiators in October and generally found Greeks responsible for the bloodshed related to the landing and the violence throughout the Smyrna zone after the landing. In addition,

19750-540: The sabbath by Christians appears to have found some favor in Asia...we find that in post-apostolic times, in the period of the formation of ecclesiastical structure, the Jewish Christians in these regions come into prominence. In the late second century, Irenaeus also noted: Polycarp also was not only instructed by apostles, and conversed with many who had seen Christ, but was also, by apostles in Asia, appointed bishop of

19908-407: The sea. The beauty of the Hellenistic city, clustering on the low ground and rising tier over tier on the hillside, was frequently praised by the ancients and is celebrated on its coins. Smyrna is shut in on the west by a hill now called Deirmen Tepe, with the ruins of a temple on the summit. The walls of Lysimachus crossed the summit of this hill, and the acropolis occupied the top of Pagus. Between

20066-443: The sponsorship of the Metropolitan Municipality of İzmir. A primary school adjacent to the agora that had burned in 1980 was not reconstructed. Instead, its space was incorporated into the historical site. The area of the agora was increased to 16,590 square metres (178,600 sq ft). This permitted the evacuation of a previously unexplored zone. The archaeologists and the local authorities, means permitting, are also keenly eyeing

20224-524: The system in its current state, and committed to a stance of reform. In 1900, Curzon wrote an appeal to the Permanent Under-Secretary for India calling for indentured labourers to be treated better given their contribution to colonial defences, although this did not prompt immediate change. On 14 May 1903, he wrote a lengthy despatch to the India Office demanding full discretion to withdraw from

20382-463: The system of indentured labour if they would not concede to the proper treatment of Indian workers. He continued to champion this cause throughout his time as viceroy. Curzon proposed the Partition of Bengal and put it into effect on 16 October 1905 creating the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam . Behind this incident, his excuse was that the area of Bengal was too large and it was difficult for

20540-548: The time) and had lost "his old pompous ways". Curzon served in Lloyd George 's small War cabinet as Leader of the House of Lords from December 1916, and he also served on the War Policy Committee . With Allied victory over Germany far from certain, Curzon wrote a paper (12 May 1917) for the War Cabinet urging that Britain seize Palestine and possibly Syria. Like other members of the War Cabinet, Curzon supported further Western Front offensives lest, with Russian commitment to

20698-544: The two sides. This situation resulted after a decision by the Supreme Allied Council that all movements of the Greek army had to be approved by Field Marshal George Milne . The administration of the Smyrna zone was organized in units largely based on the former Ottoman system. Apart from the kaza of Smyrna and the adjacent area of Ayasoluk which were under the direct control of the Smyrna High Commission,

20856-551: The two the road from Ephesus entered the city by the Ephesian gate, near which was a gymnasium. Closer to the acropolis the outline of the stadium is still visible, and the theatre was on Pagus's north slopes. Smyrna possessed two harbours. The outer harbour was simply the open roadstead of the gulf, and the inner was a small basin with a narrow entrance partially filled up by Tamerlane in 1402. The streets were broad, well paved and laid out at right angles; many were named after temples:

21014-519: The two were often in agreement on government policy. Lloyd George needed the wealth of knowledge Curzon possessed so was both his biggest critic and, simultaneously, his largest supporter. Likewise, Curzon was grateful for the leeway he was allowed by Lloyd George when it came to handling affairs in the Middle East. Other cabinet ministers also respected his vast knowledge of Central Asia but disliked his arrogance and often blunt criticism. Believing that

21172-405: The valley, passes south of Mount Sipylus and crosses a low pass into the little valley where Smyrna lies between the mountains and the sea. Miletus and later Ephesus were at the sea end of the other great trade route across Anatolia; for a time they successfully competed with Smyrna, but after both cities' harbors silted up, Smyrna was without a rival. The Meles River , which flowed by Smyrna,

21330-520: The violence writing that "The Turkish population was subjected to horrible atrocities by the retreating troops and accompanying civilian Christian mobs. The pursuing Turkish cavalry did not hesitate in kind on the Christian populace; the road from Uşak to Smyrna lay littered with corpses." Greek troops evacuated Smyrna on 9 September 1922 and a small allied force of British entered the city to prevent looting and violence. The next day, Mustafa Kemal, leading

21488-523: The war wavering, France and Italy be tempted to make a separate peace. At the War Policy Committee (3 October 1917) Curzon objected in vain to plans to redeploy two divisions to Palestine, with a view to advancing into Syria and knocking the Ottoman Empire out of the war altogether. Curzon's commitment wavered somewhat as the losses of the Third Battle of Ypres mounted. In the summer of 1917

21646-527: The war, British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey in private discussion with Eleftherios Venizelos , the Greek Prime Minister at the time, promised large parts of the Anatolian coast to Greece, including Smyrna. Venizelos resigned from his position shortly after this communication, but when he had formally returned to power in June 1917, Greece entered the war on the side of the Entente. On 30 October 1918,

21804-453: The words liar , sneak , and coward . Curzon later noted, "No children well born and well-placed ever cried so much and so justly." He was educated at Wixenford School , Eton College , and Balliol College, Oxford . His over-intimate relationship at Eton College with Oscar Browning led to the latter's dismissal. A spinal injury incurred while riding during his adolescence was a lifelong impediment to Curzon that required him to wear

21962-457: Was a genuine stance against discrimination or whether it was an attempt to present a positive vision of the occupation to the allies. This stance against discrimination of the Turkish population often pitted Stergiadis against the local Greek population, the church and the army. He reportedly would carry a stick through the town with which he would beat Greeks that were being abusive of Turkish citizens. At one point, Stergiadis interrupted and ended

22120-558: Was a prominent British statesman, Conservative politician and writer who served as Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905. Born in Derbyshire into an aristocratic family, Curzon was educated at Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford , before entering Parliament in 1886. In the following years he travelled extensively in Russia, Central Asia and the Far East , and published several books on

22278-550: Was abandoned and the Persian Gulf declared a neutral zone in the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, prompted in part by the high economic cost of defending India from Russian advances. At the end of 1903, Curzon sent a British expedition to Tibet under Francis Younghusband , ostensibly to forestall a Russian advance. After bloody conflicts with Tibet 's poorly armed defenders, the mission penetrated to Lhasa , where

22436-485: Was aided by General Albert Houtum-Schindler and the Royal Geographical Society (RGS), both of which helped him gain access to material to which as a foreigner he would not have been entitled to have access. General Schindler provided Curzon with information regarding Persia's geography and resources, as well as serving as an unofficial editor. Curzon was appalled by his government's apathy towards Persia as

22594-550: Was already making agreements with local sheiks/tribal leaders along the Persian Gulf coast to this end. Curzon had convinced his government to establish Britain as the unofficial protector of Kuwait with the Anglo-Kuwaiti Agreement of 1899 . The Lansdowne Declaration in 1903 stated that the British would counter any other European power's attempt to establish a military presence in the Gulf. Only four years later this position

22752-408: Was also a French owned cotton spinning mill . The city also produced soap made of refuse olive oil . An ironworks , also owned by the British, produced tools and equipment. Those tools were used to extract tannin from valonia oak . As of 1920, the ironwork was exporting 5,000 tons of product a year. The city also produced wooden boxes, which were used for fig and raisin storage. The wood for

22910-580: Was also dominated by the local Greek communities, with 67 male and 4 female schools. The Ottomans continued to control the area, with the exception of the 1919–1922 period , when the city was assigned to Greece by the Treaty of Sèvres . The region's most important Greek educational institution was the Evangelical School , which operated from 1733 to 1922. After the end of the First World War, Greece occupied Smyrna from 15 May 1919 and put in place

23068-579: Was awarded the Patron's Medal of the Royal Geographical Society for his exploration of the source of the Amu Darya (Oxus). His journeys allowed him to study the problems of Asia and their implications for British India , while reinforcing his pride in his nation and her imperial mission. Curzon believed Russia to be the most likely threat to British India , Britain's most valuable possession, from

23226-462: Was built during the Hellenistic era. Although Smyrna was explored by Charles Texier in the 19th century and the German consul in İzmir had purchased the land around the ancient theater in 1917 to start excavations, the first scientific digs can be said to have started in 1927. Most of the discoveries were made by archaeological exploration carried as an extension during the period between 1931 and 1942 by

23384-650: Was created a baron in the peerage of Ireland as Baron Curzon of Kedleston , in the County of Derby, on his appointment. (The title was "Curzon of Kedleston" rather than simply "Curzon" because his kinsmen the Earls Howe were already Viscounts and Barons Curzon.) As Viceroy, he was ex officio Grand Master of the Order of the Indian Empire and Order of the Star of India . This peerage

23542-421: Was created in the Peerage of Ireland (the last so created) so that he would be free, until his father's death, to re-enter the House of Commons on his return to Britain. Reaching India shortly after the suppression of the frontier risings of 1897–98 , he paid special attention to the independent tribes of the north-west frontier, inaugurated a new province called the North West Frontier Province , and pursued

23700-405: Was done in response to the Swadeshi movement's riots in protest against the policy but the partition animated the Muslims to form their own national organization along communal lines. Curzon took an active interest in military matters and in 1901 he founded the Imperial Cadet Corps , or ICC. The ICC was a corps d'elite, designed to give Indian princes and aristocrats military training, after which

23858-456: Was elected as Chancellor of Oxford after by 1,001 votes to 440 against Lord Rosebery . He proved to be an active chancellor – "[he] threw himself so energetically into the cause of university reform that critics complained he was ruling Oxford like an Indian province." In 1908, Curzon was elected an Irish representative peer , and thus relinquished any idea of returning to the House of Commons. In 1909–1910 he took an active part in opposing

24016-592: Was haltingly begun in 1917. Military organisation proved to be the final issue faced by Curzon in India. It often involved petty issues that had much to do with clashes of personality: Curzon once wrote on a document "I rise from the perusal of these papers filled with the sense of the ineptitude of my military advisers", and once wrote to the Commander-in-Chief, India , Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener , advising him that signing himself "Kitchener of Khartoum" took up too much time and space, which Kitchener thought petty (Curzon simply signed himself "Curzon" as if he were

24174-444: Was published as part of The Balliol Masque , about which Curzon wrote in later life "never has more harm been done to one single individual than that accursed doggerel has done to me." It read: When Spring-Rice was assigned to the British Embassy to the United States in 1894–1895, he was suspected by Curzon of trying to prevent Curzon's engagement to the American Mary Leiter, whom Curzon nevertheless married. Spring Rice assumed for

24332-430: Was recovered by the Turks under the Aydın dynasty, after which it became Ottoman , when the Ottomans took over the lands of Aydın after 1425. Greek influence was so strong in the area that the Turks called it "Smyrna of the infidels" ( Gavur İzmir). Turkish sources track the term's emergence to the 14th century, when two separate parts of the city were controlled by two different powers, the upper İzmir being Muslim and

24490-427: Was regarded in much the same way as his oratory at the Oxford Union : brilliant and eloquent but also presumptuous and rather too self-assured. Subsequent performances in the Commons , often dealing with Ireland or reform of the House of Lords (which he supported), received similar verdicts. He was Under-Secretary of State for India in 1891–1892 and Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1895–1898. In

24648-474: Was staying with Curzon at the time of the engagement and read about it in the morning newspapers. Grace had three children from her first marriage, two sons, Alfred and Hubert , and a daughter, Grace Lucille. Alfred and Hubert, as Curzon's step-sons, grew up within his influential circle. Curzon had three daughters from his first marriage, but he and Grace (despite fertility-related operations and several miscarriages) did not have any children together, which put

24806-473: Was that Smyrna was rightfully their possession and so the diplomats would refuse to make any comments when Greek control over the area was discussed. The Greek government, pursuing Venizelos' support for the Megali Idea (to bring areas with a majority Greek population or with historical or religious ties to Greece under control of the Greek state) and supported by Lloyd George, began a large propaganda effort to promote their claim to Smyrna including establishing

24964-430: Was the Mahsud-Waziri campaign of 1901. In the context of the Great Game between the British and Russian Empires for control of Central Asia, he held deep mistrust of Russian intentions. This led him to encourage British trade in Persia , and he paid a visit to the Persian Gulf in 1903. Curzon argued for an exclusive British presence in the Gulf, a policy originally proposed by John Malcolm . The British government

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