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56-470: Primatologist Signe Preuschoft traces the smile back over 30 million years of evolution to a "fear grin" stemming from monkeys and apes, who often used barely clenched teeth to portray to predators that they were harmless or to signal submission to more dominant group members. The smile may have evolved differently among species, especially among humans. Smiling seems to have a favorable influence upon others and makes one likable and more approachable . In

112-485: A 1970 Asch-style study found that when alienated, Japanese students were more susceptible to anticonformity (giving answers that were incorrect even when the group had collaborated on correct answers) one third of the time, significantly higher than has been seen in Asch studies in the past. While gender does not significantly affect a person's likelihood to conform, under certain conditions gender roles do affect such

168-417: A Duchenne smile. In other animals, the baring of teeth is often used as a threat or warning display —known as a snarl —or a sign of submission . For chimpanzees , it can also be a sign of fear . However, not all animal displays of teeth convey negative acts or emotions. For example, Barbary macaques demonstrate an open mouth display as a sign of playfulness, which likely has similar roots and purposes as

224-468: A deliberate rejection of an influence, even if the influence is clearly correct. Obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure, based on order or command. The Milgram experiment , Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment , and the Hofling hospital experiment are three particularly well-known experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in

280-530: A likelihood. Studies from the 1950s and 1960s concluded that women were more likely to conform than men. But a 1971 study found that experimenter bias was involved; all of the researchers were male, while all of the research participants were female. Studies thereafter found that the likelihood to conform almost equal between the genders. Furthermore, men conformed more often when faced with traditionally feminine topics, and women conformed more often when presented with masculine topics. In other words, ignorance about

336-444: A man's smile may or may not be most effective in attracting heterosexual women, and that facial expressions such as pride or even shame might be more effective. The researchers did not explicitly study the role of smiles in other sexual preferences. The influence of smiling on others is not necessarily benign. It may take the form of positive reinforcement , possibly for an underhand manipulative and abusive purpose. While smiling

392-587: A particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented. Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive ( coercion ), and is most effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and/or economic power . Hard power contrasts with soft power , which comes from diplomacy , culture and history . Many factors can affect

448-520: A person's face can affect the look and form as well: leptoprosopic (long and narrow) faces have long and narrow dimples, and eryprosopic (short and broad) faces have short, circular dimples. People with a mesoprosopic face are more likely to have dimples in their cheeks than any other face shape. While conducting research on the physiology of facial expressions in the mid-19th century, French neurologist Guillaume Duchenne identified two distinct types of smiles. A Duchenne smile involves contraction of both

504-495: A role in the willingness of an individual to conform to the standards of a group. Stanley Milgram found that conformity was higher in Norway than in France . This has been attributed to Norway's longstanding tradition of social responsibility, compared to France's cultural focus on individualism. Japan likewise has a collectivist culture and thus a higher propensity to conformity. However,

560-423: A small, thin muscle, about 6 mm in breadth and 12 mm in length, situated behind the medial palpebral ligament and lacrimal sac. It arises from the posterior crest and adjacent part of the orbital surface of the lacrimal bone , and passing behind the lacrimal sac, divides into two slips, upper and lower, which are inserted into the superior and inferior tarsi medial to the puncta lacrimalia ; occasionally it

616-481: A social norm. Reactance is the adoption of a view contrary to the view that a person is being pressured to accept, perhaps due to a perceived threat to behavioral freedoms. This phenomenon has also been called anticonformity . While the results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, the reactive behavior is a result of social pressure . It is notable that anticonformity does not necessarily mean independence . In many studies, reactance manifests itself in

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672-655: A subject can lead a person to defer to "social proof" . Emotion and disposition may affect an individual's likelihood of conformity or anticonformity. In 2009, a study concluded that fear increases the chance of agreeing with a group, while romance or lust increases the chance of going against the group. A social network is a social structure made up of nodes (representing individuals or organizations) which are connected (through ties , also called edges , connections , or links ) by one or more types of interdependency (such as friendship, common interests or beliefs, sexual relations, or kinship). Social network analysis uses

728-445: Is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive , deceptive , or underhanded tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive. Social influence is not necessarily negative. For example, doctors can try to persuade patients to change unhealthy habits. Social influence

784-430: Is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance. Social influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of social psychology . For more information, follow

840-515: Is consistent and committed. Even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. For example, in Milgram's first set of obedience experiments , 65% of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks" to a confederate. In iterations of the Milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered

896-433: Is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive. Depending on the context and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation. Controlling abusers use various tactics to exert power and control over their victims. Tactics may include coercion and threats, intimidation, emotional abuse, isolation, and more. The goal of

952-406: Is missing for an easy understanding and an education to protect from manipulators. A first tentative was published in 2012. The first pages of Influence & Systems explain why a global approach is necessary. Orbicularis oculi muscle The orbicularis oculi is a muscle in the face that closes the eyelids . It arises from the nasal part of the frontal bone , from the frontal process of

1008-461: Is perceived as a positive emotion most of the time, there are many cultures that perceive smiling as a negative expression and consider it unwelcoming. Too much smiling can be viewed as a sign of shallowness or dishonesty . In some parts of Asia , people may smile when they are embarrassed or in emotional pain. Some people may smile at others to indicate a friendly greeting. A smile may be reserved for close friends and family members. Many people in

1064-507: Is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily in attitude ; one can comply due to mere obedience or by otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures. According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion). Identification

1120-444: Is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change. Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to

1176-495: Is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (also called social proof , or "internalization" in Kelman's terms ) and normative conformity ("compliance" in Kelman's terms). Researchers have been studying social influence and minority influence for over thirty years. The first publication covering these topics

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1232-502: Is the most common form of cheek dimples. A rarer form is the single dimple, which occurs on one side of the face only. This bifid variation of the muscle originates as a single structure from the zygomatic bone . As it travels anteriorly, it then divides with a superior bundle that inserts in the typical position above the corner of the mouth. An inferior bundle inserts below the corner of the mouth. Dimples are analogous and how they form in cheeks varies from person to person. The shape of

1288-446: Is very indistinct. The lacrimal orbicularis facilitates the tear pump into the lacrimal sac . The muscle acts to close the eye, and is the only muscle capable of doing so. Loss of function for any reason results in an inability to close the eye, necessitating eye drops at the minimum to surgical closure of the eye in extreme cases. The palpebral portion acts involuntarily, closing the lids gently, as in sleep or in blinking ;

1344-400: Is voluntarily contracted to show politeness. It is named after the now-defunct airline Pan American World Airways , whose flight attendants would always flash every passenger the same perfunctory smile. Botox was introduced for cosmetic use in 2002. Chronic use of Botox injections to deal with eye wrinkles can result in paralysis of the small muscles around the eyes, preventing the appearance of

1400-441: The former Soviet Union area consider smiling at strangers in public to be unusual and even suspicious behavior, or even a sign of stupidity. Systematic large cross-cultural study on social perception of smiling individuals documented that in some cultures a smiling individual may be perceived as less intelligent than the same non-smiling individual (and that cultural uncertainty avoidance may explain these differences). Furthermore,

1456-426: The maxilla in front of the lacrimal groove , and from the anterior surface and borders of a short fibrous band, the medial palpebral ligament . From this origin, the fibers are directed laterally, forming a broad and thin layer, which occupies the eyelids or palpebræ, surrounds the circumference of the orbit, and spreads over the temple, and downward on the cheek. There are at least 3 clearly defined sections of

1512-468: The zygomatic major muscle (which raises the corners of the mouth) and the orbicularis oculi muscle (which raises the cheeks and forms crow's feet around the eyes). The Duchenne smile has been described as "smizing", as in "smiling with the eyes". An exaggerated Duchenne smile is sometimes associated with lying. A non-Duchenne smile involves only the zygomatic major muscle. According to Messenger et. al. "Research with adults initially indicated that joy

1568-451: The abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship. Political entities may employ patterns of similar techniques in the exertion of abusive power and control over persons subject to them. Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage

1624-421: The contagion model for social influence which is assumed and used in many of the above studies. In order to address these flaws, causal inference methods have been proposed instead, to systematically disentangle social influence from other possible confounding causes when using observational data. As described above, theoretical approaches are in the form of knowledge clusters. A global theory of influence

1680-452: The expectations of others. These include our need to be right ( informational social influence ) and our need to be liked ( normative social influence ). Informational influence (or social proof ) is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either from stimuli being intrinsically ambiguous or because of social disagreement. Normative influence

1736-445: The eyebrow skin. Since it pulls the eyebrows upward, it is the antagonist of the orbicularis oculi. It is used in looking up, and increasing vision if there is insufficient light or when objects are far away. It is involved in the corneal reflex , part of the assessment of the function of the facial nerve . This can be used to examine the facial nerve even in unconscious patients. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text in

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1792-418: The eyes from excess sunlight. The procerus (pyramidalis) muscles, in the bridge of the nose, arise from the lower nasal bone to the lower forehead, on each side of the midline. The procerus muscles pull the skin into horizontal wrinkles. The frontalis muscle, which runs from the upper forehead, halfway between the coronal suture (which traverses the top of the skull) and the top edge of the orbit, attaches to

1848-725: The human smile. Social influence Social influence comprises the ways in which individuals adjust their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity , socialization , peer pressure , obedience , leadership , persuasion , sales , and marketing . Typically social influence results from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence. Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to

1904-416: The impact of social influence. Social impact theory was developed by Bibb Latané in 1981. This theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person's likelihood to respond to social influence: Robert Cialdini defines six "weapons of influence" that can contribute to an individual's propensity to be influenced by a persuader: Social Influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it

1960-400: The inability to blink or close the ipsilateral eyelid. Subsequent lack of irrigation increases the risk of corneal inflammation and ulcers. A number of auxiliary muscles assist in cooperating with the eyelid muscles. For example, the corrugator supercilii pulls the eyebrows to the bridge of the nose, making a roof over the middle of the forehead and forehead wrinkles, used mainly to protect

2016-430: The individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior". Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of others or with normative standards. It

2072-414: The lens of network theory to examine social relationships . Social network analysis as a field has become more prominent since the mid-20th century in determining the channels and effects of social influence. For example, Christakis and Fowler found that social networks transmit states and behaviors such as obesity, smoking, drinking and happiness. However, important flaws have been identified in

2128-455: The main article links provided. There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution . The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief). Compliance

2184-400: The majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to positive feedback between belief and behavior . A prophecy declared as truth (when it is actually false) may sufficiently influence people, either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions ultimately fulfill

2240-448: The maximum shocks. Those perceived as experts may exert social influence as a result of their perceived expertise. This involves credibility , a tool of social influence from which one draws upon the notion of trust. People believe an individual to be credible for a variety of reasons, such as perceived experience, attractiveness, knowledge, etc. Additionally, pressure to maintain one's reputation and not be viewed as fringe may increase

2296-401: The muscle is thin and pale; it arises from the bifurcation of the medial palpebral ligament , forms a series of concentric curves, and is inserted into the lateral palpebral raphe at the outer canthus (corner) of the eye. The palpebral portion contains the preseptal and pretarsal muscles. The pretarsal orbicularis is thought to be responsible for the spontaneous blink . The lacrimal part is

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2352-414: The once-false prophecy. This term is credited to sociologist Robert K. Merton from an article he published in 1948. Social contagion involves the spontaneous spread of behaviors or emotions through a group, population or social network. Social contagion consists of two categories, behavioral contagion and emotional contagion . Unlike conformity, the emotion or behavior being adopted may not represent

2408-433: The orbicularis muscle. However, it is not clear whether the lacrimal section is a separate section, or whether it is just an extension of the preseptal and pretarsal sections. The orbital portion is thicker and of a reddish color; its fibers form a complete ellipse without interruption at the lateral palpebral commissure; the upper fibers of this portion blend with the frontalis and corrugator . The palpebral portion of

2464-410: The orbital portion is subject to conscious control. When the entire muscle is brought into action, the skin of the forehead, temple, and cheek is drawn toward the medial angle of the orbit, and the eyelids are firmly closed, as in photophobia . The skin thus drawn upon is thrown into folds, especially radiating from the lateral angle of the eyelids; these folds become permanent in senescence , and form

2520-429: The palpebral. Each time the eyelids are closed through the action of the orbicularis, the medial palpebral ligament is tightened, the wall of the lacrimal sac is thus drawn lateralward and forward, so that a vacuum is made in it and the tears are sucked along the lacrimal canals into it. The lacrimal part of the orbicularis oculi draws the eyelids and the ends of the lacrimal canals medialward and compresses them against

2576-477: The presence of perceived legitimate authority figures. Persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an attitude by rational or symbolic means. US psychologist Robert Cialdini defined six "weapons of influence": reciprocity , commitment, social proof , authority , liking, and scarcity to bring about conformity by directed means. Persuasion can occur through appeals to reason or appeals to emotion . Psychological manipulation

2632-400: The public to support issues that he or she does not have the power to impose on the public. This is often referred to as using the " bully pulpit ." Likewise, celebrities do not usually possess any political power, but they are familiar to many of the world's citizens and, therefore, possess social status . Power is one of the biggest reasons an individual feels the need to follow through with

2688-452: The question she had asked. Biological anthropologist Helen Fisher states that, while this could be either caring or controlling behavior, such behavior is unlikely to be welcome. Cheek dimples are formed secondary to a bifid zygomaticus major muscle, whose fascial strands insert into the dermis and cause a dermal tethering effect. Dimples are genetically inherited and are a dominant trait. Having bilateral dimples (dimples in both cheeks)

2744-550: The same study showed that corruption at the societal level may undermine the prosocial perception of smiling—in societies with high corruption indicators, trust toward smiling individuals is reduced. There can also be gender differences. In the United States and Canada, women report men telling them to smile. For example, Greg Rickford , a member of the Canadian Parliament told a female journalist to smile rather than answer

2800-402: The so-called " crow's feet ". The Levator palpebræ superioris is the direct antagonist of this muscle; it raises the upper eyelid and exposes the front of the bulb of the eye. In addition, the orbital and palpebral portions can work independent of each other, as in the furrowing of the brows by contraction of the orbital to reduce glare while keeping the eyes open by virtue of the relaxation of

2856-425: The social context, smiling and laughter have different functions in the order of sequence in social situations: Smiling is a signaling system that evolved from a need to communicate information in many different forms. One of these is an advertisement of sexual interest. Female smiles are appealing to heterosexual males, increasing physical attractiveness and enhancing sex appeal . However, recent research indicates

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2912-430: The suggestions of another. A person who possesses more authority (or is perceived as being more powerful) than others in a group is an icon or is most "popular" within a group. This person has the most influence over others. For example, in a child's school life, people who seem to control the perceptions of the students at school are most powerful in having a social influence over other children. Culture appears to play

2968-457: The surface of the globe of the eye, thus placing them in the most favorable situation for receiving the tears; it also compresses the lacrimal sac . This part comprises two pieces: Horner's muscle and the muscle of Riolan , the latter helps hold the eyelids together to keep the lacrimal passage waterproof. Associated pathology, such as a lesion of the facial nerve seen in Bell's palsy results in

3024-420: The tendency to agree with the group. This phenomenon is known as groupthink . Appeals to authority may especially effect norms of obedience . The compliance of normal humans to authority in the famous Milgram experiment demonstrate the power of perceived authority. Those with access to the media may use this access in an attempt to influence the public. For example, a politician may use speeches to persuade

3080-425: Was indexed by generic smiling, any smiling involving the raising of the lip corners by the zygomatic major .... More recent research suggests that smiling in which the muscle around the eye contracts, raising the cheeks high (Duchenne smiling), is uniquely associated with positive emotion." The "Pan Am smile", also known as the " Botox smile", is the name given to a fake smile, in which only the zygomatic major muscle

3136-536: Was written by social psychologist Serge Moscovici and published in 1976. Minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority. Minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority). Minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence ) because

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