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120-521: It was established in 1991 from former ceremonial units in the Yugoslav People's Army . The guard is intended to be present at all events at state and ministerial level, in units and commands of the SAF and local communities at home and abroad. Within the framework of its tasks, it is responsible for carrying out all types of military and military protocol, among which are: Since June 25, 2013 ( Statehood Day ),

240-785: A French design, four British Ham-class minesweepers , and six 117-class inshore minesweepers built in domestic shipyards. Larger numbers of older and less capable minesweepers were mainly used in riverine operations. Other older units were used as dedicated minelayers. The navy used amphibious landing craft in support of army operations in the area of the Danube , Sava , and Drava rivers. They included both tank and assault landing craft. In 1990, there were four 501-class, ten 211-class, and twenty-five 601-class landing craft in service. Most of them were also capable of laying mines in rivers and coastal areas. The Yugoslav Navy had 10,000 sailors (including 4,400 conscripts and 900 marines). They were essentially

360-694: A brigade HQ and 4 battalions and B class brigade had 2–3 battalions with HQ. The "Jedinstvo 3" plan started in 1990. To the military leadership of the JNA, it was obvious that USSR was moving to defend its internal borders and the only global superpower left was the USA. It was then agreed in JNA that potential for aggression from the Warsaw Pact had diminished but potential aggression from NATO had increased. The new plan "Jedinstvo 3" included changes to organize better defenses from new perceived external threats. The plan required

480-498: A coastal defence force with the mission of preventing enemy amphibious landings along the country's rugged 4,000-kilometer shoreline and coastal islands, and contesting enemy blockade or control of the strategic Strait of Otranto . The entire coast of Yugoslavia was part of the naval region headquartered at Split . The naval region was divided into three smaller naval districts and a riverine flotilla with major naval bases located at Split, Šibenik , Pula , Ploče and Kotor on

600-424: A communist or socialist society. In 1945, Yugoslavia relied on United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration aid as it experienced food shortages, but it gave much greater internal publicity to comparably smaller Soviet assistance. On 10 January 1945, Stalin called Yugoslavia's foreign policy unreasonable because of its territorial claims against most of its neighbours , including Hungary, Austria, and

720-523: A crew of five in the span of ten days. The Western Allies incorrectly believed that Stalin encouraged Tito's persistence; Stalin actually wished to avoid confrontation with the West. Tito also sought to establish regional dominance over Yugoslavia's southern neighbours— Albania , Bulgaria, and Greece . The first overtures in this direction occurred in 1943 when a proposal for a regional headquarters to coordinate national Partisan actions fell through. Tito, who saw

840-531: A crisis. Because of internal and external security changes during that time, "Jedinstvo" was later modeled in three parts: "Jedinstvo 1", "Jedinstvo 2", and "Jedinstvo 3", starting from 1987 (with a planned completion date of 1995) for the JNA to start major reform. The first part of JNA major overhaul under "Jedinstvo 1" had its basic force structure nearly completed in 1989. Manpower was planned to be reduced to about 1 million in wartime, while in peacetime it would be 299,057 personnel including officers, soldiers and

960-868: A hypothetical federation with Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. He also demanded an end to the insurrection in Greece, arguing that any further support for the Communist guerrillas there might lead to a wider conflict with the United States and the United Kingdom. By limiting his support to the DSE, Stalin adhered to the Percentages Agreement, an informal deal Stalin and Winston Churchill had struck in Moscow in October 1944, which placed Greece in

1080-570: A matter of principle. He also denied Hebrang was a Soviet source in the KPJ but confirmed that Žujović was indeed one. Stalin questioned the scale of KPJ's achievements, alleging that the success of any communist party depended on Red Army assistance—implying the Soviet military was essential to whether or not the KPJ retained power. Finally, he suggested taking the matter up before the Cominform. In their response to

1200-598: A model for the Eastern Bloc to emulate. From 1946, internal reports from the Soviet embassy in Belgrade began to portray Yugoslav leaders in increasingly unfavourable terms. The Soviet Union began sending its own advisors to Albania in mid-1947, which Tito saw as a threat to the further integration of Albania into Yugoslavia. He attributed the move to a power struggle within the PKSH Central Committee involving Hoxha,

1320-564: A new Communist organisation independent of the KPJ in the NDH. The Soviet Union also tacitly approved the restructuring of the Bulgarian Workers' Party . In particular, the party's new organisational structure and territory of operation were adjusted to account for the annexation of Yugoslav territories by Bulgaria . The Soviets only reversed their support for such actions in September 1941—well after

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1440-512: A new domestic multirole fighter plane called Novi Avion , which was supposed to replace the MiG-21 and J-21 Jastreb fleets entirely. The design of the new aircraft was influenced by the Mirage 2000 and Dassault Rafale fighter types and it was to enter service by the early 2000s. As an interim solution, a modernization package was planned for the MiG-21 and it is speculated that India's MiG-21 Bison upgrade

1560-478: A nuclear explosion and was destroyed by the JNA in 1992 to prevent its capture. Željava was home to the 117th Fighter Aviation Regiment, which was composed of the 124th and 125th Fighter Squadrons, equipped with MiG-21Bis fighters, and the 352nd Reconnaissance Squadron, equipped with MiG-21R aircraft. The Air and Air Defence Forces were headquartered at Zemun and had fighter and bomber aircraft, helicopters, and air defence artillery units at air bases throughout

1680-575: A spy for the Croatian ultra-nationalist and fascist Ustaše movement during his captivity in 1942, and that he was subsequently blackmailed with that information by the Soviets. Both Žujović and Hebrang were apprehended within a week. On 4 May, Stalin sent the second letter to the KPJ. He denied the Soviet leadership was misinformed about the situation in Yugoslavia and claimed that the differences were over

1800-457: A suicide. Following Spiru's death, there were a series of meetings of Yugoslav and Soviet diplomats and officials on the matter of integration, culminating in a meeting between Stalin and KPJ official Milovan Đilas in December 1947 and January 1948. By its conclusion, Stalin supported the integration of Albania into Yugoslavia, provided it was postponed for a more opportune time and carried out with

1920-526: A total of total of 760 105mm, 155mm, and 203mm artillery pieces. The artillery pieces delivered were used to reequip artillery units within Yugoslavia's eight divisions. Under the constitution and laws of SFR Yugoslavia, the Yugoslav People's Army was a part of the armed forces with the Territorial Defense as the joint armed forces of all working people and citizens of Yugoslavia. The main task of

2040-682: A treaty obliging Yugoslavia and Bulgaria to consult the Soviet Union on all foreign policy matters. The KPJ politburo met in secret on 19 February and decided against any federation with Bulgaria. Two days later, Tito, Kardelj, and Đilas met with Nikos Zachariadis , the general secretary of the KKE. They informed Zachariadis that Stalin was opposed to the KKE's armed struggle but promised continued Yugoslav support, nonetheless. The KPJ Central Committee met on 1 March and noted that Yugoslavia would remain independent only if it resisted Soviet designs for

2160-613: Is also possible Stalin was dissuaded from intervening by the United States' response to the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. In the immediate aftermath of the split, there was at least one failed attempt at a Yugoslav military coup supported by the Soviets. It was headed by the Chief of the General Staff , Colonel General Arso Jovanović , Major General Branko Petričević Kadja  [ sr ] , and Colonel Vladimir Dapčević . The plot

2280-833: Is worn by members guard during protocol tasks and in accordance with the Rules on Service in the Slovenian Armed Forces and the Rules on Protocol . The uniform color consists of a green and blue and includes a jacket, trousers with a belt, and a cap/beret, a shirt and tie under a jacket, brown leather boots, and white gloves and socks. The belt and shoulder cords of the unit are golden yellow. Yugoslav People%27s Army The Yugoslav People's Army ( JNA / ЈНА ; Macedonian , Montenegrin and Serbian : Југословенска народна армија , Jugoslovenska narodna armija ; Croatian and Bosnian : Jugoslavenska narodna armija ; Slovene : Jugoslovanska ljudska armada , JLA ), also called

2400-579: The Adriatic Fleet. The entire coast of Yugoslavia was part of the naval region headquartered at Split , Croatia. The Partisans had operated many small boats in raids harassing Italian convoys in the Adriatic Sea during World War II. After the war, the navy operated numerous German and Italian submarines, destroyers, minesweepers, and tank-landing craft captured during the war or received as war reparations . The United States provided eight torpedo boats in

2520-528: The Air Force . Almost all Air Force officers had Soviet training, and some of them fled Yugoslavia in Air Force planes. The defectors included Major General Pero Popivoda, who was the head of the Air Force operational service. The Batajnica , Zemun , and Pančevo airbases near Belgrade saw several attacks by groups of saboteurs. The Zemun airbase commander and his deputy fled to Romania. Between 1948 and 1955,

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2640-592: The Communist Party of Yugoslavia . It was accompanied by a significant level of disruption to the Yugoslav economy, which had previously depended on the Eastern Bloc. The conflict also prompted fears of an impending Soviet invasion and even a coup attempt by senior Soviet-aligned military leaders, a fear fueled by thousands of border incidents and incursions orchestrated by the Soviets and their allies. Deprived of aid from

2760-528: The Informbiro period , after 1948, is contested. Low-end estimates indicate that 10–15% of the army's personnel favoured the Soviet position. Yugoslav sources estimate the number of military members arrested ranged from 4,153 officers and soldiers (estimated by Radonjić), to 7,000 imprisoned officers estimated by Milovan Đilas . The purge included 22 officers in the presidential guard regiment reporting directly to Tito , including Momčilo Đurić, wartime commander of

2880-811: The Soko J-22 Orao being its best known product. There was also Zastava Arms for firearms and artillery. Another important manufacturer was Utva in Serbia. The Yugoslav military–industrial complex produced tanks (most notably, the M-84 ), armored vehicles ( BOV APC , BVP M-80 ), various artillery pieces ( mortars , multiple rocket launchers , howitzers ), anti-aircraft weapons, as well as various types of infantry weapons and other equipment. JNA had modern infrastructure with many air bases including underground shelters and command and control centers in many locations including several mountains. The biggest and best known installation

3000-730: The Yugoslav National Army , was the military of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and its antecedents from 1945 to 1992. The origins of the JNA started during the Yugoslav Partisans of World War II. As a predecessor of the JNA, the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia (NOVJ) was formed as a part of the anti-fascist People's Liberation War of Yugoslavia in the Bosnian town of Rudo on 22 December 1941. After

3120-824: The Yugoslav Partisan Supreme Headquarters escort battalion. During this period of Soviet blockade, the Yugoslav Army's development stagnated. Forty-nine Yugoslav Army graduates of the General Staff Academy , the Frunze Academy , and other Soviet military academies were deemed potential Soviet supporters. Many of those attending such academies in the USSR at the time of the Tito–Stalin split never returned to Yugoslavia. The split particularly affected

3240-485: The capture of Belgrade . Marshal Fyodor Tolbukhin 's Third Ukrainian Front had to request formal permission from Tito's provisional government to enter Yugoslavia and had to accept Yugoslav civil authority in any liberated territory. The Soviet Union and Yugoslavia signed a friendship treaty when Tito met with Stalin in Moscow in April 1945. They established good bilateral relations despite differences in how to bring about

3360-466: The gross national product . A Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) of 30 officers commanded by Brigadier General John W. Harmony was established by the United States in Belgrade in 1951. It operated for ten years, disbursing military grants and arranging another US$ 1 billion in arms sales on favorable terms. Among weapons transferred were 599 M-4A3 tanks , 319 M-47 tanks, 715 M-7, M-18, and M-36 self-propelled guns, 565 M-3A1 and M-8 armored cars, and

3480-480: The 1960s. In 1990, the main combat units of the submarine service were three Heroj -class submarines armed with 533 mm torpedoes. Two smaller Sava -class submarines entered service in the late 1970s. Two Sutjeska -class submarines had been relegated mainly to training missions by 1990. At that time the navy had apparently shifted to construction of versatile midget submarines. Four Una-class midgets and four Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicles were in service in

3600-559: The Adriatic Sea, and Novi Sad on the River Danube. The strategic islands of Vis and Lastovo were heavily fortified and unauthorised entry was prohibited. The fleet was organized into missile, torpedo, and patrol boat brigades, a submarine division, and minesweeper flotillas. The naval order of battle included four frigates, three corvettes, five patrol submarines, fifty-eight missile, torpedo, and patrol boats, and twenty-eight minesweepers. One antisubmarine warfare helicopter squadron

3720-541: The Albanian perception that the Yugoslav and Albanian borders were threatened by Greece. Furthermore, the DSE promised to cede Aegean Macedonia to Yugoslavia in return for the Yugoslav support when it comes to power in Greece. There was a United States intelligence-gathering operation in the country. In 1947, twelve British Secret Intelligence Service -trained agents were airdropped in central Albania to start an insurrection, which did not materialise. The Yugoslavs hoped that

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3840-675: The Axis against the Partisans. By November, the Partisans were fighting the Chetniks while sending messages to Moscow protesting Soviet propaganda praising Mihailović. In 1943, Tito transformed the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) into an all-Yugoslav deliberative and legislative body, denounced the government-in-exile, and forbade King Peter's return to

3960-566: The Axis destruction of "democratic liberties". Stalin thus felt that Communist forces in Axis-occupied Europe were actually obligated to fight to restore democratic liberties—even if temporarily. In terms of Yugoslavia, this meant that Stalin expected the KPJ to fight to restore the government-in-exile. Remnants of the Royal Yugoslav Army , led by Colonel Draža Mihailović and organised as Chetnik guerrillas , were already pursuing

4080-632: The British government warned the Bulgarian authorities against any federation arrangement with Yugoslavia before Bulgaria signed a peace treaty with the Allies. The federation was shelved, to Tito's relief. Three years later, in 1948, when Tito and Hoxha were preparing to deploy the Yugoslav People's Army to Albania, the Bulgarian Workers' Party leader Georgi Dimitrov spoke to Western journalists about turning

4200-400: The British sphere of influence. Stalin also demanded an immediate federation consisting of Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. According to Stalin, Albania would join later. At the same time, he expressed support for similar unions of Hungary and Romania and of Poland and Czechoslovakia . Yugoslav and Bulgarian participants in the meeting acknowledged mistakes, and Stalin made Kardelj and Dimitrov sign

4320-460: The DSE might allow Yugoslavia to annex Greek territory by expanding into Aegean Macedonia even if the DSE failed to seize power. Shortly after Đilas and Stalin met, Tito suggested to Hoxha that Albania should permit Yugoslavia to use military bases near Korçë , close to the Albanian–Greek border, to defend against a potential Greek and Anglo–American attack. By the end of January, Hoxha accepted

4440-567: The Eastern Bloc into a federally organised state. He then included Greece in a list of "people's democracies", causing concern in the West and in the Soviet Union. Tito sought to distance Yugoslavia from the idea, but the Soviets came to believe that Dimitrov's remarks were influenced by Yugoslavia's intentions in the Balkans. On 1 February 1948, Molotov instructed the Yugoslav and Bulgarian leaders to send representatives to Moscow by 10 February for discussions. On 5 February, just days before

4560-611: The Free Territory of Trieste, which had been carved out of pre-war Italian territory. Tito then delivered a speech criticising the Soviet Union for not backing his territorial demands. The confrontation with the Western Allies became tense in August 1946 when Yugoslav fighter aircraft forced a United States Army Air Forces Douglas C-47 Skytrain to crash-land near Ljubljana and shot down another above Bled , capturing ten and killing

4680-466: The Guard's motorized brigade, school centers, three SIGNAL regiments, a light anti-aircraft artillery regiment, and a few independent battalions and divisions. In the "Jedinstvo 1" reforms, JNA eliminated most of its old divisional infantry organization and established the brigade and corps structure with some independent units under direct command of SSNO. Territorial defense was also changed and laws and

4800-494: The JNA on 1 January 1990 had: and many others, including 19 military police battalions and river flotilla giving in total 28 divisions, 307 brigades and regiments and 137 independent battalions/divisions. Under "Jedinstvo 3" until 1995, the structure of the JNA was: There were other units that had smaller but more modern and mobile forces with more mobile A class units with a total of 19 divisions, 234. brigades and 104 independent battalions/regiments in 1995. Total manpower at

4920-599: The June 1948 Cominform meeting suggests that Stalin's objective was to isolate Yugoslavia—thereby causing its decline—instead of toppling Tito. In an effort to discredit Tito, the Soviets helped Bulgaria establish three intelligence operations posts along the country's border with Yugoslavia – in Vidin , Slivnitsa , and Dupnitsa . Their purpose was to establish channels for the distribution of propaganda materials against Tito and maintain connections with Cominform supporters in Yugoslavia. It

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5040-501: The KPJ before the Cominform would amount to a tacit admission of guilt. On 19 June, the KPJ received a formal invitation to attend the Cominform meeting in Bucharest two days later. The KPJ leadership informed the Cominform that they would not send any delegates. The Cominform published its Resolution on the KPJ on 28 June exposing the conflict and criticising the KPJ for anti-Sovietism and ideological errors, lack of democracy in

5160-510: The KPJ to back down, sacrifice the "dubious Marxists", and realign itself with him. Faced with the choice of resisting or submitting to Stalin, Tito chose the former, likely counting on the KPJ's wide organic base, built through the Partisan movement, to support him. It is estimated that up to 20 percent of the KPJ's membership supported Stalin instead of Tito. The party's leadership noticed this, and it led to wide-ranging purges that went far beyond

5280-918: The Osa I class. The Kobra class was to be armed with eight Swedish RBS-15 anti-ship missiles, and fifteen of them were ordered in late 1989. Armed with two P-15 Termit launchers, the Končar -class boats were modeled after the Spica class , and there were plans to upgrade them with Swedish-built missiles. Two Kobra missile boats were built by Croatia as the Kralj -class fast attack craft and both are still in service. The navy's fifteen Topčider-class torpedo boats included four former Soviet Shershen class and eleven Yugoslav built units. The Yugoslav navy's mine warfare and countermeasures capabilities were considered adequate in 1990. It operated four Vukov Klanac -class coastal minesweepers built on

5400-522: The PKSH had proposed the transfer of Kosovo to Albania, only to be confronted with a counterproposal: incorporating Albania into a future Yugoslav federation . Tito and PKSH first secretary Enver Hoxha revisited the idea in 1946, agreeing to merge the two countries. After the war, Tito continued to pursue dominance in the region. In 1946, Albania and Yugoslavia signed a treaty on mutual assistance and customs agreements, almost completely integrating Albania into

5520-539: The Partisans complied. Nevertheless, Yugoslavia maintained its claims against Italy and Austria. The territorial dispute in the northwest part of Istria and around the city of Trieste caused the Treaty of Peace with Italy to be delayed until 1947, and led to the establishment of the independent Free Territory of Trieste . This did not satisfy Tito as he sought revisions of the borders around Trieste and in Carinthia, prompting

5640-607: The Secretary of Defense was prevented or absent to fulfill his function, was formally his deputy who could take command of the armed forces. In 1987, under decree of the Presidency of Yugoslavia , the General Staff of the JNA was renamed to the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Yugoslavia, thus effectively giving command of JNA and the TO to one military body in order to more efficiently command

5760-519: The Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, Yugoslavia subsequently turned to the United States for economic and military assistance. During World War II , the relationship between Yugoslav Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was complicated by the Soviet Union's alliances, Stalin's desire to expand the Soviet sphere of influence beyond the borders of the Soviet Union, and

5880-577: The Soviet and Hungarian armies made plans expecting an attack by the Western allies through Yugoslavia, potentially supported by Yugoslav forces. A major component of those preparations was the construction of large-scale fortifications along the Hungarian–Yugoslav border. The Yugoslavs believed that a Soviet invasion was likely or imminent and made defensive plans accordingly. A message Stalin sent to Czechoslovak President Klement Gottwald shortly after

6000-433: The U.S. decided to provide Tito with economic assistance. In return, the U.S. demanded the cessation of Yugoslav aid to the DSE when the internal situation in Yugoslavia allowed for such a move without endangering Tito's position. Ultimately, Secretary of State Dean Acheson took the position that the Yugoslav five-year plan would have to succeed if Tito was to prevail against Stalin. Acheson also argued that supporting Tito

6120-557: The U.S., believing it would provide the Soviets with a pretext for invasion. By 1951, the Yugoslav authorities became convinced that a Soviet attack was inevitable irrespective of military aid from the West. Consequently, Yugoslavia was included in the Mutual Defense Assistance Program . When the conflict became public in 1948, Stalin embarked upon a propaganda campaign against Tito. The Soviet Union's allies blockaded their borders with Yugoslavia; there were 7,877 border incidents . By 1953, Soviet or Soviet-backed incursions had resulted in

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6240-660: The US national guard and were subordinate to supreme command as an integral part of the defence system in wartime. The territorial defence (reserve force) was made up of former conscripts; they were occasionally called up for war exercises. In accordance with the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution the Land Forces were divided into six armies allocated to the five republics. The ground forces were organised into infantry, armour , artillery, and air defence, as well as signal, engineering and chemical defence corps. The Yugoslav Air Force had about 32,000 personnel including 4,000 conscripts , and operated over 400 aircraft and 200 helicopters . It

6360-402: The US, the request was rejected. By the late 1980s, the licensed production of Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopters was also planned, but due to the dissolution of the country, it was not continued. One of the structures operated by the Yugoslav Air Force was the underground Željava Air Base near the town of Bihać in northwest Bosnia and Herzegovina . The structure was made to withstand

6480-485: The United States gave Yugoslavia US $ 600 million in direct military grants and an equal amount in economic aid, enabling Yugoslavia to devote more of its domestic resources to defence. After two visits to the United States by Colonel General Koča Popović and Colonel General Milo Kilibarda in May–June and August 1951, respectively, U.S. weaponry began arriving by late 1951. By 1952 the Armed Forces had grown to 500,000 troops, and defence expenditures consumed 22 percent of

6600-535: The United States. Others were armed with Soviet Kh-23 and Kh-28 missiles. The air force also had about ninety armed Mi-8 helicopter gunships to provide added mobility and fire support for small ground units. A large number of reconnaissance aircraft were available to support ground forces operations. Four squadrons of seventy Galeb, Jastreb, and Orao-1 fighters were configured for reconnaissance missions. The Yugoslav Air Force had nine squadrons of 130 Soviet-made MiG-21 interceptors for air defence. First produced in

6720-481: The Western Allies to keep a garrison in Trieste to prevent a Yugoslav takeover. Tito's continued insistence on the acquisition of Trieste was also seen by Stalin as an embarrassment to the Italian Communist Party . In the immediate aftermath of World War II, the Soviet Union sought to establish its political dominance in foreign countries captured by the Red Army , mostly by establishing coalition governments in Eastern European countries. One-party Communist rule

6840-438: The Yugoslav Partisans liberated the country from the Axis Powers , that date was officially celebrated as the "Day of the Army" in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFR Yugoslavia). In March 1945, the NOVJ was renamed the "Yugoslav Army" (" Jugoslavenska/Jugoslovenska Armija ") and, on its 10th anniversary, on 22 December 1951, "People's" (" Narodna ") was added. The support the Soviets had within JNA ranks during

6960-399: The Yugoslav People's Army was to protect the independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and social organization of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Though the Presidency of Yugoslavia was the supreme commander of the armed forces and in command of Yugoslav People's Army, some duties from the presidency could be given to the Secretary of Defence. The Secretary of Defence

7080-446: The Yugoslav component of the Partisans as superior, declined to go ahead with any scheme that would give other national components equal say. The pre-war partition of Macedonia into Vardar , Pirin , and Aegean Macedonia —controlled by Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Greece respectively—complicated regional relations. The presence of a substantial ethnic Albanian population in the Yugoslav region of Kosovo further impeded relations. In 1943,

7200-499: The Yugoslav economic system. Nearly a thousand Yugoslav economic development experts were sent to Albania, and a KPJ representative was added to the PKSH Central Committee. The two countries' militaries also cooperated, at least in the mining of the Corfu Channel in October 1946—an action which damaged two Royal Navy destroyers and resulted in 44 dead and 42 injured. Even though the Soviet Union had previously indicated it would only deal with Albania through Yugoslavia, Stalin cautioned

7320-431: The Yugoslavs not to pursue unification with haste. In August 1947, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed a friendship and mutual assistance treaty in Bled without consulting the Soviet Union, leading Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov to denounce it. Despite this, when the Cominform was established in September to facilitate international Communist activity and communication, the Soviets openly touted Yugoslavia as

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7440-405: The armed forces in case of war, according to the law of "All-people's defense" from 1982. In the mid-1980s, plans were made under a formal top-secret strategic and operational plan named "Jedinstvo" for a structural change from republic armies and divisions to military districts and brigades to allow for easier federal consolidation of the republics' territorial armies, particularly in the case of

7560-499: The armed forces, there was also the Territorial Defense , based on each republic's territory that formed Yugoslavia that would fall under command of JNA during wartime. The Ground Forces had the greatest number of personnel. In 1991 there were about 140,000 active-duty soldiers (including 90,000 conscripts), and over a million trained reservists that could be mobilized in wartime. Each of the Yugoslav constituent six republics had its own Territorial Defence forces which were similar to

7680-595: The building of smaller but more modernized forces with highly mobile units. Corps closer to the border would have two A. class brigades including an artillery regiment of A. class, an anti-armor regiment of B. class and an engineering battalion of A class. Corps deeper inside country would have one brigade of A. or B. class. Under "Jedinstvo 3" every corps in the Air Force should have one support aviation brigade, one fighter wing, one Air Surveillance, Early Warning and Guidance regiment, 1–2 rocket brigades or regiments and rest up to possibilities to equip. Under "Jedinstvo 2",

7800-743: The civilian workforce, including civil service. Equipment purchase was not realized in full. The JNA's organization and structure after "Jedinstvo 1" consisted of the Ground Forces , Air Force and Navy . Under reforms through the "Jedinstvo" plan it was planned to reorganize the army's structure into four major army areas called "Vojna Oblast" under command of the Federal Secretariat of People's Defence (SSNO) – "Vojna oblast" or military regions were further divided into corps, brigades, garrisons and smaller districts and sectors that were responsible for administrative tasks such as draft registration , mobilization , and construction and maintenance of military facilities. The regions were: Directly under SSNO were

7920-405: The conflict as an ideological one. In his letter, Stalin denounced Tito and Kardelj, as well as Đilas, Svetozar Vukmanović , Boris Kidrič , and Aleksandar Ranković , as "dubious Marxists " responsible for the anti-Soviet atmosphere in Yugoslavia. Stalin also criticised Yugoslav policies on security, the economy, and political appointments. In particular, he resented the suggestion that Yugoslavia

8040-415: The confrontation between Tito's Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) and the Yugoslav government-in-exile headed by King Peter II of Yugoslavia . The Axis powers invaded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941. The country surrendered 11 days later, and the government fled abroad, ultimately relocating to London. Nazi Germany , Fascist Italy , Bulgaria and Hungary annexed parts of

8160-423: The consent of the Albanians. It is still unclear if Stalin was sincere in his support or if he was pursuing a delaying tactic. Regardless, Đilas perceived Stalin's support as genuine. Yugoslav support to the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and KKE-led Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) in the Greek Civil War indirectly encouraged Albanian support for closer ties with Yugoslavia. The civil war in Greece reinforced

8280-465: The constitution were amended to address those changes. The Ground Forces "converted ten of twelve infantry divisions into twenty-nine tank , mechanized and mountain infantry brigades with integral artillery , air defense and anti-tank regiments under corps structure. One airborne brigade was organized before 1990. The shift to brigade-level organization provided greater operational flexibility, maneuverability, and tactical initiative and reduced

8400-470: The constitution, which says that, "Regarding the composition of staff and the employment in the high command and leadership functions in the Yugoslav People's Army the principle is applied of as proportional representation as possible of republics and autonomous provinces". Serbs, Montenegrins, and Yugoslavs were by some opinions over-represented in the officer corps, but that was still in accordance with cited constitution. JNA's high-ranking positions in 1980

8520-429: The country. The remaining territory was broken up: most of it was organised as the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a puppet state garrisoned by German and Italian forces, while the capital Belgrade remained in the German-occupied territory of Serbia . The Soviet Union, still honouring the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , broke off relations with the Yugoslav government and sought, through its intelligence assets, to set up

8640-530: The country. These decisions ran against explicit Soviet advice instructing Tito not to antagonise the exiled monarch and his government. Stalin was at the Tehran Conference at the time and viewed the move as a betrayal of the Soviet Union. In 1944–1945, Stalin's renewed instructions to Communist leaders in Europe to establish coalitions with bourgeois politicians were met with incredulity in Yugoslavia. This shock

8760-451: The crisis, it is a sense of self-confidence , belonging to the community, I think that we missed it during the transition, it was lost when we ran away for other goods, but now it seems to be very important. For our self-esteem and for dealing with the circumstances in which we find ourselves. The guard has its own distinct uniform which is separate from the rest of the uniforms of the SV. The uniform

8880-412: The day the JNA was founded. Prestigious awards were given on that day: they were called dvadesetdrugi decembar . Rewards were given to anyone who had contributed to the defence of Yugoslavia in some way including military, scientific, economic or another contribution. Winners of such awards were highly praised in media and among the populace. Every ten years, special medals were awarded on 22 December. It

9000-474: The deaths of 27 Yugoslav security personnel. It is unclear whether the Soviets planned any military intervention against Yugoslavia after the split. Hungarian Major General Béla Király , who defected to the United States in 1956, claimed that such plans existed. Later research by Hungarian historian László Ritter disputed Király's claim. Ritter based his opinion on the absence of any former Soviet or Warsaw Pact archival material documenting such plans, adding that

9120-417: The economic development of the Eastern Bloc. The Soviet Union viewed the Yugoslav five-year development plan unfavourably because it did not align with the needs of the Eastern Bloc but prioritised development based solely on local development needs. The Central Committee also dismissed the possibility of a federation with Bulgaria, interpreting it as a form of Trojan horse tactic, and decided to proceed with

9240-462: The end of 1995 was about 222.151 in peace and 834.891 in war. Internal changes in Yugoslavia prevented the total realization of the "Jedinstvo 3" plan. While many changes under it were done during 1990, not all were finished completely. While most commands and units were formed and manned, equipping was not finished according to plan because of dissolution of Yugoslavia and stopping of deliveries from most of domestic factories to units of JNA. As part of

9360-416: The existing policy towards Albania. Politburo member and government minister Sreten Žujović , who was not present at the meeting on 19 February, attended the 1 March meeting and informed the Soviets. In Albania, Xoxe purged all anti-Yugoslav forces from the PKSH Central Committee at a plenum of 26 February–8 March. The PKSH Central Committee adopted a resolution that official Albanian policy

9480-639: The former Yugoslavia: Batajnica Air Base ( Belgrade ), Niš Constantine the Great Airport , Slatina Air Base ( Priština ), Golubovci Airbase ( Titograd ), Skopski Petrovec , Sarajevo , Mostar , Željava Air Base (Bihać), Pleso ( Zagreb ), Split Airport , Pula , Zemunik ( Zadar ), Cerklje ob Krki and many other smaller air bases. Minor surface combatants operated by the Yugoslav Navy included nearly eighty frigates , corvettes , submarines , minesweepers , and missile, torpedo, and patrol boats in

9600-475: The general secretary of the KPJ for Žujović and have Hebrang fill the post of the prime minister . Tito convened the KPJ Central Committee on 12 April to draw up a letter in response to Stalin. Tito repudiated Stalin's claims and referred to them as slander and misinformation. He also emphasised the KPJ's achievements of national independence and equality. Žujović was the only one to oppose Tito at

9720-447: The idea. Moreover, Xoxe indicated that the integration of the Albanian and Yugoslav armies had been approved. Even though the matter was supposedly conducted in secrecy, the Soviets learned of the scheme from a source in the Albanian government. In late 1944, Stalin first proposed a Yugoslav–Bulgarian federation, involving a dualist state where Bulgaria would be one half of the federation and Yugoslavia (further divided into its republics)

9840-404: The interests of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies. In particular, Yugoslavia hoped to admit neighbouring Albania to the Yugoslav federation. This fostered an atmosphere of insecurity within the Albanian political leadership and exacerbated tensions with the Soviet Union, which made efforts to impede Albanian–Yugoslav integration. Yugoslav support of the communist rebels in Greece against

9960-401: The interior minister Koçi Xoxe , and the economy and industry minister, Naco Spiru . Spiru was seen as the prime opponent of links with Yugoslavia and advocated closer ties between Albania and the Soviet Union. Prompted by Yugoslav accusations and urged on by Xoxe, Hoxha launched an investigation into Spiru. A few days later, Spiru died in unclear circumstances; his death was officially declared

10080-758: The late 1940s, but most of them were soon obsolete. The navy was upgraded in the 1960s when it acquired ten Osa-I -class missile boats and four Shershen-class torpedo boats from the Soviet Union. The Soviets granted a license to build eleven additional Shershen units in Yugoslav shipyards developed for this purpose. In 1980 and 1982, the Yugoslav navy took the delivery of two Soviet Koni-class frigates . In 1988 it completed two additional units under license. The Koni frigates were armed with four Soviet P-15 Termit surface-to-surface missile launchers, twin 9K33 Osa (NATO reporting name: SA-8 "Gecko") surface-to-air missiles, and anti-submarine rocket launchers. The Yugoslav navy developed its own submarine-building capability during

10200-557: The late 1950s, the MiG-21 design was largely obsolete in 1990 and represented a potential weakness in Yugoslavia's air defence. However, the bulk of the MiG-21 fleet consisted mainly of the bis variant, the latest production MiG-21 model, and was armed with the Soviet Vympel K-13 ( NATO reporting name : AA-2 "Atoll") missile, air-to-air missiles and some Molniya R-60 (NATO reporting name: AA-8 "Aphid") missiles as well as twin 23 mm cannons. By 1989, Yugoslavia started developing

10320-538: The late 1980s. They were built for use by underwater demolition teams and special forces. The Una-class boats carried five crewmen, eight combat swimmers, four Mala vehicles, and limpet mines . The Mala vehicles carried two swimmers and 250 kilograms (550 lb) of mines. The Yugoslav navy operated ten Osa-class missile boats and six Končar -class missile boats. The Osa I boats were armed with four P-15 Termit surface-to-surface missile launchers. In 1990, ten domestic Kobra missile boats were scheduled to begin replacing

10440-440: The meeting. He advocated making Yugoslavia a part of the Soviet Union, and questioned what the country's future position in international relations would be if the alliance between the two countries was not maintained. Tito called for action against Žujović and Hebrang. He denounced Hebrang, claiming that his actions were the primary reason for Soviet mistrust. To discredit him, charges were fabricated alleging that Hebrang had become

10560-690: The most visible targets like Hebrang and Žujović. These purges came to be referred to as the Informbiro period , meaning the "Cominform period". The real or perceived supporters of Stalin were termed "Cominformists" or " ibeovci " as a pejorative initialism based on the first two words in the official name of the Cominform—the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties. Thousands were imprisoned, killed, or exiled. According to Ranković, 51,000 people were killed, imprisoned, or sentenced to forced labour. In 1949, special-purpose prison camps were built for male and female Cominformists on

10680-589: The orders of my commanders. I will always be ready to fight for the freedom and honor of the Motherland, in this fight I will give my life without regret. Tito%E2%80%93Stalin split The Tito–Stalin split or the Soviet–Yugoslav split was the culmination of a conflict between the political leaderships of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union , under Josip Broz Tito and Joseph Stalin , respectively, in

10800-525: The other. The Yugoslav position was that a federation was possible, but only if Bulgaria were one of the seven federal units and if Pirin Macedonia was ceded to the nascent Yugoslav federal unit of Macedonia . Since the two sides could not agree, Stalin invited them to Moscow in January 1945 for arbitration—first supporting the Bulgarian view—and days later switching to the Yugoslav position. Finally, on 26 January,

10920-562: The party, and an inability to accept criticism. Moreover, the Cominform accused the KPJ of opposing the parties within the organisation, splitting from the united socialist front, betraying international solidarity of the working people, and assuming a nationalist posture. Finally, the KPJ was declared outside the Cominform. The resolution claimed there were "healthy" members of the KPJ whose loyalty would be measured by their readiness to overthrow Tito and his leadership—expecting this to be achieved solely because of Stalin's charisma. Stalin expected

11040-441: The perceived Greek threat would increase Albanian support for integration with Yugoslavia. Soviet envoys to Albania deemed the effort successful in instilling Albanians with a fear of Greeks along with a perception that Albania could not defend itself on its own, although Soviet sources indicated there was no actual threat of a Greek invasion of Albania. Tito thought, since many DSE fighters were ethnic Macedonians , cooperating with

11160-782: The possibility that large army units would be destroyed in set piece engagements with an aggressor. The change created many senior field command positions that would develop relatively young and talented officers." In 1989, five independent divisions under general staff command and 25 partisan (reserve) divisions under corps command were formed including many other battalions, regiments and batteries under different commands. The 1989 plan "Jedinstvo 2" commenced and border battalions were transferred under corps command including some divisions that have remained before under others commands. Brigades got some artillery and antiaircraft batteries under their direct command that helped them to gain independence in wartime from higher levels. Defense of all major cities

11280-517: The restoration of the Yugoslav monarchy. In October 1941, Tito met Mihailović twice to propose a joint struggle against the Axis. Tito offered him the position of chief of staff of the Partisan forces, but Mihailović turned down the offer. By the end of the month, Mihailović concluded that the Communists were the true enemy. At first, Mihailović's Chetniks fought the Partisans and the Axis simultaneously, but within months, they began collaborating with

11400-569: The scheduled meeting with Stalin, the DSE launched its general offensive, shelling Thessaloniki four days later. In response to Molotov's summons, Tito dispatched Kardelj and President of the Executive Council of the People's Republic of Croatia Vladimir Bakarić to Moscow, where they joined Đilas. Stalin berated Yugoslavia and Dimitrov for ignoring the Soviet Union by signing the Bled Agreement, and for Dimitrov's call to include Greece in

11520-502: The second letter, Tito and Kardelj rejected arbitration by the Cominform and accused Stalin of lobbying other communist parties to affect the outcome of the dispute. On 19 May, Tito received an invitation for the Yugoslav delegation to attend a Cominform meeting to discuss the situation concerning the KPJ. However, the KPJ Central Committee rejected the invitation the next day. Stalin then sent his third letter, now addressed to Tito and Hebrang, stating that failure to speak on behalf of

11640-404: The split as an opportunity to score a Cold War victory, but it employed a cautious approach, uncertain if the rift would be permanent or if Yugoslav foreign policy would change. Yugoslavia first requested assistance from the United States in the summer of 1948. In December, Tito announced that strategic raw materials would be shipped to the West in return for increased trade. In February 1949,

11760-614: The split with Yugoslavia led to the denunciation and prosecution of alleged Titoists , designed to strengthen Stalin's control over the bloc's communist parties. They resulted in show trials of high-ranking officials such as Xoxe, General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia Rudolf Slánský , Hungarian interior and foreign minister László Rajk , and General Secretary of the Bulgarian Workers' Party Central Committee, Traicho Kostov . Furthermore, Albania and Bulgaria turned away from Yugoslavia and aligned themselves entirely with

11880-591: The start of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union —after repeated protests from the KPJ. In June 1941, Tito informed the Comintern and Stalin about his plans for an uprising against the Axis occupiers . However, Stalin considered the prolific use of Communist symbols by Tito's Partisans to be problematic. This was because Stalin viewed his alliance with the United Kingdom and the United States as necessarily contrary to

12000-594: The total compared to Serbia, which had 30,843 capacity for educating military personnel that constituted about 40.62% of total capacity and rest was among other republics. Representation of the main nations and nationalities of Yugoslavia in the general population and the armed forces: Ethnic distribution among higher ranks of the JNA: 22 December was established as the Day of the JNA . On that day all units and organizations within JNA including other Yugoslavia states bodies celebrated

12120-666: The two. In the final days of the war, the Partisans captured parts of Carinthia in Austria and started to advance across pre-war Italian soil. While the Western Allies believed Stalin had arranged the move, he actually opposed it. Specifically, Stalin feared for the Soviet-backed Austrian government  [ de ] of Karl Renner , and was afraid that a wider conflict with the Allies over Trieste would ensue. Stalin thus ordered Tito to withdraw from Carinthia and Trieste, and

12240-428: The uninhabited Adriatic islands of Goli Otok and Sveti Grgur respectively. Yugoslavia faced significant economic difficulties as a result of the split since its planned economy had depended on unimpeded trade with the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc. Fear of war with the Soviet Union resulted in a high degree of military spending—rising to 21.4 percent of the national income in 1952. The United States regarded

12360-613: The unit has posted guards at the Government Building and President's Office on public holidays from 8 AM - 6 PM. This was instituted by order President Borut Pahor who explained the decision in the following words: From the first day I have been thinking in the capacity of the President of the Republic in the direction of full regeneration of civic awareness and belonging, which is missing. Even when it comes to purely practical action in

12480-429: The wishes of the Soviet Union further complicated the political situation. Stalin tried to pressure Yugoslavia and moderate its policies using Bulgaria as an intermediary. When the conflict between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union became public in 1948, it was portrayed as an ideological dispute to avoid the impression of a power struggle within the Eastern Bloc. The split ushered in the Informbiro period of purges within

12600-574: The years following World War II . Although presented by both sides as an ideological dispute, the conflict was as much the product of a geopolitical struggle in the Balkans that also involved Albania , Bulgaria , and the communist insurgency in Greece , which Tito's Yugoslavia supported and the Soviet Union secretly opposed. In the years following World War II, Yugoslavia pursued economic, internal, and foreign policy objectives that did not align with

12720-498: Was actually intended for Yugoslav aircraft. In 1987, Yugoslavia acquired 16 MiG-29s . Although not officially known at the time, Yugoslavia was rumoured to have been interested in the purchase of Su-25 attack-aircraft and Mi-24 gunships. Instead of developing its own fighter plane, the Novi Avion , the country made a request to licence-build the F-20 , but due to unstable relations with

12840-475: Was based at Split on the Adriatic coast. It employed Soviet Ka-25 , Ka-28 , and Mi-14 helicopters, and domestic Partisan helicopters. Some air force fighter and reconnaissance squadrons supported naval operations. The Yugoslav Constitution of 1974 principally tried to have the most proportional representation of Yugoslavia's republics and autonomous provinces in the high army ranks. It is defined in article 242 of

12960-748: Was dominated by ethnic Serbs, including the chief of the armed forces, minister of defense and secretary of the LCY in the JNA. Nobody was preventing anyone in Yugoslavia to become JNA officer in accordance to the law "Zakon o vojnim školama i naučnoistraživačkim ustanovama Jugoslovenske narodne armije" that had no exclusions clause. Proportional presentations was to be between republics and autonomous provinces according to cited part of constitution and not between nations. Military schools in Yugoslavia in accordance with law about military schools were built in all Yugoslavia Republics. In Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, military schools possessed 38,391 annual capacity or 50.54% of

13080-560: Was foiled and border guards killed Jovanović near Vršac while he was attempting to flee to Romania. Petričević was arrested in Belgrade and Dapčević was arrested just as he was about to cross the Hungarian border. In 1952, the Soviet Ministry of State Security planned to assassinate Tito with a biological agent and a poison codenamed Scavenger, but Stalin died in 1953, before the plot could be implemented. In Eastern Bloc politics ,

13200-528: Was generally difficult to achieve because Communist parties were usually quite small. The Communist leaders saw the strategic approach as a temporary measure until circumstances allowing for sole Communist rule improved. The KPJ and the Albanian Communist Party (PKSH) enjoyed significant popular support stemming from Tito's Partisan movement in Yugoslavia and Albania's National Liberation Movement . While Tito's Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia

13320-628: Was in the interest of the United States, regardless of the nature of Tito's regime. The American aid helped Yugoslavia overcome the poor harvests of 1948, 1949 and 1950, but there would be almost no economic growth before 1952. Tito also received U.S. backing in Yugoslavia's successful 1949 bid for a seat on the United Nations Security Council , despite Soviet opposition. In 1949, the United States provided loans to Yugoslavia, increased them in 1950, and then provided large grants. The Yugoslavs initially avoided seeking military aid from

13440-426: Was last promoted by the JNA general, the winner of the 22 December reward and JNA silver star medal. Major general Ener Taso died on 12 December 2018. The arms industry was dominant in the Yugoslav economy. With annual exports of $ 3 billion, it was twice as large as the second largest industry, tourism. Several companies in Yugoslavia produced airplanes and combat aircraft, most notably SOKO of Mostar , with

13560-404: Was more revolutionary than the Soviet Union, drawing comparisons to the positions and the fate of Leon Trotsky . The purpose of the letter was to urge loyal Communists to remove the "dubious Marxists". The Soviets maintained contact with Žujović and the former minister of industry Andrija Hebrang and, in early 1948, instructed Žujović to oust Tito from office. They hoped to secure the position of

13680-526: Was previously planned with separate units but under "Jedinstvo 2" only Belgrade and Zagreb retained separated units for defense of their cities. There were usually three classes of brigades, regiments and battalions: A. class brigades and battalions were more than 60 to up to 100% manned, and B. class units had 15–60% manpower. R. class units were reserved with about 15–20% and was manned mostly in their logistic units and commands. Battalions with A. class status were 100% manned and equipped. A. class brigades had

13800-536: Was pro-Yugoslav. The Albanian authorities adopted an additional secret document detailing a planned merger of the Albanian and Yugoslav armies, citing the threat of a Greek invasion and arguing that having Yugoslav troops at the Albanian-Greek border was an "urgent necessity". In response to these moves, Soviet military advisers were withdrawn from Yugoslavia on 18 March. On 27 March, Stalin sent his first letter addressed to Tito and Kardelj, which formulated

13920-463: Was reinforced by Stalin's revelation of the Percentages Agreement to the surprised Edvard Kardelj , vice president of the Yugoslav provisional government . The agreement, concluded by Stalin and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill during the 1944 Moscow Conference divided Eastern European countries into British and Soviet spheres of influence —splitting Yugoslavia evenly between

14040-814: Was responsible for transport, reconnaissance and rotary-wing aircraft as well as the national air defence system. The primary air force missions were to contest enemy efforts to establish air supremacy over Yugoslavia and to support the defensive operations of the ground forces and navy. Most aircraft were produced in Yugoslavia. Missiles were produced domestically and supplied by the Soviet Union. The Yugoslav Air Force had twelve squadrons of domestically produced ground attack fighters. The ground attack squadrons provided close air support to ground force operations. They were equipped with 165 new Soko J-22 Orao , Super Galeb and J-21 Jastreb , and older Soko J-20 Kraguj fighters. Many ground attack fighters were armed with AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missiles purchased from

14160-630: Was the Željava Air Base , also known as the Bihać Underground Integrated Radar Control and Surveillance Centre and Air Base, in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The oath of the JNA was: I (name and surname) solemnly undertake to faithfully serve my people, defend my homeland, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, preserve the brotherhood and unity of our peoples and the honor of the JNA, and conscientiously carry out

14280-406: Was the officer with the highest military rank that could command the armed forces, including the Yugoslav People's Army and Territorial Defense . The President of Yugoslavia had the power to promote members of the military to the highest military ranks such as general or admiral, and to relieve duty of the highest military officers. The Chief of Staff of the Yugoslav People's Army, in the case that

14400-498: Was under Soviet influence in the final months of the war and the first few post-war years, Stalin declared it outside the Soviet sphere of interest on several occasions, treating it like a satellite state . The contrast with the rest of Eastern Europe was underscored ahead of a Soviet offensive in October 1944. Tito's Partisans supported the offensive, which ultimately pushed the Wehrmacht and its allies out of northern Serbia and led to

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