158-530: Ahmad Sirhindi (1564 – 1624/1625) was an Islamic scholar , Hanafi jurist, and member of the Naqshbandī Sufi order who lived during the era of Mughal Empire . Ahmad Sirhindi opposed heterodox movements within the Mughal court such as Din-i Ilahi , in support of more orthodox forms of Islamic Law. His act of preserving and urging the practice of Islamic orthodoxy has cemented his reputation by some followers as
316-489: A Mir Bakshi official, to convince the emperor about this religious issue. It is also known through his letter correspondence with the imperial government figures that Ahmad Sirhindi routinely attended the court debates to counteract some religious beliefs and doctrines which were prevalent in the court. In the process, it is recorded from these correspondence which compiled in 1617, that Farid Murtaza Khan took Ahmad Sirhindi advices regarding this matter. Ahmad Sirhindi also wrote
474-467: A Mujaddid , or a "reviver". While early and modern South Asian scholarship credited him for contributing to conservative trends in Indian Islam, more recent works, such as Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi and commentaries from western scholars such as Ter Haar, Friedman, and Buehler, have pointed to Sirhindi's significant contributions to Sufi epistemology and practices. Sirhindi was born on 26 May 1564 in
632-549: A "way of freeing the soul from the distractions of the world". Important early scholars who further elaborated on mysticism were Harith al-Muhasibi (781–857 AD) and Junayd al-Baghdadi (835–910 AD). The early Muslim conquests brought about Arab Muslim rule over large parts of the Hellenistic world . During the time of the Umayyad Caliphate , at latest, the scholars of the emerging Islamic society had become familiar with
790-658: A broad-gauge line in future, connecting Gwalior to Kota, Rajasthan via Sheopur. It is the junction point to reach tourist destinations like Shivpuri, Dholpur and Bhind. Gwalior is on the Main train line between Delhi (station code: NDLS) and Mumbai (Bombay; CSTM) and between Delhi and Chennai (MAS). Some trains starting here and travelling towards Eastern India via Gwalior Junction – Jhansi Junction provide direct connections to points in eastern India including Kolkata , Durgapur , Barauni , Varanasi , and Allahabad. There are about fifty trains to New Delhi and Agra every day, and around
948-475: A fight as he was a strong ally of the British, but after negotiations, his troops capitulated and the rebels took possession of the fort. The British attacked Gwalior in no time, the battle was fought by Lakshmibai. Indian forces numbered around 20,000, and British forces around 1,600 troops. Lakshmibai's example is remembered to this day by Indian nationalists. She died fighting, and Gwalior was free from rebels. There
1106-399: A letter to Lãlã Beg (a Subahdar of Bihar ), he regards Akbar's prohibition of cow-slaughter as interference in the religious freedom of Muslims. Ahmad Sirhindi were recorded to also defy the old tradition of Sujud or prostrating towards the ruler as he viewed this practice as Bid'ah . Ahmad Sirhindi also repeatedly stated his proud ancestry to Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab to show he
1264-510: A letter to Mughal Emperor Jahangir emphasizing that he is now correcting the wrong path taken by his father, emperor Akbar . At some point during the reign of Jahangir, Ahmad Sirhimdi sent many pupils for academic missionaries into various places, such as: Later, Ahmad Sirhindi was imprisoned by the emperor. This happened in 1618, Emperor Jahangir, who distanced himself from the Islam orthodoxy and admired Vaishnavite ascetic, Chitrarup. But later
1422-402: A line of thought developed around the idea of mysticism , striving for the perfection ( Ihsan ) of worship. During the first Islamic century, Hasan al-Basri (642–728 AD) was one of the first Muslim scholars to describe, according to Albert Hourani (1991) "the sense of the distance and nearness of God ... in the language of love". During the 7th century, the ritual of Dhikr evolved as
1580-584: A link between the wahhabiyya and parts of the salafiyya movements. The theological differences between the two movements were altogether too large for a complete union of the two doctrines. However, the opening of the Salafi movement towards Wahhabism helped to reconcile the latter with the Islamic public after king Ibn Saud 's invasion of the Hijaz in 1924. The Central Arabian militias ( Iḫwān ) had occupied and looted
1738-425: A number of students out of the revenue from religious endowments ( waqf ) , allocated to a specific institution by the donor. In later times, the deeds of endowment were issued in elaborate Islamic calligraphy , as is the case for Ottoman endowment books (vakıf-name) . The donor could also specify the subjects to be taught, the qualification of the teachers, or which madhhab the teaching should follow. Moreover,
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#17330939551851896-628: A period of political instability began with the collapse of the Safavid reign after shah Sultan Husayns death in 1722. In the light of the discontinuity and fragmentation of the central government, two social groups maintained continuity and, consequently, rose in power: Tribal chieftains established, amongst others, the Khanates of the Caucasus , the Afsharid and Zand dynasties . The second group who benefitted from
2054-411: A population of 1,054,420. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Gwalior has an average literacy rate of 84.14%, higher than the national average of 74%: male literacy is 89.64% and female literacy is 77.92%. In Gwalior, about 11% of the population is under 6 years of age. The city's metropolitan population, which includes the commuter town of Morar Cantonment , was 1,102,884. Hinduism
2212-533: A private activity, largely by medical men, pursued with discretion, and often met with suspicion". The founder of Islamic philosophical ethics is Ibn Miskawayh (932–1030 AD) He combined Aristotelian and Islamic ethics, explicitly mentioning the Nicomachean Ethics and its interpretation by Porphyry of Gaza as the foundation of his philosophical thoughts. In the 12th century, the early Islamic Neoplatonism which had developed out of Hellenistic philosophy
2370-445: A sub-tropical climate with hot summers from late March to early July, the humid monsoon season from late June to early October, and a cool dry winter from early November to late February. Under Köppen's climate classification the city has a humid subtropical climate . The highest recorded temperature was 48 °C and the lowest was −1 °C. Summers start in late March, and along with other cities like Jaipur and Delhi , are among
2528-660: A treatise under the title " Radd-e-Rawafiz " to justify the execution of Shia nobles by Abdullah Khan Uzbek in Mashhad. Ahmad Sirhindi argues that since the Shiite were cursing the first three Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr , Umar, and Uthman , and also chastising the Wives of Muhammad , he advocated for the oppression towards Shiite and supported the destruction of their buildings and confiscating their properties. Ahmad Sirhindi also expressed his hate towards Shias in his letters, where according to him,
2686-504: Is a meritorious act for the Muslims. Before this Kafir was killed, I have seen a dream that Emperor of the day had destroyed the crown of the head of Shirk or infidelity. It is true that this infidel was the chief of the infidels and a leader of the Kafirs. The object of levying Jazia on them is to humiliate and insult the Kafirs and Jehad against them and hostility towards them are the necessities of
2844-465: Is a movement which emerged in North India in the mid-19th century. By rejecting taqlid (following legal precedent) and favoring ijtihad (independent legal reasoning) based on the foundational scriptures of Islam, they oppose the traditional madhhab and criticize their reliance on legal authorities other than the traditional texts. The Ahl-i Hadith was the first organization which printed and spread
3002-618: Is a statue erected at the cenotaph (Samadhi) of Lakshmibai on her horse at Chhatri of Rani Lakshmibai in Gwalior's Phoolbagh area where she was died and cremated which commemorates her contribution to the fight for independence. Tantia Tope and Rao Sahib escaped. Tantia Tope was later captured and hanged in April 1859. Scindia is a Maratha clan in India. This clan included rulers of the Gwalior State in
3160-688: Is also similar with the assessment of Salah Shu'air [ ar ] , an Egyptian writer, about the ideas of Sirhindi were similar with the Wahhabism movements which will rise two century after death of Ahmad Sirhindi, for resurrecting and revival of religious discourses, which also influence in Shsh Waliullah Dehlawi. While Aḥmad ʻArafāt Qāḍi from Cairo University also likened the though of Ahmad Sirhindi were similar with Ibn Taymiyyah . In field of Hadith scholarships, Ahmad Sirhindi also wrote commentary or sharh of Sahih al-Tirmidhi . By
3318-513: Is brought to us by former generations and foreign peoples. For him who seeks the truth there is nothing of higher value than truth itself. The works of Aristotle , in particular his Nicomachean Ethics , had a profound influence on the Islamic scholars of the Golden Age like Al-Farabi (870–950 AD), Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri (d. 992 AD) and Ibn Sina (ca. 980–1037 AD). In general, the Islamic philosophers saw no contradiction between philosophy and
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#17330939551853476-406: Is forbidden." In his criticism of the superficial jurists, he states: "For a worm hidden under a rock, the sky is the bottom of the rock." Meanwhile, Muhammad ibn Ahmad Hamid ad-Din al Farghani ad-Dimasyqi al-Hanafi, a Hanafite scholar who lived during 9th AH , recorded in his book, Jihad Ulama al-Hanafiyat fi 'Ibthal 'Aqaa'id al-Quburiyya , that Ahmad Sirhindi were one of Hanafite Imam who opposed
3634-429: Is generally very mild with daily temperatures averaging in the 14–16 °C (57–61 °F) range, and mostly dry and sunny conditions. January is the coldest month with average lows in the 5-6 °C range (41-42 °F) and occasional cold snaps that plummet temperatures down to a single digit. Gwalior has been ranked 26th best "National Clean Air City" (under Category 1 >10L Population cities) in India. Gwalior
3792-455: Is known as the ijazat at-tadris wa 'l-ifta ( lit. ' license to teach and issue legal opinions ' ). Through time, this practice has established a chain of teachers and pupils who have become teachers in their own time. The traditional place of higher education is the madrasa . The institution likely originated in Khurasan during the 10th century AD, and spread to other parts of
3950-501: Is never united with anything, and nothing can be united with God. Ahmad Sirhindi argued that forms of pantheism were components of Hinduism. He rejected the core idea of ibn Arabi that the creation could unite with the Creator, i.e., God. Despite this, Sirhindi still used Ibn al-'Arabi's vocabulary without hesitation. William C. Chittick , an expert of Ibn 'Arabi biography, argued that Ahmad Sirhindi seems oblivious of Ibn 'Arabi doctrines, as
4108-581: Is one of the Counter-magnet cities. Located 313 kilometres (194 mi) south of New Delhi , the capital city of India and 446 kilometres (277 mi) from Bhopal , the state capital, Gwalior occupies a strategic location in the Gird region of India. The historic city and its fortress have been ruled by several historic Indian kingdoms. From the Alchon Huns in the 5th century AD to Gurjara Pratihara dynasty in
4266-741: Is one of the major commercial railway stations of the North Central Railway, whose zone headquarters is centred in Prayagraj . The station has won awards from Indian Railways for excellent clean infrastructure in 1987, 1988, 1989 and 1992. It is in the Adarsh Station Category of Indian Railways. Gwalior Light Railway connected to the Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in Sheopur . It is being converted to broad gauge and may commence service as
4424-556: Is practised by the majority of the people in Gwalior (88.84%). Other religions practised include Islam (8.58%), Jainism (1.41%), Sikhism (0.56%), and Christianity (0.29). Gwalior has a long history of religious amity. The erstwhile Maharajas of the Scindia dynasty considered the Sufi saints to be their gurus and headed the Muharram procession every year. Languages of Gwalior (2011) Hindi
4582-535: Is responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city, which is divided into 66 wards. Shobha Satish Sikarwar(INC) is the present Mayor of Gwalior. The Municipal Commissioner , a member of the Indian Administrative Service , is responsible for the corporations finances and for the services and works conducted for the city. Gwalior Municipal Corporation covers an area of 414 square kilometres (160 sq mi). The municipality
4740-415: Is situated in the valley between the hills. Gwalior's metropolitan area includes Lashkar, City Centre, Old City (Fort), Gwalior West and Morar Cantonment . Gwalior was one of the major locations of rebellion during the 1857 uprising . Post-independence, Gwalior has emerged as an important tourist attraction in central India while many industries and administrative offices came up within the city. Before
4898-617: Is the Gwalior (Lok Sabha constituency) . In June 2024 General Election, Bharat Singh Kushwah of Bharatiya Janata Party had been elected as the Member of Parliament from Gwalior. Central government institutions include: Gwalior is a major railway junction in the Northern central region. The Gwalior Junction (Station code: GWL) is the part of the North Central Railways . Gwalior is one of
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5056-420: Is the predominant language of Gwalior, with nearly 96% of residents speaking it as their first language. Sindhi and Marathi are spoken by 1% each. Gwalior is located at 26°13′N 78°11′E / 26.22°N 78.18°E / 26.22; 78.18 . in northern Madhya Pradesh 300 km (190 mi) from Delhi. It has an average elevation of 197 metres (646 feet). Most part of it comes under
5214-411: The ijazah , the scholar's approval by another master, is key to the scholar's reputation, the latter would be greater in regions where the approving masters is more widely known. The second caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab , funded a group of Muslims to study the revelations, stories of Muhammed's life, "and other pertinent data, so that when he needed expert advice" he could draw it from these "people of
5372-638: The Bharatiya Janata Party . Her son, Maharaja Madhavrao Scindia was elected to the Lok Sabha in 1971, representing the Congress Party, and served until his death in 2001. His son, Jyotiraditya Scindia , also in the Congress Party, was elected to the seat formerly held by his father in 2004, but later joined the Bharatiya Janata Party in 2020. As of the 2011 Census of India , Gwalior had
5530-609: The Gird area. The Tigra Dam is located on the outskirts of the city. The dam is now being used to store water from the Sank river and supply water to the city. The reservoir is used for leisure activities including speed boating, paddle boating, and water scooters. The Swarna Rekha river is a reconstructed part of the Swarna Rekha river which was dried during the British raj. Boat rides run between Padav in central Gwalior to Gwalior Zoo. The Lashkar part of Gwalior has many parks, including
5688-581: The Golden-Quadrilateral Highway project passes through the city. The Agra-Bombay national highway (NH3) passes through Gwalior, connecting it to Shivpuri on one end and Agra on the other. The Yamuna Expressway is easily accessible from Agra for the travellers going to New Delhi. The city is connected to the Jhansi by the National Highway 75, towards the south of the city. The northern part of
5846-803: The Ja'fari and Zaidi schools. Minor madhhab also mentioned in the Amman message are the Ibadi and the Zahiri schools. All Sunni madhhabs recognize four sources of sharia (divine law): the Quran, sunnah (authentic hadith), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus). However, the madhhabs differ from each other in their conception of the Principles of Islamic jurisprudence , or uṣūl al-fiqh , as briefly summarised by Hourani (1991). The Hanbalis accepted only
6004-655: The Kashmiri scholar Kamaluddin Kashmiri. Qazi Bahlol Badakhshani taught him jurisprudence , Muhammad's biography and history . He eventually joined the Naqshbandī order through the Sufi missionary Khwaja Baqi Billah when he was 36 years old, and became a leading master of the order. His deputies traversed the Mughal Empire in order to popularize the order and eventually won favour with
6162-778: The Maratha in 1754, and lastly it was passed on to the Scindia Dynasty of Maratha Empire in early 18th century. In April 2021, It was found that Gwalior had the best air quality index (AQI 152) amongst the 4 major cities in Madhya Pradesh . Besides being the administrative headquarters of Gwalior district and Gwalior division , Gwalior has many administrative offices of the Chambal division of northern Madhya Pradesh. Several administrative and judicial organisations, commissions and boards have their state and national headquarters situated in
6320-502: The Mughal succession conflict , by sending his two sons, Muhammad Al-Ashraf, and Khwaja Saifuddin, to support Aurangzeb in war. Aurangzeb himself provided Khwaja Muhammad and his youngest son, Muhammad Ubaidullah, with fifteen ships to seek refugee during the conflict to embark for Hajj pilgrimage, and Khwaja Muhammad returned to India after Aurangzeb won the conflict two years later. In general, Ahmad Sirhindi viewed that every ritual, such as
6478-649: The Phool Bagh, or the garden of flowers, built to welcome the Prince of Cambridge and the Italian Garden – the garden which was used by the Scindias as a place of relaxation, is Italian in architecture with a water pool surrounded by musical fountains. Ambedkar Park and Gandhi Park are other prominent parks. Gwalior Zoo provides a home for white tigers , serpents, golden pheasants, sambar , hyena, bison, and others. Gwalior has
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6636-705: The Rajput states, and conquered the state of Ajmer. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the city was briefly held by rebel forces in 1858 until they were defeated by the British. The Scindia family ruled Gwalior until India's independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, when the Maharaja Jivajirao Scindia acceded to the Government of India. Gwalior was merged with a number of other princely states to become
6794-401: The madrasas focuses on the law, but also includes what Zaman (2010) called "Sharia sciences" (al-ʿulūm al-naqliyya) as well as the rational sciences like philosophy, astronomy, mathematics or medicine. The inclusion of these sciences sometimes reflects the personal interests of their donors, but also indicates that scholars often study various different sciences. Early on in Islamic history,
6952-573: The ummah . His temporal authority would be set up in the Hejaz , whilst he would hold religious authority over the entire Muslim community, "assisted ... by a consultative council nominated by the Muslim rulers". Al-Kawākibīs idea that the Arabian doctrine represented a more puristic form of the Islam, according to Cleveland and Bunton (2016), prepared the ground for the 20th century Arab nationalism as well as
7110-762: The 11th century on, the Muʿtazila was suppressed by the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuk Empire , but it continued playing an important role in the formation of Shia theology. The Ash'ari school encouraged the use of Kalām as the basis of fiqh, and was followed in this approach by parts of the Shafi'i madhhab. In contrast, the Hanbali and Maliki madhhabs discouraged theological speculation. Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 AD) developed his own form of Kalām, differing from
7268-559: The 16th century, scholars like the Shaykh al-Islām Kemālpaşazade (d. 1534), Aḥmād b. Muṣṭafā Taşköprüzāde (1494–1561), Kınalızāde ʿAli Çelebi (d. 1572) and Ali ben Bali (1527–1584) established a seamless chain of tradition from Abu Hanifa to their own time. Explicitly, some authors stated that their work must not only be understood as the historiography of the Hanafi madhhab , but that it should be consulted in case of eventual disagreements within
7426-441: The 18th and 19th centuries, who were a princely state during the period of British colonial rule until Indian independence. During independence, the clans became involved in politics. The Scindia state of Gwalior became a major regional power in the second half of the 18th century and figured prominently in the three Anglo-Maratha Wars . (Gwalior first fell to the British in 1780.) The Scindias held significant power over many of
7584-757: The 18th century, and shaped the relationship between ulama and government during the reigns of the subsequent dynasties. With the accession of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar to the Iranian throne, the Qajar dynasty consolidated the central power. However, the Qajar Shahs, in particular Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (r. 1848–1896), whose reign paralleled that of the Ottoman Sultans of the Tanzimat time, failed at obtaining central control over
7742-481: The 1980, the Nahdlatul Ulama schools also offered degrees in economy, jurisdiction, paedagogical and medical sciences. In the 1990s, under their leader Abdurrahman Wahid , the organization adopted an anti-fundamentalistic doctrine, teaching democracy and pluralism. Darul Uloom Deoband , next to al-Azhar one of the most influential madrasas, was founded in the city of Deoband , Uttar Pradesh , in 1867. Initially,
7900-591: The 8th century AD. It was passed on to Kachchhapaghatas in the 10th century AD. It fell into the hands of the Delhi Sultanate in 12th century AD, it was then passed on to the Tomars in the 13th century AD who were the vassal rulers of the Delhi Sultanate . The Mughal Empire conquered the city and its fortress in the 16th century AD. When the Mughal Empire was declining, it fell into the hands of Jat rulers , then to
8058-407: The Ash'ari view in the question of Man's free will and God's omnipotence. Maturidi Kalām was often used in combination with Hanafi fiqh in the northwestern parts of the Islamic world. A distinct school of theology often called traditionalist theology emerged under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal in the early centuries of Islam among hadith scholars who rejected rationalistic argumentation. In
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#17330939551858216-428: The Deoband School. Ashraf Ali Thanwi (1863–1943) is one of the most prominent teachers of Darul Uloom Deoband. Thanwi initiated and edited multi-volume encyclopedic commentaries on the Quran. However, he was also able to reach out to a larger audience: His book Bahishti Zewar , which is still widely read in South Asia, as it details, amongst other topics, the proper conduct and beliefs for Muslim women. Ahl-i Hadith
8374-419: The Imam insisted that Wahdat al Wujud were "inadequate expression" which should be supplanted by his concept of Wahdat as-Shuhud which Chittick claimed is just similar in essence. Ahmad Sirhindi advanced the notion of wahdat ash-shuhūd (oneness of appearance). According to this doctrine, the experience of unity between God and creation is purely subjective and occurs only in the mind of the Sufi who has reached
8532-498: The Islamic doctrine. After Abduh's death in 1905, Rashīd Ridā continued editing al-Manār on his own. In 1924, he published a collection of writings by some ulama of Najd : Maǧmūʿat al-ḥadiṭ an-naǧdīya . Thus, the teachings of the Yemeni alim Muhammad ash-Shawkani (1759–1839), which had already been discussed since the 1880s, gained greater publicity. Likewise, the writings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328) came to attention again. Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrine provided
8690-423: The Islamic renewal movement of the Nahda . In 1912, the Muhammadiyah organization was founded in Yogyakarta (in modern-day Indonesia ), which, together with Nahdlatul Ulama ("Reawakening of the ulama"), founded in 1926, form the two largest Muslim organizations in the world. Since the 1930s, their religious boarding schools ( pesantren ) also taught mathematics, natural sciences, English and history. Since
8848-442: The Islamic world from the late 11th century onwards. The most famous early madrasas are the Sunni Niẓāmiyya , founded by the Seljuk vizir Nizam al-Mulk (1018–1092) in Iran and Iraq in the 11th century. The Mustansiriya , established by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mustansir in Baghdad in 1234 AD, was the first to be founded by a caliph, and also the first known to host teachers of all four major madhhab known at that time. From
9006-424: The Islamic world to another can easily integrate themselves into the local Muslim community and hold offices there: The traveller Ibn Battuta (1304–1368 or 1369), born in Tangiers , Morocco, to a family of ulema, was appointed qadi by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq of Delhi . Nuruddin ar-Raniri (d. 1658), born to a Gujarati Muslim family, travelled to, and worked as Shaykh ul-Islam in modern-day Indonesia under
9164-425: The Islamic world. ʿAbduh understood Islah as a concept of "reform of mankind" (iṣlāḥ nauʿ al-insān) . In his works, he emphasized the special importance of a reform of the traditional madrasa system, which was taken to disadvantage by the parallel establishment of the secular, state-sponsored educational system in Egypt. He strove at reconciling the traditional and modern educational systems, thereby justifying from
9322-427: The Mughal court. Sirhindi underwent his first Hajj pilgrimage in 1598, after the death of his father. During the reign of emperor Akbar , Ahmad Sirhindi wrote hundreds of letters which were aimed towards his disciples, Mughal nobles, and even the emperor himself, to denounce the participations of Hindu figures in the government. Annemarie Schimmel recorded about 534 letters has been wrote by Ahmad Sirhindi regarding
9480-456: The Muhammedan faith." As a hard-line supporter of Islamic orthodoxy and a highly influential religious revivalist, Ahmad Sirhindi had opposed Akbar's policy of religious tolerance. He had concerns about the spread of Sikhism in Punjab. So, he cheered on the murder of the Guru, thus giving it a religious rather than political colour. One of the biggest criticism of Ahmad Sirhindi towards the ritual and practice of his contemporary Sufi community
9638-437: The Ottoman law scholars "Hanafi of Rūm [i.e., the Ottoman Empire]" (Rūmi ḫānāfi) , "Scholars of Rūm" (ʿulamā'-ı rūm) or "Scholars of the Ottoman Empire" ( ʿulamā' al-dawla al-ʿUthmaniyyā ). The Shaykh al-Islām ( Turkish : Şeyhülislam ) in Istanbul became the highest-ranking Islamic scholar within, and head of the ulama throughout the empire. The ulama in the Ottoman Empire had a significant influence over politics due to
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#17330939551859796-423: The Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid II of corrupting the Islamic community . The Ottoman despotism "encroaches on the rights of its citizens, keeps them ignorant to keep them passive, [and] denies their right to take an active part in human life". Therefore, the law must be reformed. By the use of ijtihad , a "modern and unified system of law" must be created, and "proper religious education" must be provided. Because of
9954-439: The Quran and sunnah of the Prophet. The capacity of its interpretation lies with the ulama. By the eleventh century, the major schools of Sunni and Shia law ( madhhab ) had emerged. Whilst, historically, the schools were at times engaged in mutual conflicts, the differences became less controversial over time, and merely represent regional predominances today. The four most important Sunni schools are: Shia madhhab include
10112-414: The Quran and Hadith. Supplementing the sharia were customs ( ʿurf ) within a given society. Islamic law and regional customs were not opposed to each other: In 15th century Morocco, qadis were allowed to use a process called ʻamal in order to choose from different juridical opinions one which applied best to the local customs, even if they were not supported by the consensus of the majority. More often,
10270-424: The Shah. Thus, under the Qajar dynasty, the ulama provided a source of religious legitimacy and served as interpreters of religious law in a dual legal system where the state administered law based on custom ( ʻurf ) . Starting in the first half of the 19th century, direct contacts began and gradually increased between members of the ulama and modern Western Europe. The Egyptian alim Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (1801–1873)
10428-464: The Shaykh al-Islām Ahīzāde Ḥüseyin Efendi. In 1656, Shaykh al-Islām Ḥocazāde Mesʿud Efendi was sentenced to death by sultan Mehmed IV . The use of the Sunni Islam as a legitimisation of the Ottoman dynastic rule is closely linked to Sultan Süleyman I and his kazasker and later Schaykh al-Islām Ebussuud Efendi . Ebussuud compiled an imperial book of law ( ḳānūn-nāme ), which combined religious law (sharīʿah) with secular dynastic law ( ḳānūn ) in
10586-463: The Sunni Hanafi doctrine which then served as the official religious doctrine of the empire. The formal acknowledgment by decree of the sultan became a prerequisite to issue fatwas. In the 17th century, the annalist al-Hamawi used the expression "sultanic mufti" ( al-ifta' al-sultani ) to delineate the difference between the officially appointed religious leaders and those who had followed the traditional way of education. Other authors at that time called
10744-399: The Sunni concept of analogy (qiyās) , Shia ulama prefer "dialectical reasoning" ( 'Aql ) to deduce law. The body of substantive jurisprudence ( fiqh ) defines the proper way of life through interpretation of sharia , which Muslims should follow if they want to live according to God's will. Over time, the madhhabs established "codes of conduct", examining human actions in the light of
10902-485: The annual prophet anniversary , or any other practice which is not documented in Sunnah as forbidden in Islam. Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi , Islamic scholar, thinker, writer, preacher, reformer and a Muslim public intellectual of 20th century India, wrote the biography of Ahmad Sirhindi in his book, Rijal al-Fikr wa l-Da'wah fi al-Islam , which covers mostly the thought of Ahmad Sirhindi's efforts in revival of Islam and opposition of heresies. While on another occasion, in
11060-425: The area c.950 –c.1192 CE, leaving remarkable architectural works such as the Sasbahu Temples . In 1021, Gwalior was attacked by forces led by Mahmud Ghazni . In 1231 Iltutmish , ruler of the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate , captured Gwalior after an 11-month-long effort and from then till the 13th century it remained under Muslim rule. In 1375, Raja Veer Singh was made the ruler of Gwalior and he founded
11218-452: The basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah . The book details the four roots of law (Qur'an, Sunnah , ijma , and qiyas ) while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) must be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from scientific study of the Arabic language. According to Feldman (2008), under many Muslim caliphate states and later states ruled by sultans,
11376-507: The beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman ulama still retained their political influence. When sultan Selim III tried to reform the Ottoman army , the ulama opposed his plans, which they rejected as an apostasy from Islam . Consequently, his reform failed. However, Selims successor Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) was more successful: He called the new troops, organised according to European models, by
11534-607: The belief in God and in life after death, which together provide the foundation of action in the pursuit of sa'āda (Happiness). According to Shia Islam , the authority to interpret the messages of the Quran and the Hadith lies with the Imamah , a line of infallible interpreters of the truth. The Sunni majority, however, reject this concept and maintain that God's will has been completely revealed in
11692-455: The belief that secular institutions were all subordinate to Islamic law, the Sharia ( Turkish : Şeriat ). The ulama were responsible for interpreting the religious law, therefore they claimed that their power superseded that of the government. Within the Ottoman hierarchy of ulama, the Shaykh al-Islām held the highest rank. He exerted his influence by issuing fatwas, his written interpretations of
11850-485: The bench". According to Tamim Ansary , this group evolved into the Ulama The formative period of Islamic jurisprudence stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with pragmatic issues of authority and teaching than with theory. Progress in theory began to develop with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi'i (767–820), who codified
12008-732: The central government of India . The judiciary has four levels: the lowest level being the Gwalior Gram panchayat (or " Gram Nyayalaya "). Above the gram panchayat is the District Court for Gwalior district sits Lashkar. Above that, the Madhya Pradesh High Court has its main seat in Jabalpur , but also a permanent bench in Gwalior city. The final court of appeal is the Supreme Court of India . The Gwalior Municipal Corporation
12166-614: The central position of the Arabic peoples in the ummah and the Arabic language in the intellectual discourse, but also because "Arabian Islam is ... free from modern corruptions and the bedouin are free from the moral decay and passivity of despotism", the balance of power must shift from the Turks towards the Arabs. The Ottoman dynasty must give up their claim to the caliphate , and a new caliph of Quraysh descent must be elected by representatives of
12324-563: The city. Gwalior was the capital of the state of Madhya Bharat from 1948 till 1956 which later became a part of the larger state of Madhya Pradesh. Prior to Indian independence on 15 August 1947, Gwalior remained a princely state of the British Raj with the Scindia as the local rulers. High rocky hills surround the city from all sides, on the north it just forms the border of the Ganga- Yamuna Drainage Basin. The city however
12482-635: The classical philosophical and scientific traditions of the world they had conquered. The collection of classical works and their translation into the Arabian language initiated a period which is known today as the Islamic Golden Age . According to Hourani (1991), the works of the classical scholars of antiquity were met with considerable intellectual curiosity by Islamic scholars. Hourani quotes al-Kindi (c. 801–873 AD), "the father of Islamic philosophy", as follows: We should not be ashamed to acknowledge truth from whatever source it comes to us, even if it
12640-501: The conquest of Kangra under Jahangir, that at the presence of Ahmad Sirhindi who observed the campaign, the Mughal forces had the Idols broken, a cow slaughtered, Khutbah sermon read, and other Islamic rituals performed. Further mark of Jahangir's departure from Akbar's secular policy was recorded by Terry, a traveller, who came and observed the Indian region between 1616 and 1619, where he found
12798-588: The consensus of the Companions of the Prophet (aṣ-ṣaḥābah) , which gave more leeway to independent reasoning ( ijtihad ) within the boundaries of the rules of qiyās . The Hanafis hold that strict analogy may at times be supported by a limited use of juristic preference ( istihsan ) , whereas the Maliki school also allows pragmatic considerations in the interest of public welfare ( istislah ) are also acceptable. Instead of
12956-570: The course of the 19th century, this new elite carried on the Sultan's reforms and helped initiating a new era of reform, the Tanzimat . In parallel, the political influence of the ulama was circumvented and reduced step by step. A ministry for religious endowments was created in order to control the finances of the vakıf . Thus, the ulama lost direct control over their finances, which significantly reduced their capacity to exert political influence. In Iran,
13114-461: The decline of Sunni Muslim unity in India. Ahmad Sirhindi recorded his hostility towards the Sikhs. In his Makutbat letter 193, he is said to have stated [sic]: "The execution of the accused Kafir of Goindwal at this time is a very good achievement indeed and has become the cause of a great defeat of hateful Hindus. With whatever intention they are killed and with whatever objective they are destroyed it
13272-411: The deeds of the Ottoman sultans in terms of idealised Islamic ghazi warriors. According to Burak (2015), the Ottoman literature genres of the "rank order" ( Turkish : tabaḳat and the "biografic lexicon" ( Turkish : Eş-şakaiku'n ) compiled the biographies of scholars in such ways as to create a concise and coherent tradition of the doctrine and structure of the Ottoman imperial scholarship. During
13430-456: The donor is free to specify in detail the curriculum, as was shown by Ahmed and Filipovic (2004) for the Ottoman imperial madrasas founded by Suleiman the Magnificent . As Berkey (1992) has described in detail for the education in medieval Cairo , unlike medieval Western universities, in general madrasas have no distinct curriculum , and do not issue diplomas . The educational activities of
13588-547: The earth, of great merit, who was renowned by the name of the glorious Tôramâna; by whom, through (his) heroism that was specially characterized by truthfulness, the earth was governed with justice", and his Mihirakula as "the lord of the earth" as of 520 CE. Around the 9th century, the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty controlled Gwalior and during their rule, they constructed the Teli ka Mandir temple. The Kachchhapaghata dynasty ruled
13746-498: The efforts of Ahmad Sirhindi to bear success as emperor Jahangir started changing the policies which were criticized by Ahmad Sirhindi. Ahmad Sirhindi likely stayed to accompany the emperor for three years before his death. He continued to exercise influence over the Mughal court along with his son, Shaikh Masoom, who tutored the young prince Aurangzeb . Ahmad Sirhindi died in the morning of 10 December 1624. Another son of Ahmad Sirhindi, Khwaja Muhammad Masoom, supported Aurangzeb during
13904-526: The emperor rectified his order and freed Ahmad Sirhindi. However, Ahmad Sirhindi was imprisoned once again in 1622, suggested to be due to the jealousy of several nobles for his popularity, before being released again after spending one year in Gwalior prison and another three years in a prison within emperor Jahangir army entourage. After his release and restoration of favor and honor, Ahmad Sirhindi accompanied emperor Jahangir in his entourage into Deccan Plateau . Modern Indian historian Irfan Habib considers
14062-466: The end of the 20th century it became a million plus agglomeration and now it is a metropolitan city in central India. Gwalior is surrounded by industrial and commercial zones of neighbouring districts ( Malanpur – Bhind , Banmore – Morena ) on all three main directions. Gwalior has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modi's flagship Smart Cities Mission . According to legend, Gwalior
14220-659: The few places where both narrow gauge and broad gauge railways tracks were operational (until the line closed in 2020 ). Gwalior was the terminus for the longest narrow-gauge route operating in the world, covering a distance of 198 km (123 mi) from Gwalior Junction to Sheopur. Gwalior Junction is a six-railway track intersection point. It won an award for the best and cleanest station of North Central Railway zone . Gwalior has 3 railway stations within city limits namely: Birla Nagar station Sithouli Station Dabra Station Travellers can board/de board from Gwalior Junction Railway Station from these routes namely: Gwalior
14378-454: The flag of jihad precisely against this. It was the impact of that very impious era that gave birth to Dara Shikoh [Akbar's great grandson who carried on theological eclecticism]. To eradicate this poison, Alamgir [popularly known as Aurangzeb, Dara Shikoh's brother] struggled for fifty years. And this very poison eventually destroyed the political power of Muslims. (1938: 61) According to Chanfi Ahmed, many historians regards Ahmad Sirhindi as
14536-645: The founders of the School of Isfahan , and Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ardabili (d. 1585). By their teachings, they further developed the Shi'a Islamic teachings and religious practice. However, as religion did no longer suffice to support political power in Persia, Abbas I had to develop independent concepts to legitimise his rule. He did so by creating a new ghulam army, thus evoking the Turco-Mongol tradition of Timur and his reign. By
14694-440: The founders of the political Islam and of the late 19th and 20th century Salafi movement . The Egyptian Grand Mufti Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905), who was granted the degree of 'Alim by al-Azhar university in 1877, was the first who used the term Islāh in order to denote political and religious reforms. Until 1887 he edited together with al-Afghani the newspaper al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqā ("The firm bond"). The gazette widely spread
14852-526: The guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam. "Ulama" may refer broadly to the educated class of such religious scholars, including theologians , canon lawyers ( muftis ), judges ( qadis ), professors, and high state religious officials. Alternatively, "ulama" may refer specifically to those holding governmental positions in an Islamic state . By longstanding tradition, ulama are educated in religious institutions ( madrasas ). The Quran and sunnah (authentic hadith ) are
15010-506: The history of the Gwalior Fort and Man Mandir Palace. By the 15th century, the city had a noted singing school which was attended by the prominent figure of Hindustani classical music, Tansen . After death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb the Jat ruler Bhim Singh Rana captured Gwalior from Mughals . Later in the 1830s, the Scindia Dynasty captured Gwalior and it remained a princely state during
15168-665: The holy towns of Mecca and Medina, thereby destroying monuments which they considered pagan ( shirk ). Starting with the Pan-Islamic Congress in Mecca in 1926, the pro-Saudi movement developed into one of the most relevant currents of Islamic thought. In his Egyptian exile, the Syrian alim Abd ar-Rahman al-Kawakibi (1854–1902) met al-Afghani, Abduh and Rida. In his books Ṭabāʾiʿ al-istibdād ("The nature of despotism ") and Umm al-Qurā ("Mother of villages [i.e., Mecca]", 1899) he accused
15326-535: The hottest in India and the world. Temperatures peak in May and June with daily averages being around 33–35 °C (91–95 °F), and end in late June with the onset of the monsoon . Gwalior receives 750 mm of rain on average per year, most of which is concentrated in the Monsoon months (from late June to early October). August is the wettest month with about 250 mm of rain. Winter in Gwalior starts in late October, and
15484-643: The ideas of philosophy, particularly those rooted from Greek philosophy . Furthermore, Sirhindi criticize the method of interpretating the meaning of Quran with philosophy. Ahmad Sirhindi view regarding some of teachings found in Ibn Arabi teaching in Waḥdat al-Wujūd . He argued that the doctrine of Ibn Arabi is incompatible with Islam. In his book, Ahmad Sirhindi criticized the doctrine of Waḥdat al-Wujūd , by saying in his book, Al-Muntakhabaat Min Al-Maktubaat, that God
15642-421: The imperial bureaucracy, and Ottoman secular law into Islamic law. In contrast, Shah Abbas I of Persia was unable to gain similar support by the Shi'a ulama, who retained a more independent position. During the late Safavid empire, the Shi'a ulama developed into one of the warrantors of continuity in a period of instability of the central government, thus securing a relative independency which they retained during
15800-502: The influence of Sufi mysticism weakened, the Shah's role as the head of the Safaviyya lost its significance as a justification for his political role. Abbas I thus sought to associate himself with eminent ulama like Shaykh Bahāʾi (1574–1621 AD), whom he made Shaykh al-Islām in his new capital, Isfahan. Other famous ulama working under Abbas's patronage were Mir Damad (d. 1631 or 1632 AD), one of
15958-416: The intellectual circles of one region could be unknown in another. The ability of scholars from one region to support their argument in another might therefore be limited by the familiarity with the respective texts of the community they are working in. In an era without book print or mass communication media, a scholar's reputation might have remain limited if he was unfamiliar with the local canon of texts. As
16116-529: The intention of the school was to help Indian Muslims, who had become subjects of the British Empire after 1857, to lead their lives according to Islamic law. The Deobandi propagate a Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school, which was the most prevalent madhhab in South Asia. Still today, they aim at a revival of the Islamic society and education. Following the example of Deoband, thousands of madrasas were founded during
16274-444: The issuing of fatwa as well as the use of Arabic, and later also Persian as common languages of discourse constituted the religious authority of the ulama throughout the entire Islamic world. Zaman has demonstrated that, as personal contacts were key to acquiring knowledge, Islamic scholars sometimes travel far in search of knowledge (ṭalab al-ʿilm) . Due to their common training and language, any scholars travelling from one region of
16432-623: The late 19th century which adopted the Deobandi way of studying fundamental texts of Islam and commenting on Quran and Hadith. By referring back to traditional Islamic scholars, the Deobandi School aims at defending the traditional Islamic madhhab, especially the Hanafi, against criticism which arose from other Islamic schools like the Ahl-i Hadith . During the 1990s, the Afghan taliban also referred to
16590-459: The latter part of the nineteenth century, the consensus of the Naqshbandi community had placed the prophetic realities closer to God than the divine realities. The rationale for this development may have been to neutralize unnecessary discord with the large Muslim community whose emotional attachment to Muhammad was greater than any understanding of philosophical fine points. Ahmad Sirhindi criticize
16748-429: The mosques full of worshippers, the exaltation of Quran and Hadith practical teaching, and the complete observance of Fasting during Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr celebrations. Gerardus Willebrordus Joannes Drewes argues that the influences of Ahmad Sirhindi idea of Islamic reformation and anti Ibn Arabi's pantheism has spread as far as Aceh, with the indication of how Aceh Sultanate scholar Nuruddin ar-Raniri seems held
16906-488: The most distinguished Islamic law scholars of his territory. In his 2015 study on the "second formation of Islamic law", Burak has shown in detail how the Ottoman state gradually imposed upon the traditional ulama a hierarchy of "official imperial scholars", appointed and paid by the central government. From the conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo in 1517 onwards, the Ottoman ulama set up their own interpretation of
17064-401: The movement received significant setbacks. According to Mohammad Yasin in his work, A Social History of Islamic India , the impact of Ahmad Sirhindi in Muslim community in 17th century for reversing the spread of heterodox thinking was seen as huge success. Yohanan Friedmann has noted that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical thought of Ahmad Sirhindi has inspired
17222-535: The name "Victorious army of Muhammad" ( Asâkir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye ). By doing so, he was able to overcome the accusation of apostasy and secure the ulama's support. Mahmuds reforms created a new imperial elite class who spoke Western European languages and were knowledgeable of the Western European societies and their political systems. As the political and economic pressure increased on the Ottoman Empire in
17380-458: The new Indian state of Madhya Bharat. Jivajirao Scindia served as the state's Rajpramukh , or the appointed governor, from 28 May 1948 to 31 October 1956, when Madhya Bharat was merged into Madhya Pradesh. In 1962, Rajmata Vijayraje Scindia , the widow of Maharaja Jivajirao Scindia, was elected to the Lok Sabha, beginning the family's career in electoral politics. She was first a member of the Congress Party, and later became an influential member of
17538-409: The pan-islamistic concept of Islam representing a religious bond which was believed to be stronger than nationality or language. From 1876 on, Abduh edited the newspaper al-Ahrām . Since 1898, he also edited, together with Rashid Rida (1865–1935), the newspaper al-Manār ("The Beacon"), in which he further developed his ideas. al-Manār appeared in print for almost 40 years and was read throughout
17696-408: The period of British rule. Chaturbhuj Temple at Gwalior Fort has the world's very first occurrence of zero as a written number. Gwalior was major centre in the 1857 rebellion , mainly because of Rani Lakshmibai . After Kalpi (Jhansi) fell into the hands of the British on 24 May 1858, Lakshmibai sought shelter at Gwalior Fort. The Maharaja of Gwalior, was not willing to give up his fort without
17854-571: The person of the sultan. For example, Ebussuud provided a reason why the government could own land, or could levy and increase taxes, as the government was responsible for the protection of the common good of all Muslims. Shaikh Safi-ad-Din Ardabili (1252–1334) was the founder of the Safaviyya tariqa . Safi ad-Din's great-great grandson Ismail , who from 1501 onwards ruled over the Persian Empire ,
18012-651: The pioneer of Islamic reformism of Salafism in seventeenth century India. Although Chanfi Ahmed regards the movement were marked by Shah Waliullah Dehlawi instead. Gamal al-Banna instead opined that Ahmad Sirhindi was influencing Shah Waliullah Dehlawi in reviving the science of Hadith in northern India. Modern writer Zahid Yahya al-Zariqi has likened Ahmad Sirhindi personal view with Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi , Ibn Taymiyya , Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab , Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya , Abd al-Razzaq al-San'ani , and Al-Shawkani , due to his orthodox stance, and his opposition to emperor Akbar in term of religious practice. This view
18170-450: The point of view of Islam the introduction of modern institutions by the national state. He referred to the Islamic concept of the collective interest or common good of the Muslim community (maṣlaḥa) , to which he accorded overarching importance (al-maṣlaḥa shar) in the interest of his fellow Muslims. The concept of islāh gained special relevance for the future, as it strives at understanding and justifying all aspects of modern life from
18328-676: The practice of Khalwa or ascetism by calling it as heresy, due to no arguments that showed that the early generations of Muslims practiced it. Naqshbandi Sufis claim that Ahmad Sirhindi is descended from a long line of "spiritual masters" which were claimed by the order: Islamic scholar In Islam , the ulama ( / ˈ uː l ə ˌ m ɑː / ; Arabic : علماء , romanized : ʿulamāʾ , lit. 'the learned ones'; singular Arabic : عالِم , romanized : ʿālim ; feminine singular alimah ; plural aalimath ), also spelled ulema , are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered
18486-486: The practice of Quburiyyun among Sufist. According to Simon Digby , "modern hagiographical literature emphasizing Ahmad Sirhindi effort for strict Islamic orthodoxy, Sharia and religious observance." modern scholar Yohanan Friedmann also noted about the commitment of Ahmad Sirhindi in exhotation about Sharia or practical observance Islam remains extreme, despite his huge focus on the discourse about Sufi experience. However, Friedman in his other works claims Ahmad Sirhindi
18644-693: The protection of Iskandar Thani , Sultan of Aceh . Both scholars were able to move freely in an "interconnected world of fellow scholars". According to Zaman, their offices and positions as respected scholars were only questioned if they proved themselves unfamiliar with local customs (as happened to Ibn Battuta]), or met resistance from opponents with stronger local roots (ar-Raniri). Through their travels and teachings, ulama are able to transmit new knowledge and ideas over considerable distances. However, according to Zaman (2010), scholars have often been required to rely on commonly known texts which could support their fatwas . A text which might be widely known within
18802-820: The reality of Muhammad is superior to any creature, he is not meant to be worshipped through Sujud or prostrations, in contrast with Kaaba, which God commanded to be the direction of prostration or Qibla . The shrine of Ahmad Sirhindi, known as Rauza Sharif , is located in Sirhind , Punjab, India . Ahmet Özel from Atatürk University has reported in his work on Diyanet İslâm Ansiklopedisi, el-alemgiriyye , That some of Ahmad Sirhindi works were compiled in Fatawa 'Alamgiri . There are at least 60 kind of Maktubat were recorded from Ahmad Sirhindi which he deliver to various notables, officials, and shaykhs during his life. Due to his fervent orthodoxy, Ahmad Sirhindi's followers bestowed him
18960-483: The reign of subsequent dynasties. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the leaders and subjects of the Ottoman Empire became increasingly aware of its role as a great power of its time. This new self-awareness was associated with the idea to legitimise the new political role by linking the religious scholarship to the political system: Ottoman historians of the 15th and 16th century like Ibn Zunbul or Eyyûbî, described
19118-448: The religion of Islam. However, according to Hourani, al-Farabi also wrote that philosophy in its pure form was reserved for an intellectual elite, and that ordinary people should rely for guidance on the sharia . The distinction between a scholarly elite and the less educated masses "was to become a commonplace of Islamic thought". As exemplified by the works of al-Razi ( c. 865–925 AD), during later times, philosophy "was carried on as
19276-540: The religious concept of the Muslim collective interest ( maṣlaḥa ) to make his point, thereby applying the idea of ijtihad to public affairs. Positions comparable to the Western Islamic ulama were also taken in the Eastern parts of the Islamic world by Syed Ahmad Khan , the pioneering Muslim modernist in South Asia, and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani . The latter is regarded as the mentor of Pan-Islamism , but also as one of
19434-407: The religious orthodoxy of emperor Aurangzeb . This was noted by how Ahmad Sirhindi managed to influence the successor of emperor Akbar, starting from Jahangir, into reversing Akbar's policies, such as lifting marriage age limits, mosque abolishments, and Hijra methodology revival which was abandoned by his father. It is noted by historians that this influence has been significantly recorded during
19592-439: The religious policies of the late emperor so he sent letters inflamed with religious fervor and faith towards young commanders and courtiers and to gather them into his cause to reverse the emperor's religious policy to persuade the emperor. Later, during the reign of emperor Jahangir, Ahmad Sirhindi continued his religious discourses by writing a large number of letters to the nobles, particularly towards Shaikh Farid Murtaza Khan,
19750-519: The royal family's claim at descendency from Musa al-Kadhim , the Seventh Imam, and thus to legitimise the Safavid rule. During the reign of Shah Abbas I (1571 – 1629 AD), the argument of the theocratic unity of religious and political power was no longer sufficient to legitimise the Shah's authority: Shi'a ulama renounced the monarch's claim to represent the hidden Imam by teaching that descendancy did not necessarily mean representation. Likewise, as
19908-618: The rule of the Tomar clan. During those years, Gwalior saw its golden period. The Jain Sculptures at Gwalior Fort were built under Tomar rule. Man Singh Tomar a Tomar Rajput made his dream palace, the Man Mandir Palace which is now a tourist attraction at Gwalior Fort. Babur described it as "the pearl in the necklace of forts of India and not even the winds could touch its masts". The daily light and sound show organised there apprise about
20066-663: The same number of trains to the Bhopal and Nagpur stations. However, fewer trains are available for long routes like Mumbai and Chennai. The luxury trains – the Maharaja Express and the India on Wheels – stop at Gwalior on their week-long round trip of tourist destinations in Central India. More than 180 trains stop at Gwalior Railway Station Gwalior is fairly well connected to other parts of Madhya Pradesh and India by national and state highways. The proposed North-south-Corridor of
20224-528: The school of law. This exemplifies their purpose to establish a canon of Hanafi law within the Ottoman imperial scholarship. which modern Ottomanists termed the "Ottoman Islam". After 1453, Mehmed the Conqueror (1432–1481) had established eight madrasas in former Byzantine church buildings, and later founded the sahn-ı şeman or "Eight courtyards madrasa", adjacent to the Fatih mosque , where he brought together
20382-429: The scriptural sources of traditional Islamic law . Students of Islamic doctrine do not seek out a specific educational institution, but rather seek to join renowned teachers. By tradition, a scholar who has completed their studies is approved by their teacher. At the teacher's individual discretion, the student is given the permission for teaching and for the issuing of legal opinions ( fatwa ) . The official approval
20540-571: The sharia had authority over the entire Ottoman population. In the 16th century, as the support by the ulama of the sultan and the central government was essential for shaping the still-growing empire, the importance of the office rose, and its power increased. As members of the Ilmiye , the imperial scholars were part of the Ottoman elite class of the Askeri , and were exempt from any taxes. However, by approving scholars and appointing them to offices, over time
20698-468: The similar view with Ahmad Sirhindi regarding he rejection against Ibn Arabi. Abul A'la Maududi , modern Hanafite thinker and political activist, were recorded to quote Ahmad Sirhindi role in opposing the "religious impurities" which were introduced by Akbar earlier: This [Akbar's din-i dewa] was the first great sedition (fitna) that sought to absorb Muslims in territorial nationalism by spreading atheism and irreligiosity.... Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi unfurled
20856-524: The state of fana' fi Allah (to forget about everything except Almighty Allah). Sirhindi considered wahdat ash-shuhūd to be superior to wahdat al-wujūd (oneness of being), which he understood to be a preliminary step on the way to the Absolute Truth. Aside from the doctrine of pantheism of Ibn 'Arabi, Ahmad Sirhindi also expressed his opposition towards the idea of Metempsychosis or the migration of soul from one body to another. Sirhindi also wrote
21014-418: The subject of Syncretism . His efforts influenced Abul Fazl , protegee of emperor Akbar, to support Ahmad Sirhindi in an effort to convince Jahangir , successor of Akbar, to reverse the policies of Akbar of tolerating Hindus in Mughal court. According to the modern Syrian salafi jurist Ali Al-Tantawi , Ahmad Sirhindi never aspired to depose the emperor despite his fierce criticism; instead, he wanted to reform
21172-466: The sultan's influence increased over the religious scholars, although, as a Muslim, he still stood under the Islamic law. Even the Shaykh al-Islām was subordinate to the sultan; his position, like the ranks of the muftis, was described as a "service" ( Turkish : hizmet ) or "rank" ( Turkish : rütbe or paye-ı Sahn ), to which a candidate was appointed or elevated. Sometimes, the sultans made use of their power: In 1633, Murad IV gave order to execute
21330-538: The time of the Persian Ilkhanate (1260–1335 AD) and the Timurid dynasty (1370–1507 AD) onwards, madrasas have often become part of an architectural complex which also includes a mosque, a Sufi ṭarīqa , and other buildings of socio-cultural function, like baths or a hospital . Madrasas are considered sacred places of learning. They may provide boarding and salaries to a limited number of teachers, and boarding for
21488-668: The title of Mujaddid. For his role to the medieval southeast Asia Islamic community, the Islamic politician Muhammad Iqbal called Ahmad Sirhindi as "the Guardian of the wherewithal the Community". During 16th century, a Pantheism religious movements of Wahdat al wajood that are championed by Dara Shikoh , Sarmad Kashani , and Bawa Lal Dayal . However, these movement were opposed by Ahmad Sirhindi, Khwaja Muhammad Masum and Ghulam Yahya. Ahmad Sirhindi isnoted as being influential here as his release of strong criticism of Ibn Arabi pantheism caused
21646-533: The traditional education of an alim, his interest focused on modern French concepts of administration and economy. He only referred to Islam in order to emphasize that Muslims can adopt practical knowledge and insights from Europe. As such, lt-Tahtawi's report reflects the political efforts of Muhammad Ali Pasha, who did not intend to reform al-Azhar university, but aimed at building an independent educational system sponsored by his government. Hayreddin Pasha (1822/3–1890)
21804-408: The two opponent early modern Islamic empires, both relied on ulama in order to legitimise their power. In both empires, ulama patronised by the royal courts created "official" religious doctrines which supported the dynastic rule. At the high points of their political power, respectively, the development took different paths: The Ottoman Sultan Süleyman I successfully integrated the imperial ulama into
21962-589: The ulama were regarded as the guardians of Islamic law and prevented the Caliph from dictating legal results, with the ruler and ulama forming a sort of "separation of powers" in government. Laws were decided based on the Ijma (consensus) of the Ummah (community), which was most often represented by the legal scholars. The Sunni Ottoman, and the Shi'a Safavid Persian dynasties, rulers of
22120-624: The ulama's support in an attempt to strengthen their authority. Particularly, they associated themselves with a group of ulama who supported the "official" Twelver Shi'a doctrine, established by the Iranian Shaykh al-Islām Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi (1627–1699) during the later decades of Safavid rule. The dispute between the Twelver Shi'a and Mir Damad 's (d. 1631 or 1632) and Mulla Sadra 's (c. 1571/2 – 1640) School of Isfahan , who promoted Sufi mysticism and Islamic philosophy , continued throughout
22278-513: The ulama. The Shiite scholars retained their political influence on the Persian society. They also maintained unrestricted access to the financial resources from the religious endowments. In addition, the Islamic Zakat tax was paid to individual imams and not to state-sponsored tax collectors. Both their religious influence and their financial means allowed the Shiite ulama to act, at times, against
22436-651: The use of Ijtihad and Qiyas in Islamic Jurisprudence and defended the use of both. Ahmad Sirhindi argued that Qiyas and Itjihad were not included on Bidʻah Regarding the Hindu practice, The puritanical Ahmad Sirhindi condemns the thought from some Hindu thinkers, such as Hardai Ram, that Bhakti movement was identical with the Islamic mysticism. Ahmad Sirhindi's opposition to emperor Akbar regarding Din-i Ilahi 's syncretic belief were recorded in fourth volume of Tarikh-e-Dawat-o-Azeemat . Ahmad Sirhindi also rejected
22594-452: The use of sharia led to changes in local customs. ʿIlm al-Kalām , the "science of discourse", also termed "Islamic theology", serves to explain and defend the doctrine of the Quran and Hadith. The concept of kalām was introduced during the first Islamic centuries by the Muʿtazila school. One of the most prominent scholars of the Muʿtazila was Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad (935–1025 AD). From
22752-568: The village of Sirhind , Punjab to a Punjabi Muslim family. A descendant of 13th-century Sufi saint and poet Baba Farid , he claimed ancestry from the second Rashidun caliph, Umar (634–644). Sirhindi received most of his early education from his father, 'Abd al-Ahad, his brother, Muhammad Sadiq and from a Lahore -based scholar Muhammad Tahir al-Lahuri. He also memorised the Qur'an . He then studied in Sialkot , which had become an intellectual centre under
22910-615: The wake of the Ash'arite synthesis between Mu'tazilite rationalism and Hanbalite literalism, its original form survived among a minority of mostly Hanbalite scholars. While Ash'arism and Maturidism are often called the Sunni "orthodoxy", traditionalist theology has thrived alongside it, laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni faith. Islamic theology experienced further developments among Shia theologians . The study of, and commentaries on Quran and hadith, debates about ijtihad and taqlid and
23068-435: The weakness of the central authority was the Shi'a ulama. According to Garthwaite (2010), "the ulama constituted one institution that not only provided continuity, but gradually asserted its role over and against royal authority." A process of change began which continued throughout the 19th century and into the present. Already some of the last Safavids, Sulayman Shah (r. 1666–1694) and Tahmasp II (r. 1722–1732) had sought
23226-543: The works of Muhammad ash-Shawkani, whose writings did also influence the doctrine of the Salafi movement in the Arab Middle East and worldwide. Gwalior Gwalior ( Hindi : IPA: [ɡʋɑːlɪjəɾ] , pronunciation ) is a major city in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh ; It is known as the City of Music having oldest musical gharana in existence. It lies in northern part of Madhya Pradesh and
23384-519: The worst distorters of faith "are those who bear malice against the companions of Prophet Muhammad. God has called them Kafirs in the Quran." In a letter to his discple Sheikh Farid , the Mir Bakhshi of the Mughal Empire , he said that showing respect to the distorters of faith ( Ahl-e-Bidʻah ) amounted to destruction of Islam. Ahmad Sirhindi believed the Shia , Mahdawi , and the mystics were responsible for
23542-425: Was amongst the first members of the ulama who travelled to Europe. As a religious counsellor to a delegation by the Egyptian khedive Muhammad Ali Pasha he stayed in Paris from 1826 to 1831. His report "The Extraction of Gold or an Overview of Paris" ( Taḫlīṣ al-ibrīz fī talḫīṣ Bārīz ) (1849) included some outlines of future reforms and potential improvements in his native country. Although al-Tahtawi had gone through
23700-418: Was an Ottoman Tunisian alim and statesman who reformed the administration and jurisdiction of the province. He was able to explain his ideas in French ( Réformes nécessaires aux États musulmans – Necessary reforms of the Muslim states. Paris, 1868), which he had learned whilst representing his sovereign Ahmad Bey at the court of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1855. In contrast to al-Tahtawi, Hayreddin Pasha used
23858-529: Was created on 6 June 1887 with two divisions for Lashkar and Morar, which later were merged with a single constitutional body. There are four seats in the state legislative assembly (the "Madhya Pradesh Vidhan Sabha") responsible for the Gwalior municipal area, the constituencies being Gwalior , Gwalior Rural , Gwalior East and Gwalior South . Prior to the 2008 boundary changes the seats were "Gird", "Lashkar East" and "Lashkar West". State institutions include: The national assembly seat covering Gwalior
24016-408: Was effectively criticised by al-Ghazali , one of the most influential scholars of Islam. In his works Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), Mizan al-'amal (Criterion of Action) and Kimiya-yi sa'ādat (The Alchemy of Happiness), he refuted the Philosophy of Ibn Sīnā , and demonstrated that the Aristotelian ethics is incompatible with Islamic ethics: The latter is based on
24174-459: Was found to have the second-highest level of air pollution according to a World Health Organization study in 2016. Particulates from the burning of garbage and fossil fuels make breathing the air of this city a hazard. The administration of Gwalior is shared between the departments and institutions of three levels of government – civic administration by the Gwalior Municipal Corporation , state administration by government of Madhya Pradesh , and
24332-401: Was founded in 600 CE after a local chieftain, Suraj Sen , who was cured of leprosy from a drink given to him by a holy man called Gwalipa. Suraj subsequently set up a town and fort and named them after Gwalipa. The earliest historical record found at Gwalior is the Gwalior inscription of the Alchon Hun ruler Mihirakula . It describes Mihirakula's father Toramana (493–515) as "a ruler of
24490-492: Was primarily focusing on towards discourse of Sufism in mysticism instead. Ahmad Sirhindi had originally declared the "reality of the Quran" (haqiqat-i quran ) and "the reality of the Kaaba " ( haqiqat-i ka'ba-yi rabbani ) to be above the reality of Muhammad ( haqiqat-i Muhammadi ). This notion were deemed controversial by his contemporary, as it caused furor and opposition among certain Sufi followers and Ulama in Hejaz . Sirhindi responded to their criticism by stating that while
24648-515: Was similarly in favour of orthodoxy and fierce denunciations of heresies. He criticized the practices such as Raqs , or Sufi whirling . While also emphasizing the criticism to any rituals or practices that not included in Sharia. The societal reforms of Mughal empire by Ahmad Sirhindi methodology has several targets which he aimed to convey. He viewed that to reform the society, one must convey his thoughts towards 6 elements of society accordingly, such as: Meanwhile, Ahmad Sirhindi personally accepted
24806-430: Was the founder of the Safavid dynasty . Shah Ismail I proclaimed the Twelver Shi'a as the new Persian state religion. To propagate the Safavid faith , he invited ulama from Qom , Jabal 'Āmil in southern Lebanon and Syria to travel around Iran and promote the Shi'a doctrine. In 1533, Shah Tahmasp I commissioned a new edition of the Safvat as-safa , Shaikh Ṣāfī's genealogy. It was rewritten in order to support
24964-404: Was their neglection of Sharia , since he viewed those who followed Sufi Tariqa viewed that Sharia is not enough for pursuing Ma'rifa . Ahmad Sirhindi even goes so far that in his book he branded such kind of Sufi who abandon Sharia as apostates. Ahmad Sirhindi's teaching emphasized the inter-dependence of both the Sufi path and Sharia, stating that "what is outside the path shown by the prophet
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