96-598: Lieutenant-General Sir Ralph Abercromby , KB (7 October 1734 – 28 March 1801) was a Scottish soldier and politician. He rose to the rank of lieutenant-general in the British Army , was appointed Governor of Trinidad , served as Commander-in-Chief, Ireland , and was noted for his services during the French Revolutionary Wars , ultimately in the Egyptian campaign . His strategies are ranked amongst
192-795: A vice-admiral in the Royal Navy and an air marshal in the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the air forces of many Commonwealth countries. The rank insignia for both the Army and the Royal Marines is a crown over a crossed sabre and baton. During the Reign of Queen Elizabeth II , the St Edward's Crown , commonly known as the Queen's Crown, was depicted. Before 1953, and again since the accession of King Charles III in 2022,
288-613: A British crown colony , with a French-speaking population and Spanish laws. British rule was formalized under the Treaty of Amiens (1802). Afterwards, Abercromby secured possession of the settlements of Demerara and Essequibo in South America. A major assault on the port of San Juan , Puerto Rico , in April 1797 failed after fierce fighting where both sides suffered heavy losses. Abercromby returned to Europe and, in reward for his services,
384-433: A cane field, most of them naked or dressed in rags. The sun beat down on their heads; sweat ran from all parts of their bodies. Their arms and legs, worn out by excessive heat, by the weight of their picks and by the resistance of the clayey soil become so hardened that it broke their tools, the slaves nevertheless made tremendous efforts to overcome all obstacles. A dead silence reigned among them. In their faces, one could see
480-467: A complaint that was repeated in 1743. The system was consequently abandoned, and with it the plans for colonisation. In the later half of the 18th century, it became common and accepted that a Frenchman during his stay of a few years would cohabitate with a local black female. An early death among Europeans was very common due to diseases and conflicts; the French soldiers that Napoleon sent in 1802 to quell
576-779: A death of glory." He was buried on St John's Bastion within Fort Saint Elmo in Valletta , Malta . The British military renamed it Abercrombie's Bastion in his honour. The adjacent curtain wall linking this bastion to the fortifications of Valletta , originally called Santa Ubaldesca Curtain, was also renamed Abercrombie's Curtain . By a vote of the House of Commons, a monument was erected in Abercromby's honour in St Paul's Cathedral in London . His widow
672-640: A joint army. Before he could leave for Portugal to inspect their defences and army, the resignation of General Charles Stuart in the Mediterranean in April led to a change of plans. The Austrian plan was that Abercromby could create a distraction from the activities of General Michael von Melas in North Italy by landing at various points on the Italian coast. Abercromby received instruction from London to send 2,500–3,000 men to take French-occupied Malta. Thereafter, he
768-404: A kind of common-law marriage with slave or free mistresses, and provided for them with a dowry, sometimes freedom, and often education or apprenticeships for their children. Some such descendants of planters inherited considerable property. While the French controlled Saint-Domingue, they maintained a class system which covered both whites and free people of color. These classes divided up roles on
864-408: A list of who he thought were the different African peoples found in that French colony. Thus, the following list, taken from his 1814 Memoir , should be read as representative of European bias and second-hand knowledge: Planters took care to treat slaves well in the beginning of their time on the plantation, and they slowly integrated slaves into the plantation's labor system. On each plantation there
960-973: A majority of slaves in the colony were African-born, as specific conditions of slavery and exposure to tropical diseases such as yellow fever prevented the population from experiencing growth through natural increase. Slave traders ventured along the Atlantic coast of Africa, buying slaves for plantation labor; most of the slaves they bought were war-captives and enslaved by an opposing African ethnic group. The slaves that they purchased came from hundreds of different tribes; their languages often were mutually incomprehensible, and they learned Creole French to communicate. The slave population around 1789 totaled to 406,000 (according to Jacques Pierre Brissot ) or 465,000, while there were 28,000 to 32,000 affranchis (ex-slaves) and Creole of color population who numbered about 28,000 or 32,000. Whites totaled to be around 40,000 to 45,000 whites which included its largest group being
1056-518: A musket-ball in the thigh; but not until the battle had been won and he saw the enemy retreating did he allow himself to be relieved of command so he could receive medical aid. He was eventually borne from the field in a hammock, cheered by the blessings of the soldiers as he passed, and conveyed on board the flag-ship HMS Foudroyant which was moored in the harbour. The ball could not be extracted; mortification ensued, and seven days later, on 28 March 1801, he died. Abercromby's old friend and commander,
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#17330861210331152-459: A present to the master;... if my father received little money from his slaves, he wanted little, and fared sumptuously in consequence to the presents he received, and these were always given to him with pride." To regularize slavery, in 1685 Louis XIV had enacted the Code Noir , which accorded certain rights to slaves and responsibilities to the master, who was obliged to feed, clothe and provide for
1248-525: A rural police, due to Saint-Domingue's rough terrain and isolation away from French administration, the Code Noir's protections were sometimes ignored on remote sugar plantations. Justin Girod-Chantrans , a famous contemporary French traveler and naturalist of the time noted one such sugar plantation: "The slaves numbered roughly one hundred men and women of different ages, all engaged in digging ditches in
1344-623: A short period the office of commander-in-chief in Scotland , Abercromby was again called to command under the Duke of York in the 1799 Anglo-Russian expedition against the Napoleonic Dutch Republic . Abercromby conducted a textbook amphibious landing at Callantsoog establishing a beachhead and driving the Franco-Dutch army inland at Krabbendam . The high watermark of British success came when
1440-518: A slave? Q. Ah! well; when you arrive in your country, you won't be free then? R. Not at all; i'm a slave of war; when I arrive there, they will take me again and sell me. When I die, I will go to my country, that's all. African folklore, such as the widespread tales of Compère Lapin and Compère Bouqui , has been recorded throughout Haiti. Charles Malenfant , a French Captain of Dragoons who arrived in St. Domingue in 1792, after fighting had begun, compiled
1536-590: A small exclusive group of Grands blancs (white nobles; lit: big whites ) of whom the majority lived or were born in France, and the slave population totalled between 406,000 and 465,000. While many of the Gens de couleur libres were affranchis (ex-slaves), most members of this class were Creoles of color , i.e. free born blacks and mulattoes . As in New Orleans, a system of plaçage developed, in which white men had
1632-605: A squadron of the Dutch fleet then surrendered and the Anglo-Russian army advanced through North Holland capturing the cities of Hoorn, Enkhuizen and Medemblik. However, with the Duke of York now in overall command Anglo-Russian fortunes turned sour following the reverse at Castricum . The expected Orangist uprising in the North Holland peninsula never materialized and allies withdrew to their original positions. The expedition ended with
1728-603: A third of the entire Atlantic slave trade . In addition, some Native Americans were enslaved in Louisiana and sent to Saint-Domingue, particularly in the wake of the Natchez revolt . Between 1764 and 1771, the average annual importation of African slaves varied between 10,000 and 15,000; by 1786 it was about 28,000, and from 1787 onward, the colony received more than 30,000 slaves a year. The inability to maintain slave numbers without constant resupply from Africa meant that at all times,
1824-583: A view to a career as an advocate . On returning from the continent, Abercromby expressed a strong preference for the military profession, and a cornet 's commission was accordingly obtained for him (March 1756) in the 3rd Dragoon Guards . He served with his regiment in the Seven Years' War , and thus, the opportunity afforded him of studying the methods of Frederick the Great , which moulded his military character and formed his tactical ideas. Abercromby rose through
1920-476: Is a senior rank in the British Army and the Royal Marines . It is the equivalent of a multinational three-star rank ; some British lieutenant generals sometimes wear three-star insignia, in addition to their standard insignia, when on multinational operations. Lieutenant general is a superior rank to major general , but subordinate to a (full) general . The rank has a NATO rank code of OF-8 , equivalent to
2016-404: The gens de couleur libres (free people of color). These classes inhabited Saint Domingue and held a lot of local political power and control of the militia. Petits blancs shared the same societal level as gens de couleur libres . The Gens de couleur libres class was made up of affranchis (ex-slaves), free-born blacks, and mixed-race people, and they controlled much wealth and land in
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#17330861210332112-664: The Dominican Republic , the capital of which is still named Santo Domingo . When Christopher Columbus took possession of the island in 1492, he named it Insula Hispana , meaning "the Spanish island" in Latin . As Spain conquered new regions on the mainland of the Americas ( Spanish Main ), its interest in Hispaniola waned, and the colony's population grew slowly. By the early 17th century,
2208-670: The Petits blancs (white commoners; lit: little whites ) and Creoles of lighter complexions; French subjects: engagés (white indentured servants), foreign European immigrants or refugees, and a small exclusive group of Grands blancs (white nobles; lit: big whites ) of whom the majority lived or were born in France. There were numerous kinds of plantations in Saint-Domingue. Some planters produced indigo, cotton, and coffee; these plantations were small in scale, and usually only had 15–30 slaves, creating an intimate work environment. However,
2304-451: The Royal Air Force maintained the rank of lieutenant general. It was superseded by the rank of air marshal on the following day. Although Sir David Henderson was an RAF lieutenant general, the then RAF Chief-of-Staff Sir Hugh Trenchard never held this rank. Additionally, the retired Royal Navy admiral John de Mestre Hutchison held an honorary RAF commission in the rank of lieutenant general. The RAF lieutenant general rank insignia
2400-538: The Tudor Crown , commonly known as the King's Crown, has been used. Ordinarily, lieutenant general is the rank held by the officer in command of an entire battlefield corps . The General Officer Commanding NATO's Allied Rapid Reaction Corps is a British lieutenant general. Historically, I Corps and II Corps were commanded by British lieutenant generals. Additionally, three lieutenant general appointments also exist within
2496-650: The " Sir Ralph Abercromby ", is named after him. There is also a primary school and pub in Tullibody . There is also another 'General Abercrombie' pub with his portrait by John Hoppner as the sign off of the Blackfriars Bridge Road in London. Three ships have been named HMS Abercrombie after the general but using the variant spelling of his name. Lieutenant-general (United Kingdom) Lieutenant general ( Lt Gen ), formerly more commonly lieutenant-general ,
2592-518: The "Pearl of the Antilles " – one of the richest colonies in the world in the 18th-century French empire . It was the greatest jewel in imperial France's mercantile crown. By the 1780s, Saint-Domingue produced about 40 percent of all the sugar and 60 percent of all the coffee consumed in Europe. By 1789, Saint Domingue was made up of about 8,000 plantations ..., producing one-half of all the sugar and coffee that
2688-535: The 1794 withdrawal to Holland, he commanded the allied forces in the action at Boxtel and was wounded directing operations at Fort St Andries on the Waal . In 1795 he commissioned a townhouse at 66 Queen Street, Edinburgh . In July 1795, Abercromby was nominated by Secretary of State for War Henry Dundas to lead an expedition to the West Indies. Under instructions from Dundas, Abercromby's predecessor, Sir Adam Williamson,
2784-403: The 28th Foot were simultaneously engaged to both their front and rear. During the attack of Roize's second line, Abercromby was briefly captured by French dragoons , but quickly rescued by a highlander of the 42nd. About this time he received a bullet wound to the thigh which would eventually prove fatal, though he remained on the field and in command to the end. Rampon's renewed infantry attack on
2880-483: The British advance. On 20 March, the British forces extended across the isthmus , the right wing resting upon the ruins of Nicopolis and the sea, the left on the lake of Abukir. The line faced generally south-west towards the city, the reserve division under Major-General Sir John Moore . Abercromby anticipated a night attack, so the British slept in position under arms. At 3:30 a.m. French forces attacked and drove in
2976-521: The British outposts. Moving forward rapidly with great gallantry from the left, Lanusse launched the attack with Valentin's brigade in column along the seashore, and to their right Silly's brigade against the British entrenchments around the roman ruins. The brunt of the attack fell upon Moore's command, and in particular upon the 28th (North Gloucestershire) Regiment of Foot . The British repulsed this first assault, during which both Silly and Lanusse were hit. “General Lanusse saw that General Valentin had left
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3072-402: The Duke of York, paid tribute to Abercromby's memory in general orders: "His steady observance of discipline, his ever-watchful attention to the health and wants of his troops, the persevering and unconquerable spirit which marked his military career, the splendour of his actions in the field and the heroism of his death, are worthy the imitation of all who desire, like him, a life of heroism and
3168-408: The French columns, and by a heavy naval gun which was placed in battery near the position of 28 March. The Battle was won and was a great victory, with Menou forced to retreat to the city of Alexandria. On 17 August, British forces laid siege to Alexandria and later captured the city which effectively ended French control of Egypt and Syria. During the action of the battle Abercromby was struck by
3264-713: The Isle of Wight – a reward for his services but also possibly an incentive to lead the army in the Caribbean. The appointment of Abercromby as Commander-in-Chief of the Leeward and Windward Islands was officially announced on 5 August. On 17 March 1796 Abercromby arrived in Carlisle Bay, Barbados on the Arethusa . A third of the 6,000 troops that had arrived on the island before him had already been sent on to Saint Vincent and Grenada , leaving
3360-511: The Pyrenees . The people of the eastern part of Saint-Domingue ( French Santo Domingo ) were opposed to the arrangements and hostile toward the French. The islanders revolted against their new masters and a state of anarchy ensued, leading to more French troops being brought in. Until the mid-18th century, there were efforts made by the French Crown to found a stable French-European population in
3456-596: The Spanish deliberately omitted direct reference to the island from the treaty, but they were never able to reclaim this territory from the French. The economy of Saint-Domingue became focused on slave-based agricultural plantations. Saint-Domingue's Black population quickly increased. They followed the example of neighboring Caribbean colonies in coercive treatment of the slaves. More cattle and slave agricultural holdings, coffee plantations and spice plantations were implemented, as well as fishing, cultivation of cocoa, coconuts, and snuff. Saint-Domingue quickly came to overshadow
3552-411: The ability to go into town, and liberté des savanes (savannah liberty), a sort of freedom with certain rules. Slaves were considered to be valuable property, and slaves were attended by doctors who gave medical care when they were sick. Here is a description of how the liberté des savanes (savannah liberty) Creole custom worked: "My parent, like most Creoles, was an indulgent master, and more under
3648-472: The abolition of slavery in the colony in 1793, although this alienated the island's dominant slave-owning class. France controlled the entirety of Hispaniola from 1795 to 1802, when a renewed rebellion began. The last French troops withdrew from the western portion of the island in late 1803, and the colony later declared its independence as Haiti, the Taino name for the island, the following year. Spain controlled
3744-458: The advocate Alexander Abercromby, Lord Abercromby and General Robert Abercromby . The family had acquired Menstrie Castle in 1719 but their main family house was the nearby Tullibody House which they had built around 1700. Much of Ralph's childhood was spent in the latter. Abercromby's education was begun by a private tutor, then continued at the school of Mr Moir in Alloa , then considered one of
3840-562: The area of modern-day Haiti , from 1697 to 1804. The name derives from the Spanish main city on the island, Santo Domingo , which came to refer specifically to the Spanish-held Captaincy General of Santo Domingo , now the Dominican Republic . The borders between the two were fluid and changed over time until they were finally solidified in the Dominican War of Independence in 1844. The French had established themselves on
3936-416: The bank every year, they accumulate huge capital sums and become arrogant because they are rich, and their arrogance increases in proportion to their wealth. They bid on properties that are for sale in every district and cause their prices to reach such astronomical heights that the whites who have not so much wealth are unable to buy, or else ruin themselves if they do persist. In this manner, in many districts
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4032-566: The best in Scotland despite its Jacobite leanings. Ralph attended Rugby School from 12 June 1748, where he remained until he was 18. Between 1752 and 1753, he was a student at the University of Edinburgh . There he studied moral and natural philosophy and civil law, and was regarded by his professors as sound rather than brilliant. He completed his studies at Leipzig University in Germany from autumn 1754, taking more detailed studies in civil law with
4128-1164: The best land is owned by Creoles of color." Although the Creoles of color and affranchis held considerable power, they eventually became the subject of racism and a system of segregation due to the introduction of divisionist policies by the royal government , as the Bourbon regime feared the united power of the Creoles. Starting in the early 1760s, and gaining much impetus after 1769, Bourbon royalist authorities began attempts to cut Creoles of color out of Saint-Domingue's society, banning them from working in positions of public trust or as respected professionals. They were made subject to discriminatory colonial legislation. Statutes forbade Gens de couleur from taking up certain professions, wearing European clothing, carrying swords or firearms in public, or attending social functions where whites were present. The regulations did not restrict their purchase of land, and many had already accumulated substantial holdings and became slave-owners. By 1789, they owned one-third of
4224-458: The care worthy of a great general and an enlightened and beneficent statesman. When he was appointed to the command in Ireland, an invasion of that country by the French was confidently anticipated by the British government. He used his utmost efforts to restore the discipline of an army that was utterly disorganized; and, as a first step, he anxiously endeavoured to protect the people by re-establishing
4320-506: The centre was engaged, and despite disorientation in the dark, penetrated between the front and rear wing of the 42nd Regiment of Foot . A confused fight ensued in the ruins, in which the French troops were all either killed or captured with the 42nd taking their colour . Other British regiments engaged were the 23rd Regiment of Foot , 40th (the 2nd Somersetshire) Regiment of Foot and 58th (Rutlandshire) Regiment of Foot , together with Stuart's Minorca Regiment . The front and rear ranks of
4416-450: The centre was repulsed by the Guards brigade, supported by Coote's brigade, and the left wing maintained its position with ease, but the French cavalry for the second time came to close quarters with the reserve. The 42nd, twice charged by cavalry, had but 13 men wounded by the sabre . Part of the French losses were caused by the gunboats which lay close inshore and cannonaded the left flank of
4512-474: The colony, a difficult task because there were few European women there. From the 17th century to the mid-18th century, the Crown attempted to remedy this by sending women from France to Saint-Domingue and Martinique to marry the settlers. However, these women were rumoured to be former prostitutes from La Salpêtrière and the settlers complained about the system in 1713, stating that the women sent were not suitable,
4608-405: The colony. The Code Noir sanctioned corporal punishment but had provisions intended to regulate the administration of punishments. Some sugar planters, bent on earning high sugar yields, worked their slaves very hard. Costs to start a sugar cane plantation were very high, compared to every other plantation type, often causing the proprietor of the sugar plantation to go into deep debt. Despite
4704-407: The entire island of Hispaniola from the 1490s until the 17th century, when French pirates began establishing bases on the western side of the island. The official name was La Española , meaning "The Spanish (Island)". It was also called Santo Domingo , after Saint Dominic . The western part of Hispaniola was neglected by the Spanish authorities, and French buccaneers began to settle first on
4800-885: The extant British Army 's Headquarters. They are the Commander Field Army , the Commander Home Command and the Chief of Materiel (Land) in Defence Equipment and Support (double-hatted as the Quartermaster-General to the Forces ). Although the senior appointment in the Royal Marines , the Commandant General , has since 1996 held the lower rank of major general , prior to this date the Commandant General
4896-421: The face of strenuous opposition, is justly ranked among the most daring and brilliant exploits of the British army. Abercromby commanded the expedition to the Mediterranean in 1800, and after successfully landing the army at Aboukir and driving the French inland, defeated an attempted French counter-attack at Alexandria, 21 March 1801. Jacques-François Menou had arrived from Cairo and was determined to defeat
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#17330861210334992-473: The first buccaneers was Bertrand d'Ogeron (1613–1676), who played a big part in the settlement of Saint-Domingue. He encouraged the planting of tobacco, which turned a population of buccaneers and freebooters, who had not acquiesced to royal authority until 1660, into a sedentary population. D'Ogeron also attracted many colonists from Martinique and Guadeloupe, including Jean Roy, Jean Hebert and his family, and Guillaume Barre and his family, who were driven out by
5088-432: The general well-being of his slaves. The Code Noir also conferred affranchis (ex-slaves) full citizenship and gave complete civil equality with other French subjects. Saint Domingue's Code Noir never outlawed interracial marriage, nor did it limit the amount of property a free person could give to affranchis . Creoles of color and affranchis used the colonial courts to protect their property and sue whites in
5184-514: The general with 3,700 soldiers at his disposal. Control of much of Saint Vincent had been lost to rebelling French planters and native Caribs since early 1795, while Grenada was in the midst of an insurrection led by Julien Fédon . The reinforcements to Grenada allowed General Nicolls to attack enemy posts south of Port Royal on 25 March, preventing further French reinforcements from Guadeloupe. Three months later Abercromby arrived with further reinforcements and attacked Fédon's camp on 19 June, routing
5280-620: The highest mountain range in the Caribbean. In the parish of Jérémie , the gens de couleur libres formed the majority of the population. Many lived in Port-au-Prince as well, which became an economic center in the South of the island. The vast majority of the slaves in Saint-Domingue were war-captives who had lost a war with another ethnic group. Most slaves came from ethnic tension between different tribes and kingdoms, or religious wars between pagans and Muslim-pagan interreligious wars . Many of
5376-400: The human suffering and pain they endured, but the time for rest had not yet come. The merciless eye of the plantation steward watched over the workers while several black commanders, dispersed among the workers and armed with long whips, delivered harsh blows to those who seemed too weary to sustain the pace and were forced to slow down. Men, women, young and old alike – none escaped the crack of
5472-712: The influence of his bondservants than he himself was aware of. A number of servants belonged to him, who either hired themselves in the capital or on estates, or became fishermen, chip-chip finders, or land-crab catchers. These people gave my father what they pleased out of their earnings; he scarcely took any account of what his slaves paid him: sufficient for him was it, that one part of them supplied him with enough to satisfy his immediate wants. The rest waited on him, or waited on each other, or, most properly speaking, waited for each other to work. Thirteen adult slaves and three boys lived in his house: their united labour might have been performed by two or three paid domestics. Their time
5568-423: The insurgents and ending the rebellion. The British fleet sailed on 25 April 1796 for Saint Lucia , landing the following day and establishing a beachhead. The French were soon repelled and retreated to the fort at Morne Fortune , which Abercromby decided to besiege. The garrison under General Goyrand surrendered to the British army 26 May. The island had been retaken at the cost of 566 men. A force of around 4,000
5664-411: The intermediate grades to the rank of lieutenant-colonel of the regiment (1773) and brevet colonel in 1780, and in 1781, he became colonel of the newly raised King's Irish infantry . When that regiment was disbanded in 1783, he retired on half pay . He also entered Parliament as MP for Clackmannanshire (1774–1780). In 1791 he commissioned a large townhouse at 66 Queen Street, Edinburgh . Abercromby
5760-433: The island and established a hierarchy. The highest class, known as the grands blancs (white noblemen), was composed of rich nobles , including royalty , and mainly lived in France. These individuals held most of the power and controlled much of the property on Saint-Domingue. Although their group was very small and exclusive, they were quite powerful. Below the grands blancs were the petits blancs (white commoners) and
5856-404: The island and its smaller neighbors, notably Tortuga, had become regular stopping points for Caribbean pirates . In 1606, the king of Spain ordered all inhabitants of Hispaniola to move close to Santo Domingo, to avoid interaction with pirates. Rather than securing the island, however, this resulted in French, English and Dutch pirates establishing bases on the now-abandoned north and west coasts of
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#17330861210335952-524: The island of Tortuga, then on the northwest of Hispaniola. Spain later ceded the entire western coast of the island to France, retaining the rest of the island, including the Guava Valley , today known as the Central Plateau . The French called their portion of Hispaniola Saint-Domingue , the French equivalent of Santo Domingo . The Spanish colony on Hispaniola remained separate, and eventually became
6048-484: The island. French buccaneers established a settlement on the island of Tortuga in 1625 before going to Grande Terre (the mainland). At first they survived by pirating ships, eating wild cattle and hogs, and selling hides to traders of all nations. Although the Spanish destroyed the buccaneers' settlements several times, on each occasion they returned, drawn by the abundance of natural resources: hardwood trees, wild hogs and cattle, and fresh water. The settlement on Tortuga
6144-587: The jungle. Although some of the Caribs would remain in resistance until October, the rebellion had effectively been put down at the cost of 17 officers and 168 men killed or wounded. In 1797, the General Abercromby launched the invasion of Trinidad . His squadron sailed through the Bocas and anchored off the coast of Chaguaramas . The Spanish Governor Chacón decided to capitulate without fighting. Trinidad thus became
6240-499: The land pressure which was generated by the extension of the sugar plantations in those colonies. But in 1670, shortly after Cap-Français (later Cap-Haïtien ) had been established, the crisis of tobacco intervened and a great number of places were abandoned. The rows of freebooting grew bigger; plundering raids, like those of Vera Cruz in 1683 or of Campêche in 1686, became increasingly numerous, and Jean-Baptiste Colbert , Marquis de Seignelay , elder son of Jean Baptist Colbert and at
6336-606: The largest and wealthiest free population of color in the Caribbean ; they were known as the Gens de couleur libres (free people of color). Population estimations in 1789 indicate 28,000 to 32,000 affranchis and Creoles of color and 40,000 to 45,000 whites , which included its largest group being the Petits blancs (white commoners; lit: little whites ) and Creoles of lighter complexions; French subjects: engagés (white indentured servants), foreign European immigrants or refugees, and
6432-527: The lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, had signed an agreement with representatives of the French colonists of Saint Domingue that promised to restore the ancien regime , slavery and discrimination against mixed-race colonists, a move that drew criticism from abolitionists William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson . That same month he had been made a Knight of the Bath and in August Lieutenant Governor of
6528-411: The most daring and brilliant exploits of the British army. Ralph Abercromby was born on 7 October 1734 at Menstrie Castle , Clackmannanshire . He was the second (but eldest surviving) son of George Abercromby (1705-1800), a lawyer and descendant of the Abercromby family of Birkenbog, Aberdeenshire and Mary Dundas (died 1767), daughter of Ralph Dundas of Manour, Perthshire . His younger brothers include
6624-436: The most valuable plantations produced sugar. The average sugar plantation employed 300 slaves, and the largest sugar plantation on record employed 1400 slaves. These plantations took up only 14% of Saint-Domingue's cultivated land; comparatively, coffee was 50% of all cultivated land, indigo was 22%, and cotton only 5%. Because of the comparative investment requirement between sugar plantations and all other plantation types, there
6720-467: The plantation property and one-quarter of the slaves of Saint-Domingue. Central to the rise of the Gens de couleur planter class was the growing importance of coffee, which thrived on the marginal hillside plots to which they were often relegated. The largest concentration of Gens de couleur was in the southern peninsula. This was the last region of the colony to be settled, owing to its distance from Atlantic shipping lanes and its formidable terrain, with
6816-465: The previous colony in both wealth and population. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles," Saint-Domingue became the richest and most prosperous French colony in the West Indies, cementing its status as an important port in the Americas for goods and products flowing to and from France and Europe. Thus, the income and the taxes from slave-based sugar production became a major source of the French budget. Among
6912-661: The revolt in Saint-Domingue were attacked by yellow fever during the Haitian Revolution , and more than half of the French army died of disease. Prior to the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the economy of Saint-Domingue gradually expanded, with sugar and, later, coffee becoming important export crops. After the war, which disrupted maritime commerce, the colony underwent rapid expansion. In 1767, it exported 72 million pounds of raw sugar and 51 million pounds of refined sugar , one million pounds of indigo , and two million pounds of cotton. Saint-Domingue became known as
7008-429: The same way as petits blancs ; they held full citizenship and civil equality with other French subjects. Race was initially tied to culture and class, and some "white" Creoles had non-white ancestry. "These men are beginning to fill the colony... their numbers continually increasing amongst the whites, with fortunes often greater than those of the whites... Their strict frugality prompting them to place their profits in
7104-451: The seashore, and was within the re-entering angle of the redoubt and the Roman camp, where the cross fire of the enemy held him back. General Lanusse marched to this spot, encouraged the men, and made them advance. The worthy general was hit in the thigh by a ball from a gun-boat; four grenadiers tried to carry him off, but a second ball killed two of these brave fellows”. Soon Rampon's command in
7200-509: The seaward side in order to prevent the enemy retreating north, and Lieutenant Colonel Dickens used the 34th Regiment as a diversion on the opposite side. Knox was able to cut off communications with the Vigie, whilst Dickens ousted the nearby Caribs to complete the encirclement. The black French commander, Marinier, signed terms of surrender on 11 June and the Caribs did 4 days later. The British took around 200 prisoners, with another 200 escaping into
7296-477: The signing of the Convention of Alkmaar in which the Anglo-Russian force was allowed to withdraw. After spending time with Dundas over Christmas, Abercromby was summoned to London 21 January 1800. The Portuguese, concerned that they were under threat from Spain, requested British support and wanted Abercromby to lead their army. However, Abercromby refused to serve under a foreign ruler and would only take command of
7392-583: The slaves who came to Saint-Domingue could not return to Africa, as their home was controlled by an opposing African ethnic group, and they stayed as affranchis in Saint-Domingue. R. Hé! hé! mô n'a pas pense ça, moi, qui mô va faire dans mo paye? mô n'a pas saclave? Q. Ah! bin; quand vous arrive dans vous paye, vous n'a pas libe donc? R. Non va; mô saclave la guerre; quand mô arrive là; zotte prend moi encore pour vendé moi. Quand mô fini mort, mô va allé dans mon paye, à v'là tout. R. Hey! Hey! I don't think so, what am I going to do in my country? I won't be
7488-472: The supremacy of the civil power, and not allowing the military to be called out, except when it was indispensably necessary for the enforcement of the law and the maintenance of order. Finding that (he) received no adequate support from the head of the Irish government and that all his efforts were opposed and thwarted by those who presided in the councils of Ireland, he resigned the command. His departure from Ireland
7584-496: The time Minister of the Navy, brought back some order by taking a great number of measures, including the creation of plantations of indigo and of cane sugar . The first sugar windmill was built in 1685. On 22 July 1795, Spain ceded to France the remaining Spanish part of the island of Hispaniola, Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic ), in the second Treaty of Basel , ending the War of
7680-480: The time that Abercromby reached Minorca 22 June. In 1801, Abercromby was sent with an army to recover Egypt from France . His experience in the Netherlands and the West Indies particularly fitted him for this new command, as was proved when he carried his army in health, in spirits, and with the requisite supplies to the destined scene of action despite great difficulties. The debarkation of the troops at Aboukir , in
7776-435: The unusual step of publicly criticising the command of his predecessor, The 2nd Earl of Carhampton , for bequeathing an army "in a state of licentiousness, which must render it formidable to everyone but the enemy". To quote the biographic entry in the 1888 Encyclopædia Britannica, "[H]e laboured to maintain the discipline of the army, to suppress the rising rebellion , and to protect the people from military oppression, with
7872-417: The western portion of the islands of Hispaniola and Tortuga by 1659. In the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, Spain formally recognized French control of Tortuga Island and the western third of the island of Hispaniola. In 1791, slaves and some Creoles took part in a Vodou ceremony at Bois Caïman and planned the Haitian Revolution . The slave rebellion later allied with Republican French forces following
7968-447: The whip if they could not keep up pace." Work in the fields was often difficult, and life expectancy was low. Some owners deep in debt concluded that it was more economically profitable to work their slaves to death and import replacements than to provide their slaves with adequate food, clothing and medical care. Some 5–10 percent of slaves died every year, from disease and overworking, and even more when epidemics of disease swept through
8064-485: Was a big economic gap between normal planters and sugar "lords." While grands blancs owned 800 large scale sugar plantations, the petits blancs and gens de couleur (people of color) owned 11,700 small scale plantations, of which petits blancs owned 5,700 plantations, counting 3,000 indigo, 2,000 coffee, and 700 cotton; the affranchis and Creoles of color owned 6,000 plantations that mainly produced coffee of which they held an economic monopoly. Saint-Domingue had
8160-405: Was a black commander who supervised the other slaves on behalf of the planter, and the planter made sure not to favor one African ethnic group over others. Most slaves who came to Saint-Domingue worked in fields or shops; younger slaves could become household servants, and old slaves were employed as surveillants. Some slaves became skilled workmen, and they received privileges such as better food,
8256-538: Was a lieutenant general or full general . However, given that a few more senior positions in the British Armed Forces are open to officers from different services, Royal Marines officers can and do reach the rank of lieutenant general, being posted to Joint Forces or Ministry of Defence postings. Examples include Lieutenant-General Sir Robert Fry , Lieutenant-General Sir James Dutton and Lieutenant-General Sir David Capewell . From 1 April 1918 to 31 July 1919,
8352-635: Was a strong supporter of the American cause in the American Revolutionary War , and remained in Ireland to avoid having to fight against the colonists. When France declared war against Great Britain in 1793, Abercromby resumed his duties. He was appointed commander of a brigade under the Duke of York for service in the Netherlands , where he commanded the advanced guard in the action at Le Cateau . During
8448-594: Was appointed colonel of the 2nd (Royal North British) Regiment of Dragoons . He was also made Lieutenant-Governor of the Isle of Wight , Governor of Fort George and Fort Augustus in the Scottish Highlands, and promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-general. He again entered Parliament as the member for Clackmannanshire from 1796 to 1798. In 1798, Abercromby was made Commander-in-Chief of the forces in Ireland , then in rebellion and anticipating French intervention. He took
8544-478: Was chiefly spent in eating wangoo (boiled Indian cornflour), fish, land-crabs, and yams; sleeping; beating the African drum, composed of a barrel covered with a goat's skin; dancing, quarrelling, and love-making after their own peculiar amusement. If a fine chicken-turtle, a large grouper, or delicious rock-hynd was caught by any of our fishermen, no price would tempt them to sell it; no, it must be sent or brought as
8640-470: Was consumed in Europe and the Americas. This single colony, roughly the size of Hawaiʻi or Belgium, produced more sugar and coffee than all of the British West Indies colonies combined, generating enormous revenue for the French government and enhancing its power. Between 1681 and 1791 the labor for these plantations was provided by an estimated 790,000 or 860,000 slaves, accounting in 1783–1791 for
8736-673: Was created Baroness Abercromby of Tullibody and Aboukir Bay, and a pension of £2,000 a year was settled on her and her two successors in the title. Abercromby Place in Edinburgh's New Town and Abercromby Square in Liverpool are named in his honour. On 17 November 1767, Abercromby married Mary Anne , daughter of John Menzies and Ann, daughter of Patrick Campbell. They had seven children. Of four sons, all four entered Parliament, and two saw military service. Numerous works have been written about Abercromby. A public house in central Manchester ,
8832-410: Was deeply lamented by the reflecting portion of the people, and was speedily followed by those disastrous results which he had anticipated, and which he so ardently desired and had so wisely endeavoured to prevent." Abercromby was replaced in Ireland by Gerrard Lake who favoured an aggressive approach in putting down the rebellion, as opposed to Abercromby's attempts at conciliation. After holding for
8928-409: Was left to hold Saint Lucia under the command of Colonel John Moore before Abercromby left for Saint Vincent at the beginning of June. Abercromby arrived on Saint Vincent 7 June with a force of just over 4,000. He marched his troops near to the insurgent base at Vigie Ridge and camped nearby as the British started to execute an encircling movement: Quartermaster General John Knox manoeuvred his men on
9024-417: Was officially established in 1659 under the commission of King Louis XIV . In 1665, French colonization of the islands of Hispaniola and Tortuga entailed slavery-based plantation agricultural activity such as growing coffee and cattle farming. It was officially recognized by King Louis XIV . Spain tacitly recognized the French presence in the western third of the island in the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick ;
9120-482: Was similar to the naval rank insignia for a vice-admiral , with a broad band of gold being worn on the cuff with two narrower bands above it. Unlike the naval insignia, the RAF lieutenant general insignia did not have an executive curl . Saint Domingue Saint-Domingue ( French pronunciation: [sɛ̃ dɔmɛ̃ɡ] ) was a French colony in the western portion of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola , in
9216-574: Was to receive a further 6,000 men to assist the Austrians. General Charles O'Hara in Gibraltar was pleased with the appointment, for while Stuart had been hot-tempered and difficult to work with, Abercromby was "a reasonable, considerate good soldier, and listens with temper and patience to every proposal made to him". However, delays caused by the weather meant that the situation in Italy had changed drastically by
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