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50-513: Among the Digambara Jains the title is awarded for building a Jain temple with formal installation ( Panch-kalyanak Pratishtha ) of Tirthankara images with festivities, often accompanied with a gajrath . Among the Śvetāmbara Jains it is awarded for conducting a mass pilgrimage to major tirthas . In most north Indian Jain communities, the honorific " Sah " (Sanskrit Sadhu) has been widely used. It can be used by any Jain. In Bundelkhand

100-642: A commentary on the Dhavala ), Samantabhadra and Siddhasena Divakara . The Satkhandagama and Kasayapahuda have major significance in the Digambara tradition. There have been several Digambara monastic lineages that all trace their descent to Mahavira. The historical lineages included Mula Sangha (further divided into Nandi , Sena , Simha and Deva Sanghas) and now largely extinct Kashtha Sangha (which included Mathura sangha, ""Lat-Vagad" etc.), Dravida Sangh. The text Darshana-Sara of Devasena discusses

150-401: A monk is tenfold, comprising ten excellencies or virtues. The word 'perfect' or 'supreme' is added to every one of the terms in order to indicate the avoidance of temporal objectives. Jain texts list down twenty-two hardships ( parīşaha jaya ) that should be endured by an ascetic who wish to attain moksha (liberation). These are required to be endured without any anguish. According to

200-513: A ranking of titles had existed in the past. A person who already has the rank Singhai, receives the title "Savaai Singhai" upon another gaja-ratha pratishtha. On a third occasion they receive the title "Seth", and following that the title "Shrimant Seth" is conferred. Khurai Zamindar Nandlal had conducted gaja-ratha pratishtha on three occasions, 1834, 1839 and 1863 and thus had earned the titles Singhai, Savaai Singhai and Seth. His grandson Mohanlal had conducted pratishtha in 1893 and thus had earned

250-591: A renowned Jain scholar, after researching the scriptures of the Digambara sect described several points of critique: - Nalini Balbir , another renowned scholar of Jainism , has criticised the Digambara views on liberation of women and advocates for a more inclusive and gender-equal interpretation of the scriptures. She lists her criticism in the following manner: - Balbir states that: The Digambara sect's view that women cannot achieve liberation in their present birth

300-449: A scholar of Hindu and Jain studies, less than one fifth of all Jains in India have a Digambara heritage. According to Heinrich Zimmer , the word Digambara is a combination of two Sanskrit words: dik (दिक्) (space, sky) and ambara (अम्बर) (garment), referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space. The Digambaras and Śvetāmbara disagree on how

350-534: A stricter vow by eating only once a day. Āchārya means the Chief Preceptor or the Head. Āchārya has thirty-six primary attributes ( mūla guņa ) consisting in: In the presence of lovely, intoxicated women in the bloom of youth, the ascetic residing in lonely bowers, houses, etc. is free from agitation or excitement, even though he is disturbed by them. Similarly, he subdues agitations of his senses and his mind like

400-472: A system of titles, which are inherited, has been in use for several centuries. A 1437 AD inscription at Deogarh uses the terms Singhai and Sanghadhipati. It mentions a pratishtha conducted by Bhattaraka Devendrakirti of Chanderi. A 1467 AD inscription on a metal image in Bhind uses the term Sanghai for the male members of a family and Sanghaini for two female members. These and other 15th century inscriptions suggest

450-507: A treatise about the soul and Karma theory, written in Prakrit language. Philologically, the text belongs to about the 2nd-century, and has nothing that suggests it is of "immemorial antiquity". In details, the text is quite similar in its teachings to those found in Prajnapana – the 4th upanga – of Śvetāmbaras. Between the two, the poetic meter of Satkhandagama suggests it was composed after

500-895: Is a 'biological determinism' that is not supported by Jain scriptures. This view is a 'patriarchal interpretation' that has been 'superimposed' on the original teachings of Mahavira. Kristi L. Wiley, a scholar of Jainism , has also criticized the Digambara sect's views on liberation of women. Specifically, she highlights the following points of critique: Scriptures of other religions and schools of thought such as Buddhism , Islam , and Sikhism also criticize and condemn public nudity followed by Digambara monks. Other than rejecting or accepting different ancient Jain texts, Digambaras and Śvetāmbara differ in other significant ways such as: These are as follows 1. Ahimsa - nonviolence, non-injury, and absence of desire to harm any life forms. 2. Satya - truthful in one's thoughts, speech and action. 3. Asteya - non-stealing". One must not steal, nor have

550-645: Is allowed to keep only a feather whisk, a water gourd and scripture with him. In Jainism, those śrāvakas (householders) who wish to attain moksha (liberation) renounce all possessions and become an ascetic. According to the Jain text , Dravyasamgraha : Salutation to the Ascetic (Sādhu) abound in faith and knowledge, who incessantly practises pure conduct that surely leads to liberation. Digambar Sādhus are also called nirgranth which means "one without any bonds". The term originally applied to those of them who were on

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600-460: Is completely unrelated to Digambar Jain tradition, even though they also practice nudity. The Digambara Jains worship completely nude idols of tirthankaras (omniscient beings) and siddha (liberated souls). The tirthankara is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the Kayotsarga posture. The truly "sky-clad" ( digambara ) Jaina statue expresses the perfect isolation of

650-448: Is considered to be parigraha (possession), which ultimately leads to attachment. The monks carry picchi , a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers for removing small insects to avoid causing injury and Kamandalu (the gourd for carrying pure, sterilized water). The head of all monastics is called Āchārya , while the saintly preceptor of saints is the upādhyāya . The Āchārya has 36 primary attributes ( mūla guņa ) in addition to

700-548: Is guided by a code called mulacara ( mulachara ). This includes 28 mūla guņas (primary attributes) for the monk. The oldest text containing these norms is the 2nd-century Mulachara attributed to Vattekara, that probably originated in the Mathura region. These are: 5 mahāvratas (great vows); 5 samitis (restraints); 5 indriya nirodha (control of the five senses); 6 āvaśyakas (essential observations); and 7 niyamas (rules). Digambara monks do not wear any clothes as it

750-514: Is specially well expanded and made diverse in the scriptures dating afterwards 10th century AD. Panchindrinirodh This means renouncing all things which appeals to the mind through the senses. This means shedding all attachment and aversion towards the sense-objects pertaining to The saint is not allowed to bathe. For that will be fixing his attention on the body. There is no question of dirt or untidiness. He has no time to think of bathing or of cleaning his teeth. He has to prepare himself for

800-506: The moksha of Mahavira. That anga was also lost with the death of those two. Dharasena's teachings that have survived are Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama (Scripture of Six Parts) and Kasayapahuda (Treatise on the Passions), which were written on palm leaves near a cave in Mount Girnar (Gujarat) and a copy of which with a 12th-century commentary came to Tulu Nadu (south Karnataka). This has survived as

850-404: The dravyanuyoga (entity exposition) contains metaphysical discussions. In the Digambara tradition, it is not the oldest texts that have survived in its temples and monasteries that attract the most study or reverence, rather it is the late 9th-century Mahapurana (universal history) of Jinasena that is the most revered and cherished. The Mahapurana includes not only religious history, but also

900-483: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra . Digambara monk A Digambara monk or Digambara Sādhu (also muni , sādhu ) is a Sādhu in the Digambar tradition of Jainism , and as such an occupant of the highest limb of the four-fold sangha . Digambar Sādhus have 28 primary attributes which includes observance of the five supreme vows of ahimsa (non-injury), truth, non-thieving, celibacy and non-possession. A Digambar Sādhu

950-467: The 28 mentioned above. The monks perform kayotsarga daily, in a rigid and immobile posture, with the arms held stiffly down, knees straight, and toes directed forward. Female monastics in Digambara tradition are known as aryikas . Digambara nuns, unlike the monks in their tradition, wear clothes. Given their beliefs such as non-attachment and non-possession, the Digambara tradition has held that women cannot achieve salvation (moksha) as men can, and

1000-576: The Digambara subtradition started in Jainism. According to Digambaras, they are the original followers of Mahavira and Śvetāmbara branched off later in the time of Bhadrabahu when their forecast twelve-year famine triggered their migration from central India. One group of Jain monks headed west and north towards Rajasthan , while the second group headed south towards Karnataka . The former became Śvetāmbara and retained their "heretic" beliefs and practices such as wearing "white clothes" they adopted there, say

1050-532: The Digambaras. In contrast, according to Śvetāmbara, they are the original followers, and Digambaras arose 609 years after the death of Mahavira (about 1st century CE) because of an arrogant man named Sivabhuti who became a Jain monk in a fit of pique after a fight at home. He is accused of starting the Digambara Jain tradition with what Śvetāmbara call as "eight concealments", of rejecting Jain texts preserved by

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1100-507: The Jain text, Sarvārthasiddhi , "Affliction is what occurs by chance. Mortification is self-imposed. These are called external, because these are dependent on external things and these are seen by others." Several Jain texts including Tattvarthsutra mentions the six external austerities that can be performed: Jain monks and advanced laypeople avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata . Digambara monks observe

1150-566: The Mudbidri manuscripts, which were used by regional Jains not for reading and study, but as an object of devotional worship for centuries. In the 19th century, the fragile and decaying manuscript was copied and portions of it leaked to scholars between 1896 and 1922 despite objections of Digambara monks. It is considered to be the oldest known Digambara text ultimately traceable to the 2nd-century. These two oldest known Digambara tradition texts – Satkhandagama and Kasayapahuda – are predominantly

1200-587: The ancient Śramaṇa practice. Āchārya Bhadrabāhu , Āchārya Kundakunda are two of the most revered Digambar Sādhus. Every Digambara monk is required to observe 28 mula gunas (lit. twenty-eight primary attributes) compulsory. These are also called root-virtues, because it is said that in their absence other saintly virtues cannot be acquired. They are thus like the root, in the absence of which stems and branches tuneless come into being. These twenty-eight primary attributes are: five supreme vows ( mahāvrata ); five regulations ( samiti ); five-fold control of

1250-544: The archeological evidences which indicate that Jain monks moved from the practice of total nudity towards wearing clothes in later period. Tirthankara statues found in Mathura and dated to 2nd-century CE or after are naked. The oldest Tirthankara statue wearing a cloth is dated in 5th century CE. Digamabara statues of tirthankara belonging to Gupta period has half-closed eyes. In 17th-century, adhyatma movement in Agra led to rise of terapanthi and bisapanthi sub-sects based on

1300-426: The best a nun can achieve is to be reborn as a man in the next rebirth. The monks are held to be of higher status than nuns in Digambara monasteries, states Jeffery Long. From the Digambara monk's perspective, both Digambara nuns and Śvetāmbara monastic community are simply more pious Jain laypeople, who do not or are unable to fully practice the Jain monastic vows. Digambara nuns are relatively rare in comparison to

1350-707: The differences over acceptance of authority of bhattarakas . King Jai Singh II (1688–1743) of Amer kingdom built separate temples for the two sub-sects in his newly established capital of Jaipur . Terapanthis , led by scholars like Pandit Todarmal and Banarasidas , rejected the authority of bhattarakas . Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Śvetāmbara iconography starts appearing. According to Digambara texts, after liberation of Mahavira , three Anubaddha Kevalīs attained Kevalajñāna (omniscience) sequentially – Gautama Gaņadhara , Acharya Sudharma Swami, and Jambusvami in next 62 years. During

1400-577: The following lineage of teachers are revered: Mahavira , Gautama , Kundakunda , Bhadrabahu , Umaswami , Samantabhadra , Siddhasena Divakara , Pujyapada , Manatunga , Virasena , Jinasena , Nemichandra . Kundakunda is considered the most significant scholar monk of the Digambara tradition of Jainism. He authored Prakrit texts such as the Samayasāra and the Pravacanasāra . Other prominent Acharyas of this tradition were, Virasena (author of

1450-419: The greatest contest in his career, namely, the struggle against Death, and cannot afford to waste his time and opportunity in attending to the beautification and embellishment of his outward person. Nay, he knows fully that death appears only in the form of the physical person which is a compound and, as such, liable by nature to dissolution and disintegration. According to Jain texts, the dharma (conduct) of

1500-451: The intent to steal, another's property through action, speech, and thoughts. 4. Aparigraha - the virtue of non-possessiveness or non-greediness. Mahavira inserted 5th vow ie Brahmacharya - sexual restraint or practice of celibacy. Renunciation of sex and marriage. This was thought to be understood to within 4th vow of Aparigraha, but was more specified as 5th vow of Brahmacharya. Mahāvīra taught Five vows. The Digambara sect disagrees with

1550-561: The mid-second century Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama "Scripture in Six Parts" of Dharasena (the Moodabidri manuscripts). One of the most important scholar-monks of the Digambara tradition was Kundakunda . Digambara Jain communities are currently found mainly in most parts of North India in states like Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh , Delhi , Bihar , Jharkhand , Madhya Pradesh , parts of south Maharashtra and Karnataka . According to Jeffery D. Long ,

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1600-401: The next hundred years, five Āchāryas had complete knowledge of the scriptures, as such, called Śruta Kevalīs , the last of them being Āchārya Bhadrabahu. Spiritual lineage of heads of monastic orders is known as Pattavali . Digambara tradition consider Dharasena to be the 33rd teacher in succession of Gautama, 683 years after the nirvana of Mahavira. In the Digambara tradition,

1650-415: The nuns found in Śvetāmbara traditions. According to a 1970s and 1980s survey of Jain subtraditions, there were about 125 Digambara monks in India and 50 Digambara nuns. This compared to 3,400 nuns and 1,200 monks in the Śvetāmbara tradition. The Digambar Akhara , which along with other akharas , also participates in various inter-sectarian ( sampradaya ) religious activities including Kumbh Melas ,

1700-1305: The one who has stripped off every bond. His is an absolute "abiding in itself," a strange but perfect aloofness, a nudity of chilling majesty, in its stony simplicity, rigid contours, and abstraction. Modern Digambara community is divided into various sub-sects viz. Terapanthi , Bispanthi , Taranpanthi (or Samayiapanthi ), Gumanapanthi , Totapanthi and Kanjipanthi . Both the terapanthis and bisapanthis worship with ashta-dravya which includes jal (water), chandan (sandal), akshata (sacred rice), pushp (yellow rice), deep (yellow dry coconut), dhup ( kapoor or cloves) and phal (almonds). Bisapanthi religious practices include aarti and offerings of flowers, fruits and prasad whereas terapanthis don't use them. Bispanthis worship minor gods and goddesses like Yaksha and Yakshini like Bhairava and Kshetrapala whereas terapanthis do not. Bisapanthis accept bhattarakas as their religious leaders but terapanthis do not. Terapanthis occur in large numbers in Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh . Bisapanthis are concentrated in Rajasthan, Gujarat , Maharastra and South India. Padmanabh Jaini,

1750-498: The point of attaining to omniscience, on the attainment of which they were called munis . Rishabhanath (the first Tirthankar ) is said to be the first Digambar Sādhu of the present half cycle of time ( avasarpini ). The presence of gymnosophists (naked philosophers) in Greek records as early as the fourth century BC, supports the claim of the Digambars that they have preserved

1800-815: The presence of the title in Bundelkhand. The tradition of the title Singhai exists in Bundelkhand among the Parvaars, Golapurvas and the Golarare. It also exists in the Bhadawar/Gwalior region among the Kharaua, and Varaiya communities. The terms Sanghavi, Sanghadhip and Sanghapati were used in the time of poet Raighu (1383–1468) for Gwalior Shravakas belonging to Agrawal and Golalare communities. Navalsah Chanderia has described an elaborate Pratishtha with Gajrath conducted by his ancestors in 1594 at Bhelsi where they were awarded

1850-404: The senses ( pañcendriya nirodha ); six essential duties ( Şadāvaśyaka ); and seven rules or restrictions ( niyama ). According to Acharya Samantabhadra 's Ratnakaraņdaka śrāvakācāra : Abstaining from the commitment of five kinds of sins (injury, falsehood, stealing, unchastity, and attachment) by way of doing these by oneself, causing these to be done, and approval when done by others, through

1900-522: The sociological history of the Jaina people – including the Jain caste system and its origins as formulated by Rishabhanatha – from the Digambara Jaina perspective. The Digamabara tradition maintains a long list of revered teachers, and this list includes Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Jinasena, Akalanka, Vidyanandi, Somadeva and Asadhara. The lifestyle and behavioral conduct of a Digambara monk

1950-536: The supposed differences among the orders. The Mula sangha orders include Deshiya Gana (Bhattarakas of Shravanabelgola etc.) and Balatkara Gana (Bhattarakas of Humcha , and numerous lineages of North/Central India) traditions. The Bhattarakas of Shravanabelagola and Mudbidri belong to Deshiya Gana and the Bhattaraka of Humbaj belongs to the Balatkara Gana . The Digambara sect of Jainism rejects

2000-529: The texts and canonical literature of the Śvetāmbara sect. They believe that the words of Mahavira neither survive nor could be recorded. The original teachings went through a rapid period of decline, state the Digambaras, and Śvetāmbara claims of preserving the sacred knowledge and ancient angas is false. According to the Digambaras , their 33rd achārya was Dharasena who knew one anga , and he taught these to Pushpadanta and Bhutabali , 683 years after

2050-429: The texts they consider as important. Digambara monks cherish the virtue of non-attachment and non-possession of any material goods. Monks carry a community-owned picchi , which is a broom made of fallen peacock feathers for removing and thus saving the life of insects in their path or before they sit. The Digambara literature can be traced only to the first millennium, with its oldest surviving sacred text being

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2100-418: The three kinds of activity (of body, speech, and thought), constitutes the great vows ( mahāvrata ) of celebrated ascetics. There were five types of Ahimsa as per scriptures. These are the negation of following: Binding, beating, mutilating limbs, overloading, withholding food and drink. However over the centuries, Jain monks and philosophers have added stricter meanings and implementations. The concept of Ahimsa

2150-720: The title Savaai Seth, which is equivalent. In 1924, among the Parwars, 1022 families held the title Singhai, 161 Sawai Singhai, 130 Seth, 1 Sawai Seth and 3 Shrimat Seth. Among the Golapurvas, in 1941, 1186 individuals held the title Singhai, 281 Sawai Singhai, 487 Seh and 8 Sawai Seth, out of a total population of 12569. The Taranpanth Samaj officially does not support idols and thus do not conduct bimba pratishtas, however they conduct vedi pratishta. They now award titles Seth and Sawai Seth based on contributions to Taranpanthi institutions. Bhagwandas Jain of Sagar and his descendants were awarded

2200-626: The title Shrimant Seth . Gopal Sao Puran Sao of Seoni was awarded the title for conducting pratishthas in 1849 in Jabalpur and 1877, 1895 and 1902 at Seoni. In Vidisha , in 1933, Sitab Rai Laxmi Chand was given the title Shrimant Seth in Itawa for the funding the publication of Shatkhandagam text. Mathuradas Taraiya of Lalitpur was awarded the title in 1920s. Some of the Khag clan families in Karitoran, Lalitpur hold

2250-630: The title Shrimant Seth by the Taranpanth Samaj in 1980s. Digambara Digambara ( / d ɪ ˈ ɡ ʌ m b ər ə / ; "sky-clad") is one of the two major schools of Jainism , the other being Śvetāmbara (white-clad). The Sanskrit word Digambara means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing nor wearing any clothes. Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards female monastics, their legends, and

2300-485: The title of Singhai. The temple built on this occasion still exists in Bhelsi. Vinodilal (about in 1690) his Phulamala Pachchisi mentions that organizing a pratishtha is rewarded by the title Sanghahi. At the conclusion of the pratishtha function, a turban of chanderi cloth was formally placed on the head of the organizing shraavaka, and people in the congregation ritually saluted him saying "Singhaiji Juhaar". In Bundelkhand

2350-468: The tradition of "naked ascetics" the Digambar monks. In 2011, Patrick Olivelle stated that the context in which the Greek records mention gymnosophists include ritual suicide by cremation traceable to ancient Brahmanism , rather than the traditional Jain ritual of embracing death by starvation and taking samadhi by voluntarily sacrificing everything including food and water ( sallekhana ). Dundas talks about

2400-506: The Śvetāmbara interpretations, and reject the theory of difference in Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra's teachings. However, Digambaras as well as Śvetāmbaras follow Five vows as taught by Mahavira . The difference is only that Śvetāmbaras believe Parshvanatha taught one vow less (the Four vows except Brahmacharya ) than Mahavira . However, monks of Śvetāmbara sect also follow all 5 vows as stated in

2450-494: The Śvetāmbara text. Digambaras, unlike Śvetāmbaras, do not have a canon. They do have a quasi-canonical literature grouped into four literary categories called anuyoga (exposition) since the time of the Digambara scholar Rakshita. The prathmanuyoga (first exposition) contains the universal history, the karananuyoga (calculation exposition) contains works on cosmology, the charananuyoga (behaviour exposition) includes texts about proper behaviour for monks and lay people, while

2500-495: The Śvetāmbara tradition, and misunderstanding the Jain ideology including those related to nuns and clothes. Neither of these explanations can be found in early Jain or non-Jain texts. The earliest version of this Digambara story appears in the 10th century CE, while the earliest version of the Śvetāmbara story appears in the 5th century CE. In 1943, Heinrich Zimmer proposed that the Greek records of 4th-century BCE mention gymnosophists (naked philosophers) which may have links to

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