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136-642: Simijaca means in the Chibcha language of the Muisca "Blue sky" and "Nose of the white owl". The area of Simijaca before the Spanish conquest was part of the Muisca Confederation . Initially loyal to the zaque of Hunza , Simijaca changed rule around 1490 when it was submitted by zipa Saguamanchica . The first Spanish establishment was done by Rodrigo Mexia Serrano on February 26, 1586. However, this population

272-649: A terra nullius of "uncivilized" Indigenous villages and "wild beasts." As early as the 1760s, Europeans sought to organize Nama settlements in the region into "'natural' preserves" that would enable segregation of colonists from Indigenous peoples. When the British first took over the colony in 1798, John Barrow , a British statesman, perceived himself as "a reformer in comparison with the Boer [Dutch] 'burghers' and government officials whose embrace of slavery, and land grabs, had destroyed not only Nama tribes living near them, but also

408-593: A Baralong chief "bought land for his followers in the southern part of Rhodesia ." They recorded in a notice to their employers that they were leaving "'for our chief is calling us'." Anthropologist Isaac Schapera similarly noted that urbanization did not necessarily imply detribalization, essentially recognizing the differences between assimilation in Western society and detribalization. Yet, with increasingly racist perceptions of Black South Africans, scholar Jason Hickel notes that "white South Africans saw detribalization as

544-494: A ction"; izhe – "street" i – open "i" as in "' i nca" – sié – "water" or "river" o – short "o" as in "b o x" – to – "dog" u – "ou" as in "y ou " – uba – "face" y – between "i" and "e"; "a" in action – ty – "singing" b – as in " b ed", or as in Spanish "ha b a"; – bohozhá – "with" ch – "sh" as in " sh ine", but with the tongue pushed backwards – chuta – "son" or "daughter" f – between

680-429: A derogatory term "equivalent to half-breed " or "of mixed blood", as well as carijó , which also referred to "detribalized Indians". These labels differed from gentio , a similarly derogatory term which referred to unconverted and non-assimilated Indigenous people. Slave expeditions by the bandeirantes continued throughout the eighteenth century with the intention of stealing precious metals, especially gold, from

816-539: A detribalized Europe with a social organization that was different, contributing to their estrangement, that was not the case in Iraq . Iraqi society has never been detribalized." In the twentieth century, criticisms regarding the usage of detribalization emerged among scholars, particularly in the African context, who recognized its misapplication as a consequence of racism . South African anthropologist Meyer Fortes noted how

952-729: A "b" and "w" using both lips without producing sound, a short whistle – foï – "mantle" g – "gh" as in " g ood", or as in Spanish "abo g ado"; – gata – "fire" h – as in " h ello" – huïá – "inwards" ï – "i-e" as in Beelzebub – ïe – "road" or "prayer" k – "c" as in " c old" – kony – "wheel" m – "m" as in " m an" – mika – "three" n – "n" as in " n ice" – nyky – "brother" or "sister" p – "p" as in " p eople" – paba – "father" s – "s" as in " s orry" – sahawá – "husband" t – "t" as in " t ext" – yta – "hand" w – "w" as in " w ow!" – we – "house" zh – as in " ch orizo", but with

1088-417: A "social-evolutionary misfire." Social scientists of the period upheld this perspective and disseminated these ideas widely, as represented in their perceptions of the "detribalized" African subjects who they perceived as inhabiting these peripheral informal settlements. Austro-Hungarian philosopher Karl Polanyi referred to "detribalized" South Africans in highly racist and pathological terms, stating that

1224-557: A bad imitation of a European." Instead, Cameron argued that "the task of 'native administration' was to make him into a 'good African.'" While the French openly professed that their involvement in Africa was a "civilizing mission," scholar Peter A. Blitstein notes that in practice they rejected African "assimilation into French culture," excluded them "from French citizenship," and emphasized "how different Africans were from French, and how important it

1360-541: A civilized, Catholic world under the auspices of their masters, resulting in the indiscriminate appropriation of native labor." The detibalized population of Indigenous people "were survivors or captives of raids" for over a century and "now lived in Mineiro towns and other localities under the tutelage of colonists." They were "detribalized for diverse reasons, of various ethnic and/or geographic origins, brought to live in or born into colonial society and thereby incorporated in

1496-646: A family wage." During World War II , a study authored by four colonial functionaries and commissioned by the Vichy French government's ministry of the colonies in 1944 entitled "Condition of the detribalized natives" called for "the systematic and immediate expulsion of any native illegally entering metropolitan France." Historian Eric T. Jennings has commented how this policy was "certainly not new" and had been informed by "a host of reductionist thinkers from Gustave Le Bon to Edouard Drumont or Alexis Carrel ", while also eerily foreshadowing arguments to be used by

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1632-453: A grammar, a confessional in Spanish and a confessional in Muysca. For the elaboration of his work, Lugo devised a sort or type in order to express a vowel that was not part of the phonetic inventory of Spanish and that was necessary to capture if a correct pronunciation was wanted, he called it "Inverse Ipsilon" and today we know it as "The Lugo's y". In other sources it appears simply expressed with

1768-521: A marginal position within colonial society and exploitation within capitalist industry. De-Indianization has been used in scholarship as a variant of detribalization, particularly on work in the United States and Latin American contexts. The term detribalization is similarly used to refer to this process of colonial transformation on subsets of the historical and contemporary Indigenous population of

1904-745: A means of obtaining independence. European colonial empires in Africa increasingly opted for nationalization rather than previous policies of indirect rule and forced contracted or temporary labor. However, according to historian Peter A. Blitstein, the ultimate objectives of the European colonial powers for Westernizing colonized and "detribalized" Africans remained unclear by the mid-twentieth century, as colonizers struggled to articulate how Africans could be brought into congruence with their visions of "modernity." Throughout post-independence Africa, two different types of African states emerged, according to scholar Mahmood Mamdani, which he terms as "the conservative and

2040-472: A measure of protection from the slavers who made annual expeditions into the interior," they simultaneously altered "the mental and material bases of Amerindian culture forever." While tapuios were "nominally free" (or free in name) at the missions, they were actually "obliged to provide labor to royal authorities and to colonists, a practice that frequently deteriorated into forced work hardly distinguishable from outright slavery." The aldeias also proliferated

2176-542: A poem entitled "The Detribalised" in which he described the consequences of detribalization and township life in South Africa. In a review of his work by Doreen Anderson Wood, she acknowledges how "sociologists and anthropologists have observed how detribalization and forcing mine workers into compound living [has] weakened family life in Africa, but few portray it with Mtshali's punch." Wood asserts that because they have been "denied admittance into full twentieth-century life[,]

2312-413: A policy of indirect rule , which (1) relied on the use of "traditional" African leadership to maintain order, which was also understood by Europeans, according to historian Leroy Vail , to be "markedly less expensive than the employment of expensive European officials," and (2) was rooted in the belief that "Africans were naturally 'tribal' people." As a result, "detribalization was the ghost which haunted

2448-578: A position of servitude to the Dutch settlers (also referred to as Boers ). In the nineteenth century, as Millet reports, there was a "concerted effort" by the Dutch Cape Colony government to "detach individuals from the tribal group" of the Orlam, "to 'detribalize' them through labor, either through indenture or enslavement." In order to maintain the colonial capitalist order, the Dutch "not only wanted to destroy

2584-417: A potential method of redemption, as noted by scholar Kitty Millet, so that "the 'detribalized' African" could learn "his proper place" as a member of an exploited class of laborers fueling colonial industry. The Orlam people were understood as "detribalized Namas" who had now lived for several generations on the outskirts of colonial society as both indentured bonded servants and as enslaved people subjugated to

2720-594: A process of decay, as the decomposition of tribal social order into a chaotic tangle of random persons and unmarried women." This was exemplified in their perceptions of townships, which were "regarded as makeshift and transient, in between the traditional African homestead and the modern European house." White South Africans adopted, what they considered to be, a "civilizing mission" with reluctance, conceding that "urban Africans" were "needed as labor" and "could [thus] not be 'retribalized.'" The first townships at Baumannville, Lamontville , and Chesterville were constructed in

2856-539: A result of conflicting territorial claims. The various European colonial powers wish to avoid conflict in their " Scramble for Africa ", and as such drew clear lines over the continent. In 1898, Polish-British author Joseph Conrad remarked in Heart of Darkness on how Europeans used color swatches to denote their territorial claims over Africa, a common practice in the period: There was a vast amount of red [Britain] – good to see at any time, because one knows that some real work

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2992-439: A semivocalic extension of bilabial consonants, as Adolfo Constenla presented it at the time, for example in cusmuy *[kusmʷɨ], */kusmɨ/, she considers it a phonetic characteristic and not a phonological one. The Myska alphabet consists of around 20 letters. Myska didn't have an "L" in their language. The letters are pronounced more or less as follows: a – as in Spanish "casa"; ka – "enclosure" or "fence" e – as in "

3128-503: A single European colonial power were "able to see wage workers as anything but 'detribalized' and, therefore, dangerous." As a result, the ideal model for African colonial society was one in which small-scale producers could be provided with temporary migrant labor as needed, since "to recognize Africans as workers would ultimately equate them to Europeans, and, perhaps, require the kinds of welfare-state provisions that European workers were beginning to enjoy – trade union membership, insurance,

3264-415: A singular class of uniform colonized subjects. In the nineteenth century, European missionaries sought to eradicate Indigenous ways of living and knowing through the process of Christianization to, as scholar Jason Hickel argues, mold them into "the bourgeois European model." As colonial German academic and theologian Gustav Warneck stated in 1888, "without doubt it is a far more costly thing to kill

3400-480: A strict regimen" of control. According to the study, when "left to their own devices," the "detribalized" persons become drunken failures in European society due to their innate inferiority. Jennings argues that this study attempted to invent a "retribalization" effort for the "detribalized" person and was hinged upon the larger "apocalyptic fears of a world dominated by unruly and debauched 'natives,' uprooted from their 'natural environments.'" This study reflected much of

3536-626: A subordinate role, the Dutch deliberately infantilized enslaved peoples to reinforce their status as inferior. In this regard, even if a slave escaped captivity and joined "free" Orlam communities as a fugitive, "the slave brought with him the memory of this infantilization." This dehumanizing treatment collectively triggered widespread resistance to Dutch colonialism in Orlam communities, who formed an aware and active community in Cape Town by maintaining relationships with enslaved peoples who remained under Dutch control. This pushed Orlam communities further to

3672-514: A system of " congregaciones (the congregation of peoples) and the project of reducciones (spiritual 'reductions')" in an effort "to corrall Indians into missions or pueblos for the purpose of reducing or eliminating or 'killing' the souls of the Indians, creating Christians in their place." This method of "spiritually reducing Indians also served to facilitate land theft", and was first implemented in 1546, only to be reaffirmed numerous times throughout

3808-510: A vengeance on their landlords and patrons," resulting in an estimated death rate of at least thirty thousand, or one quarter of the province's population. Tapuios had been continually exploited as a "great reserve labor force in Amazonia" and "as such played an important role" in the revolt. Many t apuios as well as "black slaves, and other workers fled" following the revolt "because they were cabanos [rebels] or to escape forced labor." Prior to

3944-486: A way of life and tribalism as loyalty to an ethnic group," noting that colonial analysts had only recognized instances of a "weakening of cultural affiliation, though not necessarily of ethnic loyalty." In other words, "a person could adopt an entirely Western way of life but still retain great love and loyalty to the ethnic group from which he sprang." As a result, Mazrui proposes the term detraditionalized , recognizing that "the erosion of tradition [does] not necessarily mean

4080-424: Is agriculture with products onions , beans , maize , potatoes , milk and peas as most important agricultural products. The Upper Cretaceous Simijaca Formation is named after Simijaca. Simijaca has its own TV Station, ACOTV, which is available through analogue cable. The High School, IED Agustín Parra, has an FM radio station on 97.7 MHz that is also available online. The (SHOUTcast) stream's URL

4216-576: Is http://46.105.115.146:8286/ Chibcha language Chibcha , Mosca , Muisca , Muysca (*/ˈmɨska/ *[ˈmʷɨska] ), or Muysca de Bogotá is a language spoken by the Muisca people of the Muisca Confederation , one of the many indigenous cultures of the Americas . The Muisca inhabit the Altiplano Cundiboyacense of what today is the country of Colombia . The name of the language Muysc cubun in its own language means "language of

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4352-533: Is an agglutinative language , characterized by roots that are usually monosyllabic or bisyllabic (to a lesser extent longer), which combine to form extensive expressions. Typologically, it is a final core language. In addition, it is an inflectional language , which means that the roots receive prefixes and suffixes. The closest living language to Muysca is Uwa . Compared to other northern Chibcha languages, Muysca presents more recent innovations. The following greetings have been taken directly from written sources from

4488-566: Is classed as 'detribalized,' but this is not necessarily the case." Ellen Hellmann similarly described in her sociological work "that 'the process of detribalization has been exaggerated' among the urban African population, although 'the average European would unhesitatingly classify these Natives as detribalized'." In his sociological study, William Watson concludes that while "under urban conditions, Africans rapidly assimilate European dress, material culture, and outward forms of behaviour, this assimilation does not necessarily imply detribalization. On

4624-735: Is done there, a deuce of a lot of blue [France], a little green [Portugal], smears of orange, and, on the East Coast, a purple patch [Germany], to show where the jolly pioneers drink the jolly lager beer . However, I wasn't going into any of these. I was going into the yellow [Belgium]. Dead in the center. An empire had to demonstrate effective occupation of the land they were claiming in order to justify their claims to it. Under these guidelines, scholar Kitty Millet has noted, that effective "'connoted farms, gardens, roads, railways, [and] even [a] postal service." The only entities which could claim ownership "over these diverse African spaces... had to be one of

4760-444: Is the process by which persons who belong to a particular indigenous ethnic identity or community are detached from that identity or community through the deliberate efforts of colonizers and/or the larger effects of colonialism . Detribalization was systematically executed by detaching members from communities outside the colony so that they could be " modernized ", Westernized , and, in most circumstances, Christianized for

4896-457: Is titled "Bocabulario de la Lengua Chibcha o Mosca" [ sic ]. It was transcribed by Diego Gómez and Diana Girlado between 2012 and 2013. These manuscripts are actually a single vocabulary, one copies the other. The first was transcribed by Quesada Pacheco in 1991 and the second by Gómez y Giraldo between 2012 and 2013 It was published in Madrid, Spain, in the year 1619. It consists of

5032-578: The Andean civilizations called preceramic , the population of northwestern South America migrated through the Darién Gap between the isthmus of Panama and Colombia. Other Chibchan languages are spoken in southern Central America and the Muisca and related indigenous groups took their language with them into the heart of Colombia where they comprised the Muisca Confederation , a cultural grouping. As early as 1580

5168-521: The Cabanos (serfs, people who lived in cabins) in the years from 1836 to 1840, when many Portuguese were killed and expelled." As such, the President and government asserted "that laws must be made for the control and government of the sixty-thousand tapuios , who so far outnumbered the property-holders, and who are always open to the influence of the designing, the ambitious, and the wicked." The population of

5304-578: The Caro y Cuervo Institute in 1987. According to the researcher, this manuscript "was written at times when the language was still spoken. " González's transcription has been one of the most consulted works by modern linguists interested in the language. Three documents from the Biblioteca Real de Palacio are compendiums of the Muysca language and are part of the so-called Mutis Collection, a set of linguistic-missionary documents of several indigenous languages of

5440-590: The New Kingdom of Granada and although their orthography is inconsistent and a little different from the known ones, these pamphlets are associated with the variety spoken in Santafé and its surroundings Because Muysc Cubun is an extinct language, various scholars as Adolfo Constenla (1984), González de Pérez (2006) and Willem Adelaar with the collaboration of Pieter Muysken (2007) have formulated different phonological systems taking into account linguistic documents from

5576-744: The New Kingdom of Granada and the Captaincy General of Venezuela , collected by Mutis , due to the initial wishes of the Tsarina of Russia Catherine the Great , who wanted to create a dictionary of all the languages of the world This manuscript is made up of three books: the first titled "De la gramática breve de la lengua Mosca"; the second contains three titles: "Confesionarios en la Lengua Mosca chibcha" [ sic ], "Oraciones en Lengua Mosca chibcha" [ sic ] and "Catecismo breve en Lengua Mosca chibcha" [ sic ]; The third book

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5712-478: The Orange River . Many were also absorbed into Orlam communities, where "they existed as herders and 'outlaws,' conducting raids on Boer farms." From 1800 to 1925, approximately 60 missionary societies from Europe established more than 1,030 mission stations throughout southern Africa. A study on the location and role of these mission stations by Franco Frescura noted how throughout the nineteenth century, there

5848-535: The Sumapaz Páramo . The quick colonization of the Spanish and the improvised use of traveling translators reduced the differences between the versions of Chibcha over time. Since 2008 a Spanish–Muysc cubun dictionary containing more than 3000 words has been published online. The project was partly financed by the University of Bergen , Norway. The sources of the Muysca language are seven documents prepared in

5984-600: The aldeias , natives were deprived of their tribal identity under the homogenizing influence of the missionaries. Compelled to communicate with whites and other natives in the lingua geral , tribal Amerindians were gradually transformed into 'generic Indians' or tapuios . The term tapuio "originally meant 'slave'", though soon afterward referred to detribalized and Christianized indigenous people who had assimilated into "colonial society", defined as such by their place of residence and proximity to colonial society. It has been used interchangeably with caboclo , recognized as

6120-412: The apartheid era in South Africa and Namibia. South African political theorist Aletta Norval notes that as the apartheid system expanded, "the 'detribalized Native' had to be regarded as a 'visitor' in the cities until such time as the ideal of total apartheid could be reached" through complete racial segregation. In Sounds of a Cowhide Drum (1971), Soweto poet Oswald Mbuyiseni Mtshali authored

6256-658: The indigenous peoples of Brazil . The expeditions also carried "European diseases and death far into the interior" of the region. In 1645, Jesuit priests under the leadership of António Vieira "began establishing missions along the major Amazon River tributaries," which forcibly relocated large subsets of the Indigenous population into new colonial settlements: Amerindian groups were relocated into large settlements, called aldeias , where their daily activities could be closely supervised, their souls could be saved, and their labor could be put to new tasks, such as raising cattle. In

6392-504: The " kaffir of South Africa, a noble savage, whom none felt socially more secure in his native kraal , has been transformed into a human variety of half-domesticated animal dressed in the 'unrelated, the filthy, the unsightly rags that not the most degenerated white man would wear,' a nondescript being, without self-respect or standards, veritable human refuse." Anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski similarly "decried 'detribalized' natives as 'sociologically unsound' monstrosities who had lost

6528-620: The "master narrative" constructed by colonizers "to de-Indigenize peoples" throughout Latin America. While, according to James F. Eder, initial colonial detribalization most often occurred as a result of "land expropriation, habitat destruction , epidemic disease, or even genocide," contemporary cases may not involve such apparent or "readily identified external factors." In a postcolonial framework, "less visible forces associated with political economies of modern nation-states – market incentives, cultural pressures, new religious ideologies – permeate

6664-447: The "spread of European diseases, such as whooping cough , influenza , and smallpox , against which native populations had no immunity," which "killed tens of thousands of Amerindians" and pressured others to retreat deeper into the interior. Jesuit priests, who by the mid-eighteenth century controlled "some twelve thousand Amerindians in sixty-three Amazonian missions," were expelled from Brazil in 1759. This increased opportunities for

6800-460: The 17th century and comparative linguistics. The proposal of Adolfo Constenla , Costa Rican teacher of the Chibcha languages, has been the basis of the other proposals and his appreciations are still valid, even more so because they were the result of the use of the comparative method with other Chibcha languages and lexicostatistics. In fact, Constenla's classification of the Chibcha languages remains

6936-402: The 17th century when the language was alive. In Muysca, the noun lacks morphemes of gender, number and case. In nouns denoting sex, it is necessary to add the corresponding name "fucha~fuhucha" or "cha". fulano fulano muysca person cha male cho good guy COP fulano muysca cha cho guy fulano person male good COP De-Indigenization Detribalization

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7072-413: The 1930s and 1940s for this purpose. According to Hickel, the planners of these townships sought to "reconcile two competing ideas: on the one hand a fear that 'detribalization' of Africans would engender immense social upheaval, and, on the other hand, a belief that 'civilizing' Africans into an established set of social norms would facilitate docility." These conditions and perceptions continued throughout

7208-462: The African, Asian, Oceanic, North American, and South American contexts, especially when referring to Indigenous histories of each of these regions, to locate instances in which the term has been applied to Europeans or in the European context is exceptionally rare. One of the few instances was by contemporary scholar Ronen Zeidel in a study on Iraqi Gypsies in 2014, who stated "whereas the Gypsies entered

7344-590: The Americas . De-Indianization has been defined by anthropologist Guillermo Bonfil Batalla as a process which occurs "in the realm of ideology" or identity , and is fulfilled when "the pressures of the dominant society succeed in breaking the ethnic identity of the Indian community," even if "the lifeway may continue much as before." De-Indigenization or deindigenization have also been used as variants of detribalization in academic scholarship. For example, academic Patrisia Gonzales has argued how mestizaje operated as

7480-432: The European colonists targeted Orlam kapteins , scholar Kitty Millet notes, "even more 'detribalized' individuals [joined] the 'fugitives' already established at the margins" of colonial society. However, either oblivious to or refusing to acknowledge their own role in generating this deeply entrenched resistance, European colonists credited Orlam resistance with what they perceived to be an "ontological predisposition" within

7616-554: The European theoretical perception of detribalized peoples of the period, as further exemplified in Maurice Barrès 's Uprooted (1941). Following the end of the Second World War , colonial policy began to shift from preventing "detribalization" to more widely promoting devices for economic and cultural development in African colonial societies. In the case of European colonial governments, they began to promote self-government as

7752-482: The Gospel says he must work in the sweat of his brows. He is therefore opposed to the Gospel." This was a common perception among missionaries in southern Africa, who "sought to impose an alien morality and work ethos upon the local people without realizing that these undermined their most basic social and cultural tenets and were therefore largely resisted." The status of detribalization was perceived by Dutch colonizers as

7888-647: The Nama and the Dutch settlers that the Nama treated the colony to a musical 'exhibition' for the governor's birthday." However, shortly after Dutch settlers introduced slave labor to the region and arrived in increasingly greater numbers, conflicts from 1659 to 1660 and 1673 to 1677, followed by a smallpox outbreak, caused the majority of the Nama to flee from their traditional territory. Those who remained soon "existed as 'detribalized indigenous peoples'." Early maps created by European colonizers portrayed an image of southern Africa as

8024-475: The Orange River to reunite with the Nama. Each of the Orlam resistance groups requested permission from the Nama confederation and reentered Nama land between 1815 and 1851. As they reintegrated into the Nama community, the Orlam groups quickly transformed how the Nama perceived themselves and their relationships with the neighboring Herero, as well as with the colonial traders and missionaries who had accompanied

8160-452: The Orlam resistance groups in their reintegration. As a result of this reintegration, Kitty Millet notes that a new Nama leadership emerged under Kido Witbooi 's grandson, Hendrik Witbooi . Witbooi was a Christian who understood his leadership as a divine mandate . While traditional Nama tribes had preferred pacifism to armed conflict prior to the integration of the detribalized Orlam groups, Witbooi altered this understanding and believed it

8296-485: The Other Conquest ] included religiously motivated crusades to destroy all the temples, 'idols,' and books of Indigenous peoples." Coupled with centuries of violence, in which millions of Indigenous people were "devastated by war, mass killings, rape, enslavement, land theft, starvation, famine, and disease", the Other Conquest was simultaneously facilitated by the Spanish from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries with

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8432-577: The Portuguese" while culturally intact and "remaining Indian groups [had] confined themselves largely to managing inaccessible upland areas." In 1822, as Brazil declared independence from Portuguese colonial rule, Amazonia was integrated into the newly unstable Brazilian state. Political tensions erupted into full-scale rebellions, the largest of which was the Cabanagem revolt in Pará , in which "rebels turned with

8568-485: The [Indigenous population] than to Christianise them." Contrary to the stated "civilizing" objectives of missionaries, colonial administrators sought to preserve "traditional" African structures in order to maintain their indirect rule, consistently pushing Africans to the margins of colonial society. According to Hickel, administrators even regarded "the idea of a civilizing mission with suspicion, fearing that 'detribalization' would lead to social anomie , mass unrest, and

8704-451: The authorities in Charcas, Quito , and Santa Fe de Bogotá mandated the establishment of schools in native languages and required that priests study these languages before ordination. In 1606 the entire clergy was ordered to provide religious instruction in Chibcha. The Chibcha language declined in the 18th century. In 1770, King Charles III of Spain officially banned use of the language in

8840-629: The central objecive of destroying " maíz -based beliefs and cultures of Indigenous peoples, ushering in a radical shift in the axis mundi or center of the universe from maíz to the Christian cross," with the threat of death, torture, and eternal damnation for a refusal to conform to the colonial order. Rodríguez illuminates that although outright usage of force from the church has faded, official church messages in Latin America still continue to reinforce this practice today. Spanish colonizers established

8976-437: The cities for work on fixed-term contracts, at the end of which they were expelled back to the reserves. The system was purposefully designed to prevent full proletarianization and forestall the rise of radical consciousness. However, by the early twentieth century, as a result of the "insatiable appetite [of colonizers] for cheap labor," the previous colonial policy of indirect rule began to weaken considerably, which resulted in

9112-451: The colonial peasantry and exploited laborers, was alternatively adopted. European fears over detribalization were also demonstrated via their attitudes toward the notion of African wage labor and proletarianization. For this reason, African wage labor was only determined necessary when it aided the advancement or progress of the colonial capitalist state, such as via the African colonial mining industry . According to Peter A. Blitstein, not

9248-789: The colonial period. In 1681, as part of the Laws of the Indies , issued by the Spanish Crown for the American and the Philippine possessions of its empire , "continued the reduction of the Indians (their instruction in the Holy Faith) 'so that they could forget the errors of their ancient rites and ceremonies'." The reduction policies instituted by the Spanish colonizers "included the systemic demonization by Spanish friars of virtually all things Indigenous, particularly

9384-425: The contrary, many attempts to organize African industrial workers on a common basis of economic interest have encountered great difficulties because of African tribal solidarity and intertribal hostilities." In Africa's International Relations: The Diplomacy of Dependency and Change (1978), Kenyan academic Ali A Mazrui provides a nuanced discussion of the misapplication of detribalization , recognizing how "there

9520-427: The detribalized Orlam people, which allegedly reflected a "primitive 'state of being'." They presumed that the Orlam's reestablishment as communities at the fringes of colonial society was an expression of their inherent nomadic disposition. As resistance continued to the colonial order, more and more groups with "diverse origins" also joined Orlam collectives, despite being notably "unrelated to their kapteins ." Despite

9656-608: The detribalized fall into a vacuum of surface sophistication with no values underpinning it." Mtshali's poem encapsulates the experience of an unnamed man who was "born in Sophiatown , or Alexandra , I am not sure, but certainly not in Soweto." This "detribalized" man, in Mtshali's perspective, did not care for politics or concern himself with the imprisonment of anti-apartheid figures like Robert Sobukwe or Nelson Mandela on Robben Island , and

9792-571: The diminution of ethnicity." From 1884 to 1885, European powers, along with the United States, convened at the Berlin Conference in order to settle colonial disputes throughout the African continent and protect the economic interests of their colonial empires. The conference was the primary occasion for partitioning, what Europeans commonly referred to as, "the dark continent", and came about as

9928-413: The emergence of nationalist and working-class movements which could ultimately threaten their authority and colonial rule. They sought to prevent "detribalization," which Europeans interpreted as occurring through the urbanization, liberal education , and proletarianization of African people, regardless of whether they were detached from their ethnic identity or community or not. European powers adopted

10064-424: The emergence of numerous informal settlements on the peripheries of "white cities" in southern Africa. In response to the overwhelming "unauthorized" urbanization of Africans, European colonial administrators eventually adopted the moralizing approach of their missionary counterparts and sought to "reform" African shanties, which were regarded as undisciplined chaotic spaces that blurred the order of colonial society as

10200-522: The enslavement, murder, and displacement of Indigenous people by "colonial authorities, landowners, and merchants," which had already been ongoing. While in the mid-seventeenth century "the Amazonian population was mainly indigenous except in the urban centers... by the middle of the eighteenth century, except for native groups that fled to remote refuge areas, the region's population consisted mostly of detribalized, subjugated tapuios " who were inserted "into

10336-471: The fabric and ethos of tribal societies and motivate their members to think and behave in new ways." Detribalize has been defined by Merriam-Webster as "to cause losing tribal identity," by Dictionary.com as "to cause losing tribal allegiances and customs, chiefly through contact with another culture," and by the Cambridge Dictionary as "to make members of a tribe (a social group of people with

10472-490: The first decade of the 17th century and are considered a legitimate and reliable documentary set of the language. Manuscript 158 of the National Library of Colombia has a Grammar, an annex called "Modos de hablar en la lengua Mosca o Chipcha" [ sic ], a Spanish-Muysca vocabulary and a "Catheçismo en la lengua Mosca o Chipcha" [ sic ]. It was transcribed by María Stella González and published by

10608-527: The former colonial station for passing ships into a slaveholding colony. In 1685, the Cape Colony 's last company commander and first governor, Simon van der Stel ,formed an exploration party to locate a copper reserve that the Indigenous Nama people had shown him. The Nama were reportedly described by the colonists as "'very friendly'" and scholar Kitty Millet notes that, "relations were so amenable between

10744-618: The grapheme y . Recently, a couple of doctrinal texts of the Muysca language were discovered in the Bodleian Library, which were sewn into the final part of an anonymous grammar of the Quechua language, published in Seville in 1603. The first of them is a brief Grammar, and the second a brief Christian Doctrine. These pamphlets are considered the earliest known texts of the General Language of

10880-488: The harsh climate and severe drought, their attempts at maintaining the stations failed. They converted one Orlam kaptein , Jager Afrikaner , the father of Jonker Afrikaner , who would become an important Namibian politician. Missionaries struggled to indoctrinate the Indigenous peoples in the region with their ideologies due to outright opposition from the Herero , who were the most powerful Indigenous group and were unconvinced of

11016-459: The heterogeneity of the Orlam collectives, they were able to fight their own subjugation and reestablish themselves as an Indigenous polity . Over time, the burgeoning numbers of resistance groups could not be sustained by the surrounding region of the Cape Colony because of low rainfall and drought. As resources depleted, detribalized Orlam resistance groups moved northward and eventually crossed

11152-532: The indigenous groups from whom they were descended." However, while "preconquest Amerindian populations labored only for subsistence and occasional trade with neighboring tribes, the Jesuits taught the tapuios to produce commodities," which continued to link them into the global market by way of river traders, who "would deliver the goods to distant world markets." Many tapuios or caboclos inhabited "the same flood plains from which their ancestors had been displaced by

11288-411: The interior, which further led to "the acquisition of land grants, official appointments, and other rewards and honors" for white male settlers. At the same time, "Indians seized in confrontations with colonists were used as mining, agricultural, and domestic laborers", while others, and especially Indigenous women, faced rape and sexual assault. While the expanding network of Jesuit missions "provided

11424-404: The knowledge of the Chibcha language include Juan de Castellanos , Bernardo de Lugo , José Domingo Duquesne and Ezequiel Uricoechea . The Muysca language is part of the Chibcha linguistic family , which in turn belongs to the macro-Chibchan group. The Chibcha linguistic family includes several indigenous languages of Central America and Northwestern South America. In prehistorical times, in

11560-519: The land itself on which they staked their farms." The Nama tribes on the Namaaqua plain had been absorbed into the South African colony as "individual units of labour" and reportedly lived "in a state of 'detribalization.'" As the Nama were increasingly exploited and brought into subservience to Europeans, many completely abandoned the territory of the expanding Cape Colony, choosing instead to settle along

11696-454: The land living in an inferior state of nature . Prior to their consciousness of their own " whiteness ," Millet notes that Europeans were first "conscious of the superiority of their developmental 'progress' ... 'Savages' had temporary huts; they roamed the countryside. They were incapable of using nature appropriately. The colour of their skins condemned them." Because Indigenous nations were deemed to be "uncivilized," European powers declared

11832-727: The majority of people often remained either for a "material advantage or psychological security." Throughout southern Africa, while "some groups such as the Basotho and the Tswana openly welcomed missionaries, others like the Pedi , the Zulu , and the Pondo vehemently rejected their presence as a matter of national policy." In some cases, entire populations relocated away from the mission settlements and ostracized members of their community who had been converted or resided at

11968-411: The majority of territory in Africa by the early twentieth century (with the exception of Ethiopia and Liberia ), were notably ambivalent towards "modernizing" African people. Donald Cameron , the governor of the colony of Tanganyika as well as, later, of Nigeria , said in 1925: "It is our duty to do everything in our power to develop the native on lines which will not Westernize him and turn him into

12104-415: The margins, especially as Dutch Boer farmers "annexed more land, and moved closer to the 'fringes'" as a response to the transference of colonial political power. This ongoing resistance within Orlam communities led to the formation of politically centralized leaders in the early nineteenth century, known as kapteins , who functioned as authorities in the community unlike in any traditional Nama society. As

12240-532: The mid-nineteenth century. In Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon by US Navy lieutenants William Lewis Herndon and Lardner Gibbon, tapuios are referred to as "peons" and were described in 1849, along with "negroes" and "mestizos" by the President of the province of Pará, Jeronimo Francisco Coelho, as "people void of civilization and education, and who exceeded in number the worthy, laborious, and industrious part of

12376-622: The modern French far right . Jean Paillard, an influential colonial theorist in Vichy France, feared "native domination" in which "the colonizers would eventually come under the domination of the colonized." Similarly, the authors of the study maintained that "the detribalized native becomes an immoral creature as soon as he reaches the city," reiterating European colonial viewpoints in the twentieth century by emphasizing that "detribalization" must be avoided above all measures. However, when detribalization becomes "unavoidable", it must "be accompanied by

12512-518: The most accepted. In The languages of the Andes they present a phonologic chart based on the orthography developed during the colonial period, which diverges in some aspects from that used in Spanish according to the needs of the language. In his book Aproximación al sistema fonológico de la lengua muisca , González presents the following phonological table (González, 2006:57, 65, 122). González does not present approximants, although she considers [w] as

12648-514: The natural resources available to them. As a result, they were deemed to be obstacles to capitalist investment, extraction, and production of natural resources in the construction of a new colonial empire and built environment. The immense diversity of the indigenous peoples of Africa was flattened by this colonial perception, which labeled them instead as an "unrepresentable nomadic horde of apprehensions that ran across European territories." European colonial authorities, who policed and controlled

12784-568: The number of 'detribalized' natives... Such natives may have adopted a semi-European urban mode of life for several years, while it still remains a difficult matter for the white man to say how far tribal influence and connection has actually ceased." In 1914, Grosskopf documented an instance in which several urbanized Black South Africans who had "never visited their tribe in Thaba Nehu " left their "permanent and well-paid jobs in Bloomfontein " after

12920-480: The official position and requiring that the Indians systematically be taught Spanish," such as one issued by the archbishop in Mexico City in 1717. At the same time, because many missionaries were "more interested in trying to impart what they considered the basis of their faith to the native peoples as quickly as possible" through Christianization, this led many to "acquire the rudiments of the indigenous languages" for

13056-566: The one they had lost at Verdun ", a paternalistic position which nonetheless may have served as a rationale for fears over detribalization and the "consequences of modernity." Under indirect rule, universal primary and secondary education were not adopted in European colonies in Africa in order to avoid creating a class of "unemployable and politically dangerous, 'pseudo-Europeanized' natives." A curriculum that instead directed Africans towards fulfilling subservient roles which Europeans perceived them as "destined" to play, commonly as members of

13192-441: The people themselves, unless saved or baptized." The "official Spanish practice regarding what language, indigenous or Castilian, should be employed in the evangelization effort [throughout New Spain] was often confused." The "colonial aim" was to Hispanicize the Indigenous people and to forcibly separate them from identifying with their cultural practices; "church and state officials intermittently used various decrees reiterating

13328-452: The people", from muysca ("people") and cubun ("language" or "word"). Despite the disappearance of the language in the 17th century (approximately), several language revitalization processes are underway within the current Muisca communities. The Muisca people remain ethnically distinct and their communities are recognized by the Colombian state. Important scholars who have contributed to

13464-417: The physical polities of indigenous tribes among or in proximity to them, substituting them with a docile class of labourers, but also wanted them to forget, completely, their prior existence as 'independent' peoples. The colony's 'health' depended on the removal of independent tribes and, in their stead, the visibility of the 'detribalized' servant." In order to psychologically condition Orlam people to accept

13600-409: The population by more than three-quarters." Herndon and Gibbon affirmed that "a better description of the origin and character of these bodies of laborers cannot be given." These racist perceptions held by colonizers seemingly rationalized their right to exploit the labor of these groups, which was also entwined with Christianization and the role of the colonial church: "All the christianized Indians of

13736-483: The powers at the conference. Local or Indigenous groups were neither imaginable as political powers nor visible as peers or subjects of European sovereigns." Not only were Indigenous peoples not physically represented at the Berlin Conference, they were also absent "to the European powers' conceptualization of territory. They were not 'on the map'." Rather, Indigenous peoples were perceived by Europeans as property of

13872-454: The professed "holy mission" of the missionaries. European settlers considered the Herero, like other Indigenous people in the region, as "uncivilized" because they did not practice sedentary farming nor openly accept Western ideologies. A German missionary illuminated this wider perspective regarding his encounters with the Nama people: "The Nama does not want to work but to live a life of ease. But

14008-596: The prosperity of the colonial state. Historical accounts illustrate several trends in detribalization, with the most prevalent being the role that Western colonial capitalists played in exploiting Indigenous people's labor, resources, and knowledge, the role that Christian missionaries and the colonial Christian mission system played in compelling Christian membership in place of Indigenous cultural and religious practices, instances of which were recorded in North America , South America , Africa , Asia , and Oceania , and

14144-640: The province of Pará are registered and compelled to serve the State, either as soldiers of the Guarda Policial or as a member of 'Bodies of Laborers,' distributed among the different territorial divisions of the province." Regarding the Brazilian province of Amazonas , Herndon and Gibbon recorded that the Brazilian government continued to fear the power of the tapuios to revolt against "the foreigners," given their greater numbers as well as "the terrible revolution of

14280-535: The purposes of indoctrinating Indigenous people to become Christians. Portuguese colonizers arrived on the eastern seaboard of South America in 1500 and had established permanent settlements in the interior regions of Amazonia a century later. Expeditions into the interior were carried out by Portuguese bandeirantes , who often "depended on Amerindians as rowers, collectors, and guides." Bandeirantes frequently turned these exploratory crusades "into slaving expeditions" through abducting, detaining, and exploiting

14416-423: The radical" African states. While the conservative African state adopted a decentralized form of despotic authority that "tended to bridge the urban-rural divide through a clientelism whose effect was to exacerbate ethnic divisions," the radical African state adopted a centralized form of despotic authority that contributed to detribalization by tightening control over local authorities. Mamdani theorizes that "if

14552-406: The reader of the term's potentially offensive subtext. From its early uses to modern scholarship, detribalization has almost exclusively been applied in particular geographic, and therefore racialized, contexts. As the proceeding section on regional detribalized histories demonstrates, while historical discussion and academic research on "detribalization" and "detribalized" peoples can be found in

14688-554: The recognition of their indigenous origins, these individuals surely would have remained enslaved... That said, attempts to turn Indians back into slaves were not uncommon, and many Indians failed to evade the schemes of the most stubborn colonists. While revolts by detribalized Indigenous people were common, following the relocation of the Portuguese Crown to Brazil in 1808, "mission villages were destroyed, their resources seized, and inhabitants [were] pressed into forced labor." As

14824-516: The region as part of a de-indigenization project. The ban remained in law until Colombia passed its constitution of 1991 . Modern Muisca scholars as Diego Gómez have claimed that the variety of languages was much larger than previously thought and that in fact there was a Chibcha dialect continuum that extended throughout the Cordillera Oriental from the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy to

14960-452: The regulated order of 'tribal' society – but given their lack of access to the necessary material resources – had failed to approximate the structure of 'European' society." The "out-of-category" status of "detribalized" urban South Africans was perceived as a threat to the European colonial order. In South Africa and Namibia, the colonial government soon "forced [their] relocations into modernist townships laid out along rectilinear grids" with

15096-449: The revolt, detribalized people had been "transformed into a dispersed propertyless mass alienated both from the intact, isolated tribal groups of the interior and from the rural white population." European ethnographers documented the effects of detribalization on the tapuios , who cited their poor treatment and lack of belonging as socially and psychologically damaging. Occupying an "ambiguous" social category between intact tribal groups and

15232-513: The rise of a politically conscious class that would eventually undermine minority rule altogether." The Native Affairs Department , established by Cecil Rhodes in 1894, sought to prop up African "tradition" for this reason: The idea was to prevent urbanization by keeping Africans confined to native reserves , and to govern them according to a codified form of customary law through existing patriarchs and chiefs. Then, using an intricate network of influx controls, Africans were brought temporarily to

15368-407: The same language, customs, and history, and often a recognized leader) stop following their traditional customs or social structure." Detribalization incorporates the word tribal , which has been recognized as an offensive and pejorative term when used in certain contexts. For this reason, detribalization is sometimes used in quotations when referring to the process being described as a signal to

15504-470: The settlements, effectively expelling them from their communities. In 1806, German missionaries working under the London Missionary Society were reportedly the "first white persons" to arrive in what is now modern-day Namibia . They soon founded mission stations with surrounding fields and territories in an effort to Christianize and sedenteraize the Indigenous peoples. However, because of

15640-505: The size of the white population reportedly grew, "a new wave of military action" was carried out against "remaining tribal groups." Once forcibly congregated into centralized colonial settlements, by the turn of the nineteenth century, detribalized Indigenous people "became scattered along the rivers, streams, and lakes of the Amazon basin where they lived primarily in small family groups" and developed sustenance strategies which "drew heavily from

15776-473: The social and cultural life of Minas Gerais during the eighteenth century." New legislation in the 1750s, sought to affirm "the freedom of Brazil's Indians," which was articulated "in a series of royal laws." This was only extended to Indigenous people who had been Christianized and somewhat assimilated: "once the state 'conveyed the law of God to the barbarous nations, reducing them to the Catholic faith and to

15912-514: The southwestern regions of Namibia and northern South Africa as a result of colonial displacement. White colonists living in the Cape Colony similarly referred to Khoisan and Nama as " Hottentots ," a collective name originally coined by the German settlers in South West Africa. These labels demonstrated the European colonial perspective of Indigenous peoples, which flattened their complexities into

16048-418: The stated intention of conditioning "detribalized" Africans to become "happy, docile subjects" who would "internalize the values of European domesticity." While Europeans and white South Africans during this period classed all urban Africans as "detribalized," this was largely an extension of existing racism which had flattened all Africans into indistinguishable masses of "disorderly" racialized subjects and

16184-606: The system" of indirect rule by threatening to undermine colonial capitalist hegemony in Africa. European perspectives of Africans were thoroughly infused with racism, which, according to John E. Flint , "served to justify European power over the 'native' and to keep western-educated Africans from contaminating the rest". Additionally, Alice Conklin has found that, in the post- World War I period, some officials in French West Africa may have "discovered in 'primitive' Africa an idealized premodern and patriarchal world reminiscent of

16320-672: The systemic conditioning of Indigenous peoples to internalize their own purported inferiority through direct and indirect methods. In the colonial worldview, "civilization" was exhibited through the development of permanent settlements, infrastructure , lines of communication , churches, and a built environment based on the extraction of natural resources . Detribalization was usually explained as an effort to raise people up from what colonizers perceived as inferior and " uncivilized " ways of living and enacted by detaching Indigenous persons from their traditional territories, cultural practices , and communal identities . This often resulted in

16456-565: The term was commonly used in the European sociological context as a "synonym for such words as 'pathological', 'disintegrated', 'demoralized', in a pejorative or deprecatory sense." Isaac Schapera recognized that the term was being misapplied by Europeans who assumed that urbanization in colonial society implied detribalization: "it is not correct to assume that all people who go to the Union [of South Africa] from Bechuanaland tend to become 'detribalized'." H. M. Robertson states that "the urban native

16592-489: The territorial sovereignty of Africa as openly available, which initiated the Scramble for Africa in the late nineteenth century. With the continent of Africa conceptualized as effectively "ownerless" territory, Europeans positioned themselves as its redeemers and rightful colonial rulers. In the European colonial mindset, Africans were inferior and incapable of being "civilized" because they had failed to properly manage or exploit

16728-445: The tongue to the back – zhysky – "head" The accentuation of the words is like in Spanish on the second-last syllable except when an accent is shown: Bacata is Ba-CA-ta and Bacatá is Ba-ca-TA. In case of repetition of the same vowel, the word can be shortened: fuhuchá ~ fuchá – "woman". In Chibcha, words are made of combinations where sometimes vowels are in front of the word. When this happens in front of another vowel,

16864-529: The traditional territories of the Herero and Ovambo of the northern region, bands of Khoisan ( San and Khoikhoi ) in the central and southern regions, and the Damara in the mountainous regions. German colonists unilaterally applied the category of "bushmen" to these groups, because they perceived them as primitive " hunter-gatherers ." Related to the Khoikhoi were the Nama, who by the nineteenth century had settled in

17000-636: The true knowledge of His Holy Name'." However, it "provided a mechanism by which Indians who migrated to towns and villages could defy colonists' attempts to keep them in bondage." A key aspect of this was "proving their Indigenous ancestry," which many detribalized people found difficult. At the same time, "administrators sought to conceal the ethnic origin of these Indians, labeling them with names that corresponded with generic mixed-race categories like caboclo (detribalized Indian rustic), curiboca (Afro-native mestizo), and cabra de terra ('goat'; i.e. mestizo of this land), among many others." By thus engendering

17136-479: The two-pronged division that the colonial state enforced on the colonized – between town and country, and between ethnicities – was its dual legacy at independence, each of the two versions of the postcolonial state tended to soften one part of the legacy while exacerbating the other." In the seventeenth century, the Dutch East India Company was importing shiploads of slaves to South Africa, transferring

17272-409: The vowel changes as follows: a - uba becomes oba – "his (or her, its) face" a - ita becomes eta – "his base" a - yta becomes ata – "his hand" (note: ata also means "one") Sometimes this combination is not performed and the words are written with the prefix plus the new vowel: a-ita would become eta but can be written as aeta , a-uba as aoba and a-yta as ayta Muysca

17408-425: The white population, the "claims and interests" of the tapuios could not be effectively addressed by the Brazilian state, meaning they were faced with immediate "extermination or integration. Between these two alternatives there could exist no gray area questioning the value of assimilation into white society." The exploitation of the tapuios was documented in travel journals of European and American colonizers in

17544-404: The “invisibility” of these peoples, they created a loophole in royal legislation, since the crown did not prohibit the captivity of mestiços whose racial mixture derived in part from enslaved mothers of African descent. With this tactic, they legitimized indigenous slavery. Had it not been for the insistence of colonial Indians, resolute in setting the justice system in motion in order to guarantee

17680-440: Was a "spreading geographical presence of missionaries over southern Africa", which paralleled the restructuring of the social, economic, and political landscape of the region by colonial forces. Despite their stated purpose, missionaries were reportedly unsuccessful in converting many Indigenous people to Christianity. One study reported that only about "12% of people on mission settlements were there for spiritual reasons" and that

17816-580: Was ephemeral. And when the oidor (judge) Luis Enrique did a visitation, in July 1600, the natives had not populated the town and the entrusted had not built the church. By act on August 14, 1600, carried out by Luis Enríquez & Juan López de Linares in Cucunubá , the new and actual town of Simijaca was established. It was formed by indigenous people from Simijaca, Fúquene and Nemoguá. Main economical activity in Simijaca

17952-646: Was his mission to continue the resistance effort among the Nama. Hendrik Witbooi was killed in battle with German colonial military forces in 1905 and is now understood to be a national hero in Namibia. German South West Africa was established in 1884 following decades of German settlers and missionaries occupying the region and conducting work through missionary societies such as the Rhenish Missionary Society . The German Empire officially claimed dominion and sovereignty over present-day Namibia, which included

18088-403: Was not necessarily reflective of reality. In fact, many Indigenous people working on European-owned farms and in urban districts were not formally "detribalized," or detached from their "tribal" identities or communities. Professor at Stellenbosch University J. F. W. Grosskopf recorded that "many Europeans coming into touch with the native only in the bigger centres seem inclined to over-estimate

18224-436: Was often an assumption among analysts of the African colonial scene that nationalism made its recruits from the ranks of the detribalized." Since the leaders of anti-colonial movements were, in the majority of instances, "Westernized or semi-Westernized," they were classed as "detribalized" by European colonial authorities. However, Mazrui notes that this employment of detribalization failed to differentiate between "tribalism as

18360-517: Was perhaps reflective, in Wood's words, of men who had been removed from the "stabilizing influences of tribal life" as a result of colonialism. Regarding the greater Mesoamerican region, scholar Roberto Cintli Rodríguez describes how the Spanish inflicted two forms of colonization upon Indigenous peoples. While the first conquest refers to the military conquest campaigns under the authority of Hernán Cortés and other conquistadors, "La Otra Conquista [or

18496-431: Was to keep the two races separate." Mahmood Mamdani has contended that rather than a "civilizing mission," as was often claimed by European powers to be the rationale for colonization, colonial policy instead sought to "'stabilize racial domination by 'ground[ing] it in a politically enforced system of ethnic pluralism.'" In the twentieth century, colonial authorities in Africa intentionally and actively worked to prevent

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