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51-576: Xikang (formerly romanized as Sikang or Hsikang , lit.   ' Kham -in-the-West ' or 'Kham to the west [of Sichuan ]') was a nominal province formed by the Republic of China in 1939 on the initiative of prominent Sichuan warlord Liu Wenhui and retained by the early People's Republic of China . The former territory of Xikang is now divided between the Tibet Autonomous Region and Sichuan province . The idea behind Xikang province

102-795: A brigade to attack the Tibetan troops in Garze and Xinlong, eventually re-occupying them, and all territories east of the Jinsha River . In 1932, during the Sino-Tibetan War , Liu drove the Tibetans back to the Yangtze River and even threatened to attack Chamdo . Liu Wenhui had a rivalry with his nephew, General Liu Xiang . Finally Liu was ousted from Chengdu by Liu Xiang in 1935, when Liu Xiang sided with smaller warlords against Liu. A family-brokered peace

153-554: A power struggle in the mid-9th century, Tibet separated into independent kingdoms. Kham was not controlled by a single king and remained a patchwork of kingdoms, tribes, and chiefdoms whose bases of authority were constantly shifting. A dual system of secular and Buddhist polities continued. In 1270, the Sakya school's lama Tonstul, a student of Sakya Pandita , established a monastery in Kham while both Kagyu and Sakya monasteries were located in

204-677: A staff officer under warlord Liu Cunhou of the Sichuan Army . In November 1926, he joined the Kuomintang and was appointed as the commander of the 24th Army of the National Revolutionary Army . Liu was then made Governor of Sichuan in 1929, but his relationship with Chiang Kai-shek was unstable, as was the province he governed. Sichuan was in the hands of Liu and four other warlords: Liu Xiang , Yang Sen , Deng Xihou , and Tian Songyao . No one warlord had enough power to take on all

255-690: Is credited with commissioning Buddhist structures while traveling through Kham in 640–641, from her home in China to Central Tibet. During the Imperial era, both Nyingma school and Bon monasteries were located, especially in Nyarong Valley , among pastoral and agricultural-based polities ruled by local chieftains, polities which included merchant as well as Mongol and Chinese populations. Notable Tibetan Buddhist art from this era, dating from 804 or 816, includes carved stone statues of Buddha Vairocana . Following

306-474: Is said to be the inspiration for Shangri-La in James Hilton's novel. Settled as Tibet's eastern frontier in the 7th century, King Songtsen Gampo built temples along its eastern border. In 1939, an eastern area of Kham was officially established as Xikang Province of China. Kham has a rugged terrain characterized by mountain ridges and gorges running from northwest to southeast, and collectively known as

357-509: The Assam Himalayan region ( Arunachal Pradesh ) that Tibet had recognised as a part of British India by the 1914 McMahon Line agreement. The eastern part of the province was inhabited by a number of different ethnic groups, such as Han Chinese , Yi , Qiang people and Tibetan, then known as Chuanbian ( 川邊 ), a special administrative region of the Republic of China. In 1939, it became

408-805: The Chinese Civil War . The Kuomintang formulated a plan where three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the Panchen Lama to oppose the Communists. Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai, and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army. The Chinese Kuomintang (Nationalists) also enlisted Khampas to join their military. The Chinese Kuomintang also sought

459-626: The Hengduan Mountains . Numerous rivers, including the Mekong , Yangtze , Yalong River , and the Salween River flow through Kham. Under the modern administrative division of China, Kham includes a total of 50 contemporary counties , which have been incorporated into the Chinese provinces of Sichuan (16 counties), Yunnan (three counties), and Qinghai (6 counties) as well as the eastern portion of

510-573: The Hor States , Litang , Degé , the Chakla and Batang , becoming the paramount power in the region. China sent troops in against Namgyal which were defeated in 1849, and additional troops were not dispatched. Chinese military posts were present along the trading route, but "did not have any authority over the native chiefs". By 1862, Namgyal blocked trade routes from China to Central Tibet, and sent troops into China. Local chieftains had appealed to both

561-601: The Sichuanese troops stationed here. As a result, the Tibetan army captured Garzê and Xinlong Counties without encountering much resistance. When a negotiated ceasefire failed, Tibetan forces expanded the war, attempting to capture parts of southern Qinghai province. In March 1932, their force invaded Qinghai but was defeated by the local Hui warlord Ma Bufang in July, who routed the Tibetan army and drove it back to this district. The Hui army captured counties that had fallen into

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612-836: The Southwest China Military and Political Committee, where he served until 1954. He was also elected a member of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference and a member of the National People's Congress , and was also appointed to the Central Military Commission . Politically, he joined the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang , becoming

663-655: The Tibetan Empire sent troops east from Lhasa to the reaches of the Tibetan Plateau , where they interacted with local cultures and languages to establish eastern Tibet, or Do Kham ('Do', the convergence of rivers and valleys; 'Kham', frontier). Kham was traditionally referred to as Chushi Gangdruk , i.e. 'The Four Rivers and Six Ranges' and 'The Four Great Valleys'. Responsible for introducing Buddhism to Tibet, King Songtsen Gampo (reign 629–649) built twelve 'border-taming' temples in Kham, and his 4th wife Wencheng Gongzhu

714-695: The Wuchang Uprising in October 1911, which led to the downfall of the Qing dynasty , the region subdued by Frontier Commissioners was established as the Chuanbian Special Administrative District ( 川邊特別行政區 ) by the newly founded Republic of China. In June 1930, eastern Kham (later Xikang) was invaded by the army of Tibet , precipitating the Sino-Tibetan War . With the district locked in internal struggles, no reinforcements were sent to support

765-458: The 21st army of GMD troops garrisoned just across the Sichuan border in Mingshan . In 1936 Liu Wenhui's ties with Chiang soured even further due to his independent policy, but Chiang was not powerful enough to do anything meaningful against him at the time. From 1939 on, as Governor of Xikang Province Liu tried to establish the infrastructure needed to support the remote province. Its transport

816-532: The British Military Expedition to Lhasa and subsequent retreat [and consequent power vacuum within Tibet] were primarily responsible". In 1932, an agreement signed between Chinese warlord Liu Wenhui and Tibetan forces formalized the partition of Kham into two regions: Eastern Kham, which was administered by Chinese forces, and Western Kham, which was administered by Tibet. Eastern Kham subsequently became

867-579: The Governor of Xining , where he earned the nickname of "the Butcher of Kham". In 1905 or 1908 Zhao began executing monks and destroying many monasteries in Kham and Amdo , implementing an early "sinicization" of the region: He abolished the powers of the Tibetan local leaders and appointed Chinese magistrates in their places. He introduced new laws that limited the number of lamas and deprived monasteries of their temporal power and inaugurated schemes for having

918-742: The Hor States. In 1717, the Mongol Dzungar Khanate invaded Tibet and other Asian regions. The Qing Chinese army likewise invaded and defeated the Dzungars. This led to the redrawing of the Sino-Tibetan boundary of 1677, which had followed the edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The frontier line changed in either 1725 or 1726 to follow the Dri River (Jinsha River, Upper Yangtze ), while the Kham region on

969-705: The Khampas help in defending Sichuan from Japan during World War 2, since the temporary capital was located there. A Khampa member of the Mongolian Tibetan Academy was Han Jiaxiang. 300 "Khampa bandits" were enlisted into the Kuomintang Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan, where they were part of the effort of the central government of China to penetrated and destabilize the local Han warlords such as Liu Wenhui. The Chinese government sought to exercise full control over frontier areas against

1020-694: The Khampas, whose relationship with the Dalai Lama's government in Lhasa were deteriorating badly. The Khampa revolutionary leader Pandatsang Rapga founded the Tibet Improvement Party to overthrow the Tibetan government and establish a Tibetan Republic as part of China. In addition to using the Khampa's against the Tibetan Government in Lhasa, the Chinese Kuomintang also used them against the Communists during

1071-633: The Lhasa and the Qing Manchu governments for help against Namgyal. The Tibetan authorities sent an army in 1863, and defeated Namgyal then killed him at his Nyarong fort by 1865. Central Tibet reasserted its authority over the northern parts of Kham and established the Office of the Tibetan High Commissioner to govern. Tibet also reclaimed Nyarong, Degé and the Hor States north of Nyarong. China recalled their forces. It appears to have been accepted by

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1122-577: The Manchu Tongzhi Emperor . Then in 1896, the Qing Governor of Sichuan attempted to gain control of Nyarong valley during a military attack. After his defeat, the Qing agreed to the withdrawal of Chinese forces and the "territory was returned to the direct rule of Lhasa". From 1904 to 1911, China decided to reassert its control over the previously re-ceded section of Kham, and to push further into

1173-519: The Pandatsang family broke out against the Tibetan government in Lhasa. The Khampa revolutionary leader Pandatsang Rapga was involved. In January 1939, the Chuanbian Special Administrative District officially became a province of the Republic, the Hsikang Province . Kesang Tsering was sent by the Chinese to Batang to take control of Xikang, where he formed a local government. He was sent there for

1224-534: The Qing, the Beijing-appointed amban Zhong Ying invaded Lhasa with the Chinese army in February 1910 in order to gain control of Tibet and establish direct Chinese rule. The 13th Dalai Lama escaped to British India , and returned before China surrendered via a letter from the amban to the Dalai Lama in the summer of 1912. On 13 February 1913, the Dalai Lama declared Tibet an independent nation, and announced

1275-504: The Sichuan troops stationed in Xikang. As a result, the Tibetan army captured, without encountering much resistance, Garze and Xinlong ( Zhanhua ). When a negotiated ceasefire failed, Tibet expanded the war attempting to capture parts of southern Qinghai province. In March 1932 their force invaded Qinghai but was defeated. In 1932 Liu, in cooperation with the Qinghai army ( Ma clique ), sent out

1326-471: The Sichuan-Yunnan Frontier. Zhao reduced all the autonomous native states in both the western and eastern Kham by 1910 and converted them into Chinese districts governed by magistrates. He signed an agreement with the Tibetan government setting the border between China and Tibet at Gyamda . This paved the way for the formation of a Xikang province, proposed by Zhang's successor Fu Songmu. Following

1377-510: The Tibet Autonomous Region (25 counties). The people of Kham, the Khampas, are reputed warriors renowned for their marksmanship and horsemanship. References state many Khampas in the Hor States include mention of their Mongolian heritage. There are significant differences in traditions and beliefs—even physical appearance—between the peoples of Kham and Lhasa. Most of Kham's residents speak Khams Tibetan while at least one-third of

1428-480: The actual area of control of China's Xikang province. The border between eastern and western Kham is the Upper Yangtze – Dri Chu in Tibetan and Jinsha Jiang respectively, in Chinese. Tenpay Gyaltsan, a Khampa who was 5 years old, was selected as the fifth Jamyang Hutuktu in 1921. The Kham Pandatsang family led the 1934 Khamba rebellion against the Tibetan government in Lhasa. The Kuomintang reached out to

1479-622: The eastern bank became Qing domain. There, hereditary chieftains were bestowed honorific titles of tusi , and obligated to fight alongside the Qing army in other Kham battles between chieftains. Earlier in 1724, an area of Qinghai (Kokonor) was established within Do Kham. The eastern Kham Qing domain was later incorporated into neighboring Chinese provinces. In 1837, a minor chieftain Gompo Namgyal , of Nyarong in eastern Kham, began expanding his control regionally and launched offensives against

1530-552: The end of the historic "priest-patron" relationship between Tibet and China. The amban and Chinese army were expelled, while other Chinese populations were given three years to depart. By late 1913, Kham and Amdo remained largely occupied by China. Tibet proposed re-establishing the border between Tibet and China at the Dri River during the Simla Conference with Britain and China, while Britain countered with another proposal which

1581-534: The full wrath of Chiang Kai-shek, and thereby continued to reap the benefits of wearing the Nationalist mantle. Liu switched sides from his half-hearted alignment with the Kuomintang to fully siding with the Communists of Mao Zedong on December 9, 1949, during the Chengdu Uprising (Chengdu was the last important/major city on the Chinese mainland to fall under Communist control). Mao Zedong appointed Liu to

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1632-550: The hands of the Tibetan army since 1919. Their victories threatened the supply lines of the Tibetan forces in Garzê and Xinlong. As a result, part of the Tibetan army was forced to withdraw. In 1932 Liu Wenhui in cooperation with the Qinghai army, sent out a brigade to attack the Tibetan troops in Garzê and Xinlong, eventually occupying them, Dêgê and other counties east of the Jinshajiang River. The 1934 Khamba Rebellion led by

1683-468: The land cultivated by Chinese immigrants. Zhao's methods in eastern Tibet uncannily prefigured the Communist policies nearly half a century later. They were aimed at the extermination of the Tibetan clergy, the assimilation of territory and repopulation of the Tibetan plateaus with poor peasants from Sichuan. Like the later Chinese conquerors, Zhao's men looted and destroyed Tibetan monasteries, melted down religious images and tore up sacred texts to use to line

1734-697: The new People's Republic of China , serving as Minister of Forestry (1959–1967), member of the National People's Congress , member of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference , and member of the Central Committee of the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang . Liu Wenhui was born in 1895 in Dayi County , Sichuan , and studied at the Baoding Military Academy , graduating in 1916. After graduating in 1916, Liu Wenhui returned to Sichuan and served as

1785-463: The new Xikang province with the additional territories belonging to Tibetan and British control added in. After the People's Republic of China invaded and occupied Tibet , the earlier nationalist imagination of Xikang came to fruition. The provincial capital of Xikang was Kangding from 1939 to 1951 and Ya'an from 1951 to 1955. The province had a population of 3.4 million in 1954. The idea of "Xikang"

1836-403: The northern plains, including Gonjo and Lingtsang, which accompanied the earlier Nyingma and Bon monasteries of Kham. In 1639, Güshri Khan , a supporter of the Dalai Lama, invaded with Mongolian troops and defeated the powerful King of Beri in Kham. In 1655, Ngawang Phuntsok, a student of the Dalai Lama, founded Gonsar Monastery, the first of the 13 Gelug monasteries in the Hor States , with

1887-486: The others at once, so many small battles occurred, pitting one warlord against another. Large conflicts seldom developed, plotting and skirmishing characterized the Sichuanese political scene, and ephemeral coalitions and counter coalitions emerged and vanished with equal rapidity. In May 1930 his province was invaded by the army of Tibet . With the province locked in internal struggles, no reinforcements were sent to support

1938-1224: The purpose of propagating the Three Principles of the People to the Khampa. In 1950, following the defeat of the Kuomintang by the Chinese Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War , Xikang was split along the Yangtze into Sikang to the east and a separate Chamdo Territory ( 昌都地区 ) to the west. Chamdo was merged into Tibet Autonomous Region in 1965. The rest of Xikang was merged into Sichuan in 1955. Ganzi Regional Office (1951–1955) Ganzi , Shiqi , Dengke , Dege , Baiyu , Zhanghua→Xinlong , Luhuo , Daofu Litang Regional Office (1951–1955) Litang , Batang , Derong , Dingxiang→Xiangcheng , Daocheng , Yidun     Kuomintang (Nationalist)     Chinese Communist Party Kham Densely forested with grass plains, its convergence of six valleys and four rivers supported independent Kham polities of Tibetan warrior kingdoms together with Tibetan Buddhist monastic centers. The early trading route between Central Tibet and China traveled through Kham, and Kham

1989-570: The region soon after the invasion of Tibet by the British army under Francis Younghusband in 1904. The British invasion alarmed the Qing rulers in China, and they sent Fengquan (鳳全) to Kham to initiate land reforms and reduce the numbers of monks. An anti-foreigner and anti-Qing uprising in Batang led to Fengquan's death, while Chinese fields were burned. The Qing then undertook punitive campaigns in Kham under Manchu army commander Zhao Erfeng , also

2040-519: The residents are speakers of Qiangic languages , a family of twelve distinct but interrelated languages that are not closely related to Khams Tibetan. As a frontier region, Kham integrated and "Tibetanized" early Mongolian and Chinese populations. After Güshri Khan's invasion of Kham in 1639, Mongolian people and Amdo's tribal people resettled to the region. The Khampas are known for their great height. Khampa males are on average 180 cm (5 ft 11 in). The Pugyal Dynasty (or Yarlung) of

2091-509: The soles of their boots and, as the Communists were also to do later, Zhao Erfeng worked out a comprehensive scheme for the redevelopment of Tibet that covered military training reclamation work, secular education, trade and administration. After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Zhao was stripped of his post and executed by the revolutionary commander Yin Changheng . A year before the collapse of

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2142-456: The support of the kingdom of Degé . By 1677, many Gelug monasteries had been built when the 5th Dalai Lama finalized Kham's Sino-Tibetan border location between China and a Tibet then reunified in the Khoshut Khanate , resulting in Kham being ascribed to Tibet's authority. The major independent polities included the Chakla , Degé , the Lingtsang , Nangchen and the Lhatok . Other important polities included Chamdo , Batang , Mili , and

2193-405: The warlords. The Consoltary Commission forces were used to battle the Communist Red Army but were defeated when their religious leader was captured by Communist forces. The Republic of China government also used Khampa traders to operate secret transports between different places. Kesang Tsering was sent by the Chinese to Batang to take control of Xikang , where he formed a local government. He

2244-465: Was a Chinese general and warlord of Sichuan province ( Sichuan clique ). At the beginning of his career, he was aligned with the Kuomintang (KMT), commanding the Sichuan-Xikang Defence Force from 1927 to 1929. The western part of Sichuan province was then known as Xikang . Bordering Tibet , the region had a mixed population of Tibetans and Han Chinese. In 1949 he defected to the Communist forces of Mao Zedong , and went on to hold high office in

2295-446: Was arranged, and Liu was given control of the neighbouring Xikang province. During the fight with Communist forces while the Long March was in process, Chiang Kai-shek repeatedly ordered Liu to bring his troops against the Communists, but Liu made excuses, while secretly allowing safe passage for the Chinese Red Army in a non-aggression pact. Thus, the engagements around Xiakou Village in 1934 did not involve Liu's 24th Route Army, but

2346-505: Was initialed but not ratified. In 1917, the Tibetan army defeated China in battles at Chamdo , west of the Dri River, which were halted after Britain refused to sell Tibet additional armements. The official position of the British Government was it would not intervene between China and Tibet and would only recognize the de facto government of China within Tibet at this time. In his history of Tibet, Bell wrote that "the Tibetans were abandoned to Chinese aggression, an aggression for which

2397-413: Was merged into Sichuan in 1955. The border between Sichuan and Tibet Autonomous Region has remained at the Yangtze River. 30°36′6.01″N 96°50′29.59″E  /  30.6016694°N 96.8415528°E  / 30.6016694; 96.8415528 Liu Wenhui Liu Wenhui ( simplified Chinese : 刘文辉 ; traditional Chinese : 劉文輝 ; pinyin : Liú Wénhuī ; 10 January 1895 – 24 June 1976)

2448-407: Was primitive, and it had no industry to speak of. Large projects such as the hydroelectric plant built in 1944 promised to bring the area into the modern world. Liu also promoted education as a way to improve Xikang’s situation. Liu walked the tightrope of allegiance throughout the 1940s. He made sure that his forces saw as little action as possible, while at the same time he was careful not to arouse

2499-420: Was spread there for the purpose of propagating the Three People's Principle to the Khampa. In 1950, following the defeat of the Kuomintang rulers of China by communist forces in the Chinese Civil War , the People's Liberation Army invaded western Kham. Western Kham was then set up as a separate Qamdo Territory , then merged into Tibet Autonomous Region in 1965. Meanwhile, Xikang , comprising eastern Kham,

2550-400: Was to construct an independent province of China for the entire Kham region, which would be separate from Tibet as well as Sichuan . Even though it was defined in regulations and sketched out on maps, only the eastern Kham region was ever under the control of the Republic of China . Following the 1905 Batang uprising , Qing China appointed Zhao Erfeng as the Imperial Commissioner for

2601-401: Was to form a single unified province for the entire Kham region under direct Chinese administration, in effect annexing the western Kham region that was then under Tibetan control. Kham was entirely populated by Tibetan people called Khampas . The then-independent Tibet controlled the portion of Kham west of the Upper Yangtze River . The nominal Xikang province also included in the south

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