117-502: The Sihanaka are a Malagasy ethnic group concentrated around Lake Alaotra and the town of Ambatondrazaka in central northeastern Madagascar . Their name means the "people of the swamps" in reference to the marshlands around Lake Alaotra that they inhabit. While rice has long been the principal crop of the region, by the 17th century, the Sihanaka had also become wealthy traders in slaves and other goods, capitalizing on their position on
234-467: A self-made man who did not rely on his privileges as a prince, his independence, temperament, tenacity and sense of justice made him popular among the commoners and the slaves of Ambohimanga. His popularity stood in contrast to public discontentment with his uncle, King Andrianjafy , who was viewed as a despotic and incompetent ruler. Ramboasalamarazaka frequently made promises to the populace regarding his future reign, which led Andrianjafy perceived as
351-473: A broken spoon and plate they provided, and cover her in a rotting mat which she was forbidden to remove until nightfall. She was required to maintain this mourning state for at least eight months, during which time she was forbidden to wash or speak to others during daylight hours. After this period she could abandon the mourning ritual and was considered "divorced" (i.e. free to remarry and visit her own parents and family members, previously forbidden); however, if
468-507: A canoe made of silver (rather than the customary hollowed out log) and interred in one of the royal tranomasina tombs at Ambohimanga. Shortly after the French established a colonial presence on the island in 1896, they destroyed Andrianampoinimerina's original tomb in March 1897, removed his remains, and relocated them to the rova of Antananarivo where they were interred in the tomb of his son. This
585-537: A centralized kingdom like their western neighbor, the Kingdom of Imerina, the Sihanaka were historically united around their traditional religious beliefs. The traditional beliefs of the Sihanaka, as elsewhere in Madagascar, revolve around respect for a creator god ( Zanahary ), the ancestors, and fady (ancestral interdictions). Aspects of ancestor worship among the Sihanaka include joro (collective prayers said to invoke
702-399: A century before. Andrianampoinimerina established his capital at the fortified town of Ambohimanga , a site of great spiritual, cultural and political significance that was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001. The king's original royal lodgings can still be visited at Ambohimanga today. From this position, he progressively extended his domain first over all Imerina and then over
819-547: A citizen army called the foloalindahy (the "100,000 soldiers"). Men fit for military service were recruited to engage in Andrianampoinimerina's campaigns of conquest between periods designated for public works projects. These campaigns served to enrich Imerina by capturing slaves for labor and service to the Merina andriana and hova classes, or for sale or trade to coastal communities in exchange for firearms. His military
936-452: A conduit of traditional religious power and authority, instead glorifying his administrative practices in an attempt to bring greater credibility to the colonial government as a vehicle for building upon and strengthening the principles of good governance that he introduced. Beginning in the 1970s, historians began to focus more on the spiritual aspects of his role as king, and researchers questioned and compared sources in an effort to arrive at
1053-435: A definitive win for either side. In the morning, Andrianjafy moved his army north of Anosy and the two sides clashed again in a battle that lasted two days. The Ilafy army lost the skirmish and retreated to their village. After losing these battles, the residents of Ilafy decided to submit to Andrianampoinimerina. To rid themselves of Andrianjafy, the people encouraged him to travel to Antananarivo and Alasora to seek allies in
1170-707: A fair ruler. Andrianampoinimerina regulated commerce and the economy by creating official markets ( tsena ) and standardizing market scales ( fandanjana ) and other units of measurement, including length and volume. King Andrianampoinimerina established the first marketplace in Antananarivo on the grounds today occupied by the Analakely market's tile-roofed pavilions, constructed in the 1930s. Andrianampoinimerina decreed Friday ( Zoma ) as market day, when merchants would come to Analakely to erect stalls shaded with traditional white parasols. This sea of parasols extended throughout
1287-437: A formal term of address when speaking to these particular family members. Mothers are traditionally subject to several fady, such as not being allowed to look at dead infants, eat veal, or eat a particular type of banana once their child had learned to say the word for it. Parents were traditionally responsible for educating their own children, and while today those who can afford a formal education will study at school, parents and
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#17328804125411404-503: A house built at each of the twelve sacred hills. After the political capital of Imerina was shifted back to Antananarivo, Andrianampoinimerina declared Ambohimanga to be the spiritual capital of Imerina. The latter half of Andrianampoinimerina's reign from around 1800 was marked by an effort to unite the island's 18 ethnic groups under his rule. This effort began with the sending of royal messengers bearing invitations to become vassal states under Andrianampoinimerina's sovereignty, or face
1521-443: A local board game believed to develop intelligence and the ability to think strategically. Young nobles being groomed for leadership roles typically learned to perform kabary (a stylized form of public address), including the judicious use of ohabolana (proverbs) to persuasively make a point. Young Merina princes also often learned to play the valiha , a bamboo tube zither then reserved for Merina and Zafimamy nobles. Around
1638-495: A military conquest. The first focus of this expansion was territory that had historically been inhabited by the Merina people but had come under the rule of other groups, particularly including the eastern lands held by the Sihanaka and Bezanozano peoples. Andrianampoinimerina then consolidated Merina power in neighboring southern central Betsileo territories, establishing military outposts to protect Merina settlers as far south as
1755-399: A more factual and balanced history of Andrianampoinimerina and his reign. Innovations during the reign of Andrianampoinimerina were to have long-standing consequences for the structure of Malagasy society in the 19th century. Madagascar specialist Francoise Raison-Jourde attributes the widespread conversions of the masses following the conversion to Christianity of Ranavalona II in 1869 to
1872-471: A number of ethnic groups, often into the standard eighteen. In addition, communities of Indians in Madagascar and Arabs and Somalis have long been established on the island and have assimilated into local communities to varying degrees, in some places having long since become identified "Malagasy" ethnic groups, and in others maintaining distinct identities and cultural separation. More recent arrivals include Europeans and Chinese immigrants. Madagascar
1989-484: A paddy field on Tuesdays; sub-groups among the Sihanaka also practiced other taboos associated with particular days of the week, such as not leaving the house or not cleaning floor mats on certain days. A fady was placed on consumption of any new or foreign products, including Western medicines. Another common fady was a taboo against watching the rising or setting of the sun, staring at anything red, or falling asleep at sunset. Fady have served to protect certain wildlife in
2106-420: A relatively wealthy trading people. Many Sihanaka villagers resorted to sleeping in the forests and fields to avoid falling victim to nighttime pillage and arson; entire Sihanaka villages were burned. Following French colonization of the island in 1897, the colonial administration imposed a heavy burden of corvée (statute labor) on the Sihanaka in the 1910s, requisitioning them for minimal to no pay to build
2223-452: A ritual of purification ( faly ranom-bohangy ). Lemon or lime leaves and two other herbs were soaked in a bowl of water, and a family member whose parents were still living would be chosen to sprinkle it on the deceased's possessions, enabling them to be redistributed and reused. The door by which the corpse had been removed was then locked for eight days, during which time the family was required to fast. After completion of this fasting period,
2340-437: A selected man would circle the house and sing a funeral chant, with the women inside interjecting in call-and-response. After the feast, a community leader would dip his finger in melted fat and touch those who had assisted in the funeral, to protect them against illness and from being followed by malevolent spirits. Family members of the deceased would then reunite in the family home where they would drink more rum and carry out
2457-402: A strong and continuing prohibition on working in paddy fields on Tuesdays. The Sihanaka are concentrated around the historically swampy land surrounding Lake Alaotra and the town of Ambatondrazaka in central northeastern Madagascar . Their name means the "people of the swamps", partly in reference to the marshlands around Lake Alaotra that they inhabit. More specifically, the word for swamp
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#17328804125412574-576: A threat to his authority, leading him to execute citizens of his territory who engaged his nephew in such promises; contrary to his intentions, this response only served to turn popular opinion against Andrianjafy. Although Andrianjafy may have initially intended for Ramboasalamarazaka to succeed him, this appears to have changed following the birth of his son, whom his wife persuaded him to name as successor in disregard of his father's earlier decree. Andrianjafy consequently made several attempts to have his nephew killed, but on each occasion Ramboasalamarazaka
2691-559: Is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages , spoken in southern Borneo . By the mid-1600s, the Sihanaka had already established themselves as one of the island's most important trading groups. Their location on the main trade route between the coast and the Merina capital of Antananarivo enabled them to become important trading partners beginning in
2808-418: Is a compound composed of sia (to wander or lose one's way) and hanaka (spilling or scattering), and some ethnologists have proposed that the name evokes the earliest period in Sihanaka identity when the group's ancestors were migrating in search of the better home they eventually found at Alaotra. Oral history offers several stories regarding the origins of the Sihanaka. Betsimisaraka traders may have been
2925-432: Is an "object of great admiration in the popular imagination." A French trader who had conducted business with him declared in 1808, "He is without doubt the richest, the most feared, the most enlightened, and has the largest kingdom, of all the kings of Madagascar." Malagasy textbooks characterize him as a hero and the originator of the notion of a unified Malagasy national identity. The primary source of information about
3042-453: Is considered one of the greatest military and political leaders in the history of Madagascar. Andrianampoinimerina took power upon deposing his uncle, King Andrianjafy , who had ruled over Imerina Avaradrano (Northern Imerina). Prior to Andrianampoinimerina's reign, Imerina Avaradrano had been locked in conflict with the three other neighboring provinces of the former kingdom of Imerina that had last been unified under King Andriamasinavalona
3159-557: The Ankaratra mountains and Faratsiho . Kingdoms that united with Imerina as a result of diplomatic efforts included the Betsileo around Manandriana; the Betsileo, Merina and Antandrano Andrandtsay of Betafo; and the western region of Imamo. The Sakalava of Menabe and Manangina rejected these offers and actively resisted Merina domination; the Bezanozano territories likewise resisted, although
3276-448: The Kingdom of Imerina on Madagascar from 1787 until his death. His reign was marked by the reunification of Imerina following 77 years of civil war, and the subsequent expansion of his kingdom into neighboring territories, thereby initiating the unification of Madagascar under Merina rule. Andrianampoinimerina is a cultural hero and holds near mythic status among the Merina people, and
3393-446: The Merina customs of the time, his parents gave him the humble name Ramboasalama ( Ra-amboa-salama , "The healthy dog") to protect him from attracting the undesirable attention of jealous rivals or evil spirits, before being changed in childhood to Ramboasalamarazaka . Ramboasalamarazaka spent his early childhood in his father's Zafimamy court at Ikaloy . There he received a traditional education, including mastery of fanorona ,
3510-453: The papyrus reeds bordering the lake. In 2013, the Sihanaka were estimated to number around 200,000. Families are hierarchical, with parents exercising authoritarian control over their children. Sihanaka men and women have significant autonomy in deciding when to marry and whether to divorce. Marriages are disallowed between siblings, cousins, and direct ascendents. To reinforce this forbidden physical intimacy, Sihanaka have historically used
3627-412: The population of Madagascar include population density , ethnicity , education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Madagascar 's population is predominantly of mixed Austronesian and East African origin. Since the country's independence in 1960, three general census of population and dwellings (RGPH) have been conducted by
Sihanaka - Misplaced Pages Continue
3744-551: The 16th century under Andriamanelo was revised by Andrianampoinimerina, as it had been done by Andriamasinavalona . He decreed new rights and responsibilities for the andriana, including the privilege of placing sculptures or images of the voromahery ( black kite ) on their homes to indicate their noble status. In order to strengthen relationships within clans and communities, and to promote moderation and equitable distribution of resources, Andrianampoinimerina decreed that families should build larger, monolithic stone tombs to hold
3861-408: The 17th century Merina king Ralambo was made a much larger event intended to symbolically renew the nation and the cosmic power that legitimized and strengthened Andrianampoinimerina's reign as well as the power of the state. This served to further unify his citizens while legitimizing and strengthening his rule. The long-established royal Merina tradition of fanompoana (labor as a form of tax)
3978-415: The 18th century; slave trading was a major source of income until outlawed under Radama I in the 1810s. The Sihanaka women also produced pottery, which was baked using wood collected by men in the surrounding forests. Since the end of slave trading, the Sihanaka largely derived their livelihoods from rice farming. Their region is among the most productive on the island. Wealth is unequally distributed, with
4095-609: The Alaotra area, which may have already been settled by individuals of various other ethnic groups , in order to maintain independence from the rule of the Merina king. At least as far back as the mid-1600s, the Sihanaka were established as a technologically sophisticated and prosperous people who provided slaves to slave traders supplying the plantations of the Mascarene Islands . To protect themselves and their wealth, Sihanaka villages were often fortified by earthen walls ( tamboho ) of
4212-455: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Jehovah's Witnesses , Seventh-day Adventists , Eastern Orthodox Christians and evangelicals. Many incorporate the cult of the dead with their other religious beliefs and bless their dead at church before proceeding with the traditional burial rites. They also may invite a pastor to attend a famadihana. A historical rivalry exists between
4329-591: The Indians in Madagascar have a high level of education, particularly the younger generation. A sizeable number of Europeans also reside in Madagascar , mostly of French descent. Religion in Madagascar (2020) according to the Pew Research Center According to the 1993 national census, 41% of Malagasies practised Christianity and 52% practise traditional religion, which tends to emphasize links between
4446-468: The Kingdom of Imerina in Madagascar's central highlands had generally enjoyed prosperity, expansion and civil peace. This stability and the unity of Imerina collapsed after Andriamasinavalona divided the kingdom among his four favorite sons, leading to 77 years of civil war that weakened the ability of subsequent princes to respond effectively to the pressures of slave trading and a growing population. Merina kings had long intended to extend their kingdom to
4563-477: The Merina dialect. Indians in Madagascar descend mostly from traders who arrived in the newly independent nation looking for better opportunities. The majority of them came from the west coast of India known as Karana (Muslim) and Banian (Hindu). The majority speak Hindi or Gujarati , although some other Indian languages are also spoken. Nowadays the younger generations speak at least three languages, including French, Gujarati and Malagasy. A large number of
4680-584: The Merina managed to preserve a tenuous hold over the area. The gradual conquest of surrounding lands by Andrianampoinimerina and his Merina army was vigorously opposed by the Sakalava, who remained a major threat to Andrianampoinimerina and his people. Throughout his reign, bands of Sakalava mounted slave raids in Imerina and brought captured Merina to the coast for sale to European slave traders. Sakalava armies mounted repeated incursions into Imerina and nearly breached
4797-717: The North by absorbing the Zafimamy kingdom of Alahamadintany, and the Zafimamy kings of Alahamadintany had also wished to extend their land to the South by absorbing the Merina Kingdom. The marriage between Ramboasalamarazaka's parents was a political alliance contracted as part of Andriambelomasina's strategy to mitigate the threat of invasions by the Alahamadintany-Zafimamy alliance to the North. The marriage agreement stipulated that after
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4914-489: The Sihanaka homeland. The aye-aye is the subject of numerous fady and folk tales among the Sihanaka. It was traditionally believed that a person who fell asleep in the forest might be brought a pillow by an aye-aye. If the pillow was for one's head, he or she would become rich, but if it was for the feet, that person would be subject to evil sorcery. Similarly, the indri is considered sacred and may not be hunted, killed or eaten. The Sihanaka traditionally believed that death
5031-415: The Sihanaka led to a spate of slave revolts in 1768 that they requested European assistance to quell. Around 1800 the territory was conquered by the armies of the Kingdom of Imerina under the leadership of King Andrianampoinimerina . This led to a massive inflow of Merina colonists who settled among the Sihanaka and introduced a variety of cultural, economic and political practices that were assimilated into
5148-475: The Sihanaka show respect for these spirits by maintaining ancestral customs and traditions and adhering to fady . The Sihanaka share the belief common throughout the island that the spirits of ancestors can possess the living, placing them in a trance state called a tromba . The Sihanaka traditionally believe that looking at a cuckoo roller (an indigenous bird) will induce the tromba. Communities look to ombiasy (wise men) for spiritual guidance, to commune with
5265-574: The Tsimahafotsy, inhabitants of Ambohimanga, ensured the defense of the city against efforts by Andrianjafy to reclaim his capital and his authority. Andrianjafy rallied the people of his home village of Ilafy to fight against those of Ambohimanga. Both sides were armed with spears and firearms. An initial battle at Marintampona saw the Ilafy army defeated. Both sides regrouped for a second confrontation at Amboniloha, which took place at night and did not end in
5382-649: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; Madagascar is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV) and that has changed over time and behaves more like the wild or naturally occurring virus; this means it can be spread more easily to people who are unvaccinated against polio and who come in contact with
5499-419: The advice of an elder who instructed him to sacrifice a ram to invoke ancestral protection. The elder then gathered the twelve most respected men of Ambohimanga and thirty soldiers, and rallied them to enforce the decree of Andriambelomasina by overthrowing Andrianjafy and swearing allegiance to Ramboasalama. After the success of the coup, the new king adopted his ruling name, Andrianampoinimerina. The support of
5616-526: The age of 12, Ramboasalamarazaka continued his education under the supervision of his grandfather, King Andriambelomasina , at Amboatany and the royal court in Ambohimanga. As a young man, Ramboasalamarazaka worked as a merchant and may have also traded in slaves. During this period he gained a reputation as a champion of the commoner, committed to defending them against raids by Sakalava warriors and slave traders and fighting against corruption. Regarded as
5733-460: The age of 15 in 2010 was 43.1%, 53.8% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.1% was 65 years or older. Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2019) (Unrevised data. Data refer to projections based on the 1993 Population Census.): UN medium variant projections: Registration of vital events in Madagascar is not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared
5850-419: The allegiance and submission of all the territories that had formed Imerina at its largest extent under Andriamasinavalona, effectively achieving the reunification of Imerina. The former kings of Antananarivo and Ambohidratrimo periodically engaged in resistance against his authority in disregard of the treaties they had concluded, prompting Andrianampoinimerina to launch renewed campaigns to eliminate both kings;
5967-435: The ancestors, and to determine which days are auspicious for undertaking particular tasks or endeavors. By the 1600s, a uniform religious belief system had grown around a group of sampy (idols) believed to channel the protective spiritual power of 11 deities. The origin of these amulets is said to have been in the western territories under Sakalava control. The Christian conversion of the Merina royal court in 1869 spurred
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#17328804125416084-466: The arrival of Merina missionaries in Sihanaka country and the conversion of a significant portion of the population. Following the French capture of the Merina capital in 1895, Christianity was largely abandoned in Sihanaka and traditional religious beliefs regained preeminence; at least one major historic church in the area was burned. French Catholic missionaries arrived in the area around 1900 and gradually began converting members of local communities. This
6201-652: The assistance of Kulanu, a nonprofit organization focusing on remote Jewish communities. In 2023, the country scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom. Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022. The following demographic are from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated. The largest city in Madagascar is Antananarivo . The next largest cities are Toamasina , Antsirabe , Fianarantsoa , Mahajanga , Toliara , Antsiranana and Ambovombe . note: on 21 March 2022,
6318-438: The blessings of God or the ancestors), burial in family tombs, the famadihana reburial ceremony, and the sanctification of particular stones ( tsangambato ), land ( tany masina ), and shrines ( doany , tony and jiro ). Another major element of this tradition is the role of ambalavelona , believed to be the spirits of the ancestors themselves. Each ancestral practice or tradition has a particular spirit associated with it, and
6435-427: The broader community remain collectively engaged in educating children into social and cultural norms and practices. Male children are circumcised by their families no later than the age of seven. Among the Sihanaka, communities are led by their eldest members, termed Tangalamena or Zokiolona . Social relations are guided by the principle of fihavanana (solidarity, goodwill). Although the Sihanaka never developed
6552-441: The capital city on more than one occasion. Andrianampoinimerina launched several campaigns to pacify the Sakalava but none were successful. He also sought to establish peace through marriages intended to form political alliances, but without achieving lasting peace or an end to the slave raids. Certain Merina nobles and several members of the royal family also posed a threat to Andrianampoinimerina's rule. After deposing Andrianjafy,
6669-488: The capital was to serve as a microcosm of his kingdom and a model of urban planning that would be replicated in each new territory. In keeping with sacred Merina symbolism associated with height, space and cardinal orientation, he retained the royal compound - the Rova of Antananarivo - at the crest of the highest hill in the city, and in the center of the urban space that expanded around it. He also undertook significant expansion of
6786-488: The child of his son Radama would follow in the line of succession, Andrianampoinimerina had his oldest son, Ramavolahy, killed to prevent any contest for the throne. Certainly, [Andrianampoinimerina's] genius was of a purely Malagasy nature, owing nothing to external influences - except guns. His superior intelligence and great determination, combined with his flexibility of approach and realistic methods of organization, his patience and cunning, and his fundamental contact with
6903-469: The city. Each Merina social class had its designated districts: slaves lived south of the rova (a disfavored direction in Merina cosmology), the mainty (royal servant class) lived to the southeast in Amparihy, important hova clans were allotted the district to the west of the royal compound, and each of the seven sub-classes of andriana nobles were assigned to a district to the sacred north and northeast of
7020-436: The crown, and enabled the king to monopolize trade in certain particularly lucrative goods, thereby weakening opportunities for political rivals to amass enough wealth and influence to unseat him. While this soured his relationship with certain andriana, it increased his popularity among the commoner and slave classes. His practice of commonly deciding in favor of commoners in disputes with nobles further strengthened his image as
7137-485: The defense of their town. Once he had departed, the villagers barred the town gates and announced their desire to enforce the decree of Andriambelomasina. Seeking support to recapture the throne, Andrianjafy traveled to Antananarivo, Ambohipeto, Alasora and Anosizato to secure an alliance, but each time he was rebuffed. The conflict came to an end in 1787 when Andrianampoinimerina exiled his uncle; varying sources report that shortly afterward Andrianjafy either died in exile or
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#17328804125417254-596: The fallen king made an attempt on Andrianampoinimerina's life. This assassination attempt was foiled by an informant who had learned about the conspiracy by chance. Andrianampoinimerina rewarded the informant by marrying his daughter to his son, future King Radama I . Andrianampoinimerina furthermore declared that any child from this union would be first in the line of succession after Radama. The marriage did not produce children, however, and following Radama's death in 1828, this royal wife would rule Madagascar for 33 years as Queen Ranavalona I . Andrianaimpoinimerina's authority
7371-474: The family it was meant to feed, and each family paid taxes to the king in return. Andrianampoinimerina passed laws giving children the right to claim meat from the butcher that had not been sold by the day's end, and allowing the poor to eat cassava from others' fields, provided they took only what they could cook and consume on the spot. In this way, the basic nutritional needs of most citizens were met. The hierarchy of Merina andriana sub-classes established in
7488-421: The family underwent a purification ritual ( afana ) and the second door was unlocked. Another feast was observed to formally end the period of community purification. The home of the deceased was then allowed to fall into ruin. The villagers would afterward return to the house of the widow, pull off her lamba and jewelry, uncomb her hair (a sign of mourning), dress her in an old lamba, require her to eat only using
7605-517: The first to reach the area traveling inland on the Maningory River . Another view posits that the presence of ancient earthen defensive trenches suggests the ancestors of the Merina may have passed by Lake Alaotra on their migration from the southeastern coast to the central highlands, leaving behind settlers whose descendants formed the first Sihanaka communities. Alternatively, a large group calling itself Sihanaka may have migrated from Imerina into
7722-455: The following estimates. Source: UN DESA , World Population Prospects, 2022 Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Fertility data as of 2008-2009 (DHS Program): Source: UN World Population Prospects The island of Madagascar is predominantly populated by people broadly classified as belonging to the Malagasy ethno-linguistic group. This group is further subdivided
7839-705: The full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine 2020 figures (2021 est.) noun: Malagasy (singular and plural) adjective: Malagasy Malayo-Indonesian ( Merina and related Betsileo ), coastal ethnics (mixed African , Malayo - Indonesian , and Arab ancestry – Betsimisaraka , Tsimihety , Antaisaka , Sakalava ), French , Indian , Creole , Comorian , Chinese Malagasy (official, and national language), French (official). definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2018 est.) Andrianampoinimerina Andrianampoinimerina ( Malagasy pronunciation: [anˈɖʐianˌmpuʲnˈmerʲnə̥] ) (c. 1745–1810) ruled
7956-464: The greater Highlands, absorbing the Betsileo , Sihanaka , Bezanozano and Bara territories. Having reigned for 23 years at the time of his death, Andrianampoinimerina had successfully reunited Imerina and vastly expanded the Merina kingdom, with the intent to ultimately unify all of Madagascar under Merina rule. His son and heir, Radama I , continued the conquests Andrianampoinimerina had begun, and over
8073-423: The guilty party and his or her family members including forced labor in chains and being reduced to slave status. These harsh penalties were intended to act as a strong disincentive to engage in antisocial acts; the consumption of alcohol, marijuana and tobacco were also outlawed, although they remained prevalent. To judge infractions of his laws, the king often relied on the tradition of tangena , whereby surviving
8190-422: The ingestion of poison indicated an accused person's innocence. Under Andrianampoinimerina, regulations were established to manage trading in slaves and other commodities. Estimates put the number of slaves traded by the king at around 1,800 per year, mainly in exchange for firearms and principally to French merchants who sold them on to Mauritius and Reunion. This brought order to the kingdom's economy, enriched
8307-423: The kingdom, broadcasting news, announcing new laws and promoting proper social behavior. Andrianampoinimerina developed a legal system that applied throughout the territories he ruled. He was the first Merina king to establish formal civil and penal codes, the latter ameliorated and transcribed by his son Radama. He declared twelve crimes to be capital offenses, while many others entailed collective punishment for
8424-489: The legendary first inhabitants of Madagascar, the Vazimba . However, Ramboasalamarazaka had partial Vazimba ancestry on his mother's side through her antecedent, King Andriamanelo (1540–1575), son of Vazimba Queen Rafohy (1530–1540) and her Merina husband Manelo. He was born during the first quarter of the moon ( tsinambolana ) of the month Alahamady, the sign of a highly auspicious birth according to popular belief. Following
8541-547: The living and the razana (ancestors); by 2020, only 4.5% of Malagasies exclusively practised folk religions and 85% were Christian (according to the Pew Research Center ). The Association of Religion Data Archives noted that in 2020, 58.1% of the population is Christian , 2.1% is Muslim and 39.2% practices traditional faiths, while 0.6% of the population is non-religious or adheres to other faiths. Madagascar's traditional religions tend to emphasize links between
8658-428: The living and the dead. They believe that the dead join their ancestors in the ranks of divinity and that ancestors are intensely concerned with the fate of their living descendants. This spiritual communion is celebrated by the Merina and Betsileo reburial practice of famadihana , or "turning over the dead". In this ritual, relatives' remains are removed from the family tomb, rewrapped in new silk shrouds, and returned to
8775-607: The local culture to the extent that by the mid-19th century "it resembled a Merina province". The Sihanaka resented this imposition and held the Merina sovereigns in low regard. The 1895 capture of the Merina royal capitol, the Rova of Antananarivo , by the French sparked the Menalamba rebellion against foreigners, Christianity and Merina domination. In the chaotic 1895–97 period, bands of Sakalava , Marofotsy and other bandits engaged in raids to loot cattle and other goods. The Sihanaka were especially hard hit owing to their reputation as
8892-424: The main entryway to her house. The villagers carried the body to a house where the village women would gather, and the female family members would weep while the other women would play drums and recite prayers. The men would stay in a separate house (called the tranolahy , or "men's house") where they would prepare a feast of cooked meat and rum, which they would periodically deliver to the women mourners. Occasionally
9009-484: The main trade route between the capital of the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina at Antananarivo and the eastern port of Toamasina . At the turn of the 19th century they came under the control of the Boina Kingdom before submitting to Imerina, which went on to rule over the majority of Madagascar. Today the Sihanaka practice intensive agriculture and rice yields are higher in this region than elsewhere, placing strain on
9126-570: The many unique plant and animal species that depend on the Lake Alaotra ecosystem for survival. The Sihanaka have a generally egalitarian social structure, with the eldest male at the head of the family. Traditional beliefs predominate, although Christianity has also had an influence. Social life here, as elsewhere in Madagascar, is guided by the principles of respect for the ancestors and the fady (taboos) established by them. Traditional social practices include complex funeral and divorce rites and
9243-404: The national statistics office INSTAT under the supervision of the ministry of economy. The first census in 1975 counted 7.4 million Malagasy people , the second one in 1993 censused 12.3 million citizens and the 18h May to 10 June 2018 census numbered 25 674 186 inhabitants. [1] The problem with population estimation in Madagascar is that data is very old and limited. The last population census
9360-473: The next two decades largely achieved his father's vision. Andrianampoinimerina was born Ramboasalamarazaka (short form: Ramboasalama) around 1745 in Ikaloy , in central Madagascar , to Princess Ranavalonandriambelomasina, daughter of King Andriambelomasina of Imerina (1730-1770), and her husband Andriamiaramanjaka, an andriana (noble) of the Zafimamy royal family in the independent kingdom of Alahamadintany to
9477-421: The north of Imerina. His mother's brother Andrianjafy was named Andriambelomasina's successor and was king of Imerina Avaradrano, the northern quadrant of the former Kingdom of Imerina , from 1770 to 1787. Ramboasalamarazaka was born during a period when conflict and famine afflicted Imerina. For almost a century, from the end of the reign of King Ralambo (1575–1600) to King Andriamasinavalona (1675–1710),
9594-641: The only ethnic group encountered by the European party that had built a bridge. Homes were made of plant material; the Sihanaka believed building homes in brick or clay would invite the displeasure of the ancestors. Gendered roles factored into house construction and maintenance: men applied carpentry to build the frame of the house and roof, as well as the windows and doors and their frames, while women wove zozoro reed mats that would serve as walls, flooring and roofing. The principal food eaten in Sihanaka has long been rice, which they cultivate heavily. The rice based diet
9711-504: The palace. Within this broad district structure, each clan ( foko ) was assigned a specific neighborhood in an orientation roughly corresponding to the orientation of their home village vis-a-vis the capital city. In the popular imagination of the residents of modern-day Antananarivo, the city in the time of Andrianampoinimerina is envisioned as a perfect and harmonious urban space embodying the best of Merina ingenuity and spiritual significance. The legitimacy of Andrianampoinimerina's reign
9828-468: The parents of her deceased husband were still living, only they could declare her divorced, and she was indefinitely required to remain unmarried and forbidden from visiting family if this status was not granted by them. This practice of declaring divorce, without the mourning ritual, was also applied in the event of separation from a living spouse. The Sihanaka speak a dialect of the Malagasy language , which
9945-465: The people, transformed Imerina and the central plateau. He initiated the idea of central unity. At his death he bequeathed to his son Radama a final thought, which for a century was to direct the island's destiny: 'the sea is the embankment of my rice fields'... — Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. V Historian Bethwell Ogot states Andrianampoinimerina is "regarded as the most important of Imerina's kings". Historian Catherine Fournet-Guérin notes he
10062-402: The politically and economically advantaged highlanders of the central plateaux and the people along the coast. For example, in the 1970s there was widespread opposition among coastal ethnics against the policy of "Malagasization" which intended to phase out the use of the French language in public life in favour of a more prominent position for the Malagasy language , whose orthography is based on
10179-421: The precedent established by Andrianampoinimerina of a state religion in which the sovereign is the head and the people are expected to follow. Similarly, Andrianampoinimerina's decision to empower the hova and the two families of advisers in particular led over the next fifty years to the strengthening of the hova middle class that formed the backbone of the merchant, craftsman, farming and administrative cadres. By
10296-642: The predominantly Catholic masses, considered to be underprivileged, and the predominantly Protestant Merina aristocrats, who tend to prevail in the civil service, business, and professions. Followers of Islam constitute approximately 3% of the population in 2022, according to the US Department of State; there are also small numbers of Hindus and Jews . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had more than 13,000 members in 42 congregations in Madagascar in 2013. A small community started practicing Judaism in 2010, and formally converted in 2016 with
10413-438: The railroad linking the coastal port of Toamasina to the capital city. Today, the Sihanaka heavily cultivate the land around Laka Alaotra and have increasingly drained the swamps to make way for farming using heavy machinery. This loss of habitat has posed a threat to species living in the area, including the critically endangered Lac Alaotra bamboo lemur , the only lemur species on the island to have evolved to live in and eat
10530-427: The re-pacification of Antananarivo began in 1794 and achieved definitive success in 1797, with Ambohidratrimo reconquered shortly afterward. By 1800, he had absorbed several other previously independent sections of Imerina into his kingdom. He reinforced alliances with powerful nobles in conquered regions of Imerina through marriage to local princesses, and is said to have wed 12 women in total. He placed each wife at
10647-445: The reign of Radama II , hova power rivaled and ultimately exceeded the power of the nobles, leading to the aristocratic coup d'etat that ended Radama's reign and the absolute power of the monarch, and established a joint system of government in which the hova Prime Minister and his cabinet governed while the sovereign was reduced to a symbolic figurehead of ancestral power and authority. Ambohimanga, which Andrianampoinimerina declared
10764-409: The reign of Andriambelomasina's son, Andrianjafy, the throne would pass to his daughter's son, Ramboasalamarazaka. The alliance between these two royal families represented a fair and peaceful compromise: the prince born of this union would rule over both states and unify the two kingdoms. Andrianampoinimerina's Zafimamy ancestors practiced endogamy and therefore rarely mixed with the descendants of
10881-416: The reign of Andrianampoinimerina is Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara , a Malagasy language book relating the oral history of the Merina kings as collected by a Jesuit missionary, Francois Callet, in the late 19th century. Prior to the eventual release of a French language translation in the 1950s, references to the king in academic and popular writing during the colonial period de-emphasized his role as
10998-404: The remains of all family members, and that the construction of these tombs was to be undertaken as a shared responsibility among members of the family to be entombed there. Modifications and expansions on several traditional royal rituals under Andrianampoinimerina enabled him to develop a state religion in which he was the central figure. The tradition of the fandroana festival established by
11115-538: The sacred rova compound and improved its venerable buildings. This included the reconstruction in 1800 of Besakana, the "throne of the kingdom" built by king Andrianjaka in the early 1600s as the first royal residence at Antananarivo - one of several houses used as residences by Andrianampoinimerina at the palace, the other principal residence being Mahitsielafanjaka after he moved his capital from Ambohimanga to Antananarivo. He implanted representatives of ethnic groups he had recently conquered in specified neighborhoods of
11232-448: The shore for women to pick up and take back to the village. The Sihanaka are one of the few Malagasy groups who historically branded their cattle. This was done by clipping the ear of the cow and was a religious act conducted once annually on a dedicated day of feasting. Cattle generally belonged to the community as a whole and were used principally to assist with farming. Ethnic groups of Madagascar Demographic features of
11349-455: The stool or respiratory secretions, such as from a sneeze, of an “infected” person who received oral polio vaccine; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, CDC recommends that adults who previously completed
11466-631: The supernatural and ancestral legitimacy of his kingship against inclusiveness of the commoner class by making several hova from the Tsimiamboholahy and Tsimahafotsy clans into powerful and trusted advisers. He also consulted a group of ombiasy (royal advisers of the Antaimoro clan), who were literate in the sorabe script historically used on the east coast to inscribe a series of ancient texts considered to contain powerful magic and specialized scientific and ritual knowledge. The population of Imerina
11583-459: The tomb following festive ceremonies in their honor. In the festivities, they eat, drink, and literally dance with the dead. After one or two days of celebrating, they shower the body with gifts and rebury it. Malagasy Christians are roughly 50% Catholic and 50% Protestant (mainly Reformed Protestant Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (FJKM) , Lutheran , and Anglican ) or Roman Catholic , but there are also smaller groups such as members of
11700-477: The type also prevalent in the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina . Around 1700, the Sihanaka were a major trading partner of the Betsimisaraka, to whom they traded rice and zebu . The Betsimisaraka, desirous of greater access to Sihanaka wealth, successfully negotiated for French assistance to bring the Sihanaka under their control. French militiamen launched several attacks against Sihanaka communities. This incursion
11817-483: The valley, forming what has been called the largest open air marketplace in the world. Traffic congestion and safety hazards caused by the ever-growing Zoma market prompted government officials to split up and relocate the Friday merchants to several other districts in 1997. Prosperity for the masses in Imerina increased throughout Andrianampoinimerina's reign, leading to growth in population density. Finally, he established
11934-471: The wealthy owning the majority of the fertile land, which is either rented to the poor or worked by them for low wages. Members of this community also herd zebu and catch fish in Lake Alaotra. The work of fishing was traditionally subdivided by gender: men were only allowed to fish for eels, while women were tasked to use nets to catch small fish, and children were the only ones allowed to fish using poles. Men and children would traditionally leave their catch on
12051-416: Was also threatened by his adopted son, Rabodolahy, who plotted to kill Radama; when these efforts failed, he attempted to assassinate Andrianampoinimerina, but was discovered and executed. Beginning in 1797, Andrianampoinimerina ruled his expanding kingdom from Antananarivo, the traditional capital of the Kingdom of Imerina. He is credited with major development and reorganization of the city. His vision for
12168-408: Was always associated with a contagion that could be passed to family members of the deceased. This belief is reflected in traditional funeral rites. A second door to the family home was used uniquely for carrying out the body of the deceased. Before the body was removed, the widow of the deceased would dress in a fine red lamba and put on all her jewelry, then watch the procession from her seat at
12285-478: Was bolstered by his characterization of other Merina rulers' claims to power as fanjakana hova - rule by hova (commoners), whose lineages were only weakly tied to the line of succession relative to his own. In addition, like Merina kings before him, he consolidated the power of the sampy (royal idols) and attributed the success and legitimacy of his reign to the proper respect shown toward these conduits of supernatural power. He balanced this strengthening of
12402-540: Was carried out in 1993, after an initial 1975 census. There was an attempt at a census in 2009, but this attempt ultimately failed due to political instability. Therefore, the demographic situation is inferred but reliability of any estimates from any source has a large margin of error. According to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects the total population was 28,915,653 in 2021, compared to only 4,084,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below
12519-609: Was continued and expanded under Andrianampoinimerina. Major public works were carried out under his reign, including the further expansion of irrigated paddy fields in the Betsimitatatra plains surrounding Antananarivo. He devised systems for organizing work teams, motivated their efforts by setting up competitions between teams, and punished those who failed to contribute their due share of effort. He mobilized groups of hiragasy village musicians to entertain work teams and later employed them to travel among towns and villages across
12636-501: Was done in an effort to desanctify the city of Ambohimanga, break the spirit of the Menalamba resistance fighters who had been rebelling against French colonization for the past year, weaken popular belief in the power of the royal ancestors, and relegate Malagasy sovereignty under the Merina rulers to a relic of an unenlightened past. Andrianampoinimerina was succeeded by his 18-year-old son, Radama I . In order to fulfill his oath that
12753-521: Was equipped with the sizeable stock of arms he procured from coastal traders in western Madagascar. Andrianampoinimerina died in the Mahitsielafanjaka house on the compound of the Rova of Antananarivo on 6 July 1810 at the age of 65, having fathered eleven sons and thirteen daughters by his many wives. In the Vazimba tradition of Merina kings before him, the body of Andrianampoinimerina was placed in
12870-564: Was foiled through a combination of firepower - the Sihanaka having obtained numerous firearms through trade with the Sakalava to the west - and the prevalence of malaria and other tropical diseases that decimated the French soldiers. In the 18th century, the Sihanaka were vassals of the Boina Kingdom . They mounted at least one major attack against the Boina in an attempt to regain independence, but were unsuccessful. The high number of slaves possessed by
12987-410: Was governed through a mixture of traditional practices and innovative measures. While all land technically belonged to the sovereign, its administration was carried out by andriana who were assigned a menakely (subdivision of land) to govern. These administrators were themselves overseen by roving royal advisers. The land was cultivated by commoners, who were given a parcel to farm based on the size of
13104-418: Was historically common among the Sihanaka. Sihanaka culture traditionally adhered to a wide variety of fady , some of which are still respected to varying degrees by more traditional families to the present day. Many of their fady in the early 1900s were documented by historian Van Gennep. The most absolute fady and the only one that was seemingly practiced by all Sihanaka was a prohibition against working in
13221-475: Was killed by Andrianampoinimerina's followers. Continuing his conquests in the 1790s, Andrianampoinimerina began establishing control over a comparatively large part of the highlands of Madagascar including the twelve sacred hills of Imerina . Andrianampoinimerina conquered Antananarivo in 1793 and concluded treaties with the kings of Antananarivo and Ambohidratrimo . He shifted the kingdom's political capital back to Antananarivo in 1794. By 1795 he had gained
13338-584: Was probably uninhabited prior to Austronesian settlement in the early centuries AD. Austronesian (particularly Malay ) features are most predominant in the central highlands peoples, while coastal peoples are phenotypically more East African , sometimes with minor Arab, Somali, European and Indian admixtures. The largest coastal groups are the Betsimisaraka (1,500,000) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (700,000 each). Malagasy society has long been polarized between
13455-475: Was soon followed by a renewed effort on the part of Protestant missionaries, leading to further conversions. Today, traditional beliefs remain strong among the Sihanaka, although a growing number practice orthodox Christianity or a syncretic form that incorporates aspects of traditional respect for ancestors and their norms. European visitors in 1667 reported the Sihanaka lived in fortified villages, which they very effectively defended with bows and arrows. They were
13572-554: Was supplemented by a wide range of game and other meats, including lemurs, wild boars, snakes, owls, rats, cats and crocodile, the latter having at one time been protected by a fady that was eventually abandoned. Use of tobacco or marijuana and consumption of pork were commonly forbidden in Sihanaka families. Many believed that transporting swine across Lake Alaotra would bring storms. Their traditional dress consisted of clothing woven of raffia fibers. The traditional martial art of moraingy , particularly common among Sakalava communities,
13689-457: Was warned by Andrianjafy's brother and managed to avert the plot. In 1787, when Ramboasalamarazaka was 42 years old, the conflict between the men reached a turning point: Andrianjafy decided to send a group of assassins to Ramboasalama's residence in Ambohimanga . Andrianjafy's brother again took action and warned Ramboasalamarazaka to flee, but rather than leave Ambohimanga, Ramboasalama followed
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