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74-570: Sigi Regency was one of the areas in northwest Sulawesi most affected by the 2018 earthquake and tsunami in Sulawesi . Dozens of people were reported to have been killed by the earthquake and there were reports of "massive liquification" which caused homes to be swept away. Following religious conflicts in the neighbouring Poso Regency , the Indonesia government mounted Operation Tinombala in early 2016 to combat local terrorist activities carried out by

148-519: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . The coast of northern tip of Sulawesi is identified as a site of highest marine biodiversity importance in the Coral Triangle . Early in the Pleistocene, Sulawesi had a dwarf elephant and a dwarf form of Stegodon , (an elephant relative, S. sompoensis ); later both were replaced by larger forms. A giant suid , Celebochoerus , was also formerly present. It

222-655: A chance to govern a difficult group. Padbruge commented that in the 1700s the Kaili population was significantly high and were a highly militant society. In the 1850s, a civil war erupted between the Kaili groups, including the Banawa, in which the Dutch colonial government decided to intervene. In the late 19th century, the Sarasins journeyed through the Palu valley as part of a major initiative to bring

296-637: A cluster between Sulawesi and Maluku . All the above-mentioned islands and many smaller ones off the coasts of Sulawesiare administratively part of Sulawesi's six provinces. The island slopes up from the shores of the deep seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic, mountainous interior. Active volcanoes are found in the northern Minahasa Peninsula , stretching north to the Sangihe Islands . The northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon , Mount Awu , Soputan and Karangetang . According to plate reconstructions ,

370-403: A flower, star, or eye, another depicted astronomic rays of light. In January 2021, archaeologists announced the discovery of cave art that is at least 45,500 years old in a Leang Tedongnge cave. According to the journal Science Advances , the cave painting of a warty pig is the earliest evidence of human settlement of the region. An adult male pig, measuring 136 cm x 54 cm and what

444-614: A hand was 39,900 years old, which brings it among the oldest known hand stencils in the world (the record is detained so far by a 64,000 years-old stencil hand made by a Neanderthal in Maltravieso cave , Cáceres , Spain). Dr. Maxime Aubert, of Griffith University in Queensland , Australia , said that was the minimum age for the outline in Pettakere Cave in Maros , and added: "Next to it

518-424: A mixture of hunting and gathering and swidden or shifting agriculture. Speculative planting of wet rice may have taken place along the margins of the lakes and rivers. In Central Sulawesi, there are more than 400 granite megaliths , which various archaeological studies have dated to be from 3000 BC to AD 1300. They vary in size from a few centimeters to approximately 4.5 meters (15 ft). The original purpose of

592-412: A model for these oceans. The catchment of Lake Matano is around 436 square kilometers, or around 2.7 times the surface area of the lake. The catchment consists of soils with an iron oxide/hydroxide content that can exceed 20%, explaining the high iron content of Lake Matano. A noteworthy amount of carbonate rocks are present south of the lake. Every decade, around 2% of the catchment area of Lake Matano

666-615: A peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part of Sulawesi. The Sangihe Islands and Talaud Islands stretch northward from the northeastern tip of Sulawesi, while Buton and Muna Islands and their neighbors lie off its southeast peninsula, the Togian Islands are in the Gulf of Tomini, and Peleng Island and the Banggai Islands form

740-539: A relatively high amount of iron. Because the temperature on Sulawesi Island does not change much during the year, the epilimnion never gets cold enough to mix with the hypolimnion . The environment in the hypolimnion is noteworthy for its possible similarity to oceans in the Archean and Paleoproterozoic Eons, before the Great Oxidation Event (GOE). The biogeochemical activity in the hypolimnion has been studied as

814-805: A result of the status quo. In 1905, the entire island became part of the Dutch state colony of the Netherlands East Indies until Japanese occupation in the Second World War . During the Indonesian National Revolution , the Dutch Captain 'Turk' Westerling led campaigns in which hundreds, maybe thousands died during the South Sulawesi Campaign . Following the transfer of sovereignty in December 1949, Sulawesi became part of

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888-516: A separate genus of diatoms. Lake Matano is home to many species of endemic fish and other animals (e.g. Caridina shrimps, Parathelphusid crabs and Tylomelania snails ). The endemic fishes of Matano have been compared to the species swarms of the Rift Valley Lakes of Africa. While not as diverse, they are thought to have all arisen from a single ancestor species and diversified into numerous different species, which now fill many of

962-575: A single Miocene collision of West Sulawesi with the Sula Spur, the western end of an ancient folded belt of Variscan origin in the Late Paleozoic. The Bone Basin lies between the eastern and western arms of Sulawesi. According to recent studies, the basin has been opened up due to extensional forces. The basin is bounded by normal faults on each side of the basin. Each side of the basin is surrounded by uplifted basement rock with young sediments found in

1036-433: A wet and a dry season, with an approximately constant temperature year-round. Because of the constant environmental temperature, the water in the epilimnion cannot cool sufficiently for exchange with the hypolimnion. The relatively high concentration of total dissolved solids in the deeper layers increases their density, further preventing mixing of the layers. The density of the epilimnion, which extends to around 100 m below

1110-513: Is not metabolized to methane. Because most of these competing organisms are aerobic, it is likely that such competition did not exist in the anoxic environments that were present before the GOE, and that are present in places like the hypolimnion in Lake Matano, to the same extent. Because of this relative lack of competition, more organic carbon is metabolized to methane. The percent metabolized to methane

1184-410: Is a pig that has a minimum age of 35,400 years old, and this is one of the oldest figurative depictions in the world, if not the oldest one." On 11 December 2019, a team of researchers led by Dr. Maxime Aubert announced the discovery of the oldest hunting scenes in prehistoric art in the world that is more than 44,000 years old from the limestone cave of Leang Bulu' Sipong 4. Archaeologists determined

1258-507: Is a tropical lake in East Luwu Regency , South Sulawesi province, Indonesia , that is noteworthy for the unique environment in its deeper layers. With a depth of 590 m (1,940 ft), it is the deepest lake in Indonesia (ranked by maximum depth), the 11th deepest lake in the world and the deepest lake on an island by maximum depth. The surface elevation from mean sea level is only 382 m (1,253 ft), which means that

1332-567: Is an island in Indonesia . One of the four Greater Sunda Islands , and the world's 11th-largest island , it is situated east of Borneo , west of the Maluku Islands , and south of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago . Within Indonesia, only Sumatra , Borneo, and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra are more populous. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas:

1406-481: Is coming from oxidation of the depleted CH 4 , or because it has a hitherto unknown source. It is more depleted at 104 m and 122 m, possibly suggesting biotic methane oxidation. An area of less depleted δ C-CO 2 at around 110 m may be due to CO 2 metabolism by green sulfur bacteria. In oxic environments, such as those present in most modern ecosystems, methanogens are outcompeted for organic carbon to metabolize such that, each year, over 99% of organic carbon

1480-437: Is deforested to generate new farmland. Farmland in the catchment could serve as a source of nutrients, possibly causing eutrophication. This could eventually disturb the unique environment of the lake and diminish endemic species. Lake Matano is already prone to receiving anthropogenic nitrogen from the atmosphere because of its geographic location. Lake Matano is located in a tropical climate zone , and experiences two seasons,

1554-475: Is described by this equation: HCO 3 − + 4 Fe II + 10 H 2 O → l i g h t CH 2 O + 4 Fe ( OH ) 3 + 7 H + {\displaystyle {\ce {{HCO3^{-}}+{4Fe^{II}}+{10H2O}->[{light}][{}]{CH2O}+{4Fe(OH)3}+7H+}}} The iron in

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1628-415: Is home to a large number of endemic rodent genera. Murid rodent genera endemic to Sulawesi and immediately adjacent islands (such as the Togian Islands , Buton Island , and Muna Island ) are Bunomys , Echiothrix , Margaretamys , Taeromys and Tateomys as well as the single-species genera Eropeplus , Hyorhinomys , Melasmothrix , Paucidentomys , Paruromys , Sommeromys and

1702-427: Is likely a Sulawesi or Celebes warty pig (Sus celebensis), was depicted with horn-like facial warts and two hand prints above its hindquarters. According to co-author Adam Brumm, there are two other pigs that are partly preserved and it appears the warty pig was observing a fight between the two other pigs. A bronze Amaravathi statue was discovered at Sikendeng , South Sulawesi near Karama river in 1921 which

1776-495: Is located. Roughly a fifth of taxa of diatoms in Lake Matano are endemic; the greatest number of diatom species in the Malali Lake System belongs to the genus Surirella . While water from Lake Matano does flow via rivers to Lake Mahalona and Lake Towuti, such flow does not appear to spread diatoms from Lake Matano to these lakes, as the proportion of taxa each of these two lakes that are also in Lake Matano (roughly half)

1850-561: Is not known why these two ingredients appeared together; one was perhaps the product of the other. In 1367, several identified polities located on the island were mentioned in the Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama dated from the Majapahit period. Canto 14 mentioned polities including Gowa, Makassar, Luwu and Banggai. It seems that by the 14th century, polities in the island were connected in an archipelagic maritime trading network, centered in

1924-705: Is only known from the vicinity of Lake Matano and on Muna Island . The environment in Lake Matano in the hypolimnion is considered comparable to the environment in the ocean in the Archean Eon , as well as in the beginning of the Proterozoic Eon , before the Great Oxidation Event (GOE). This is because these oceans, like Lake Matano, probably lacked sulfate and oxygen, and likely had a relatively high amount of Fe(II). Banded iron formations (BIFs), which have both Fe(II) and Fe(III), were deposited in such environments. The method of formation of Fe(III) in such environments

1998-425: Is the same as it is for Lake Masapi, another lake on Sulawesi disconnected from Lake Matano. A few examples of taxa of diatom that are only in Lake Matano are Surirellla biseriata heteropolis , Surirella celebesiana matanensis , and Gomphonema matanensis , which serves as an example of gigantism of diatoms. Another endemic species is Cymbells distinguenda ; it has been argued that this species may constitute

2072-622: Is thought that many of the migrants to Sulawesi arrived via the Philippines , while Sulawesi in turn served as a way station for migrants to Flores . A Pleistocene faunal turnover is recognized, with the competitive displacement of several indigenous tarsiers by more recently arriving ones and of Celebochoerus by other medium-sized herbivores like the babirusa , anoa and Celebes warty pig . There are 127 known extant native mammalian species in Sulawesi. A large percentage, 62% (79 species) are endemic , meaning that they are found nowhere else in

2146-526: Is unclear, it might be considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name "Sulawesi". Sulawesi is the world's eleventh-largest island , covering an area of 186,216.16 km (71,898 sq mi) (including minor islands administered as part of Sulawesi). The central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the island's peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesi's peninsulas are, from north to south,

2220-463: Is unclear; one possibility is photoferrotrophy . As in the pre-GOE oceans, there was low phosphate availability, limiting the amount of life the epilimnion can support. Because of this, there is sufficient radiation from the Sun for photosynthesis by green sulfur bacteria with Bacteriochlorophyll e, even at depths greater than 100 m. In an environment like Lake Matano, the photoferrotrophy of such bacteria

2294-473: The Chinese , Balinese , and Indian communities. The economy of Sulawesi is heavily centered around agriculture, fishing, mining, and forestry. The island was administered as one province between 1945 and 1960. In 1960 it was divided into two provinces – North and Central Sulawesi, and South and Southeast Sulawesi. In 1964 both of these were again divided, the former into North Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi, and

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2368-485: The Lariang and pygmy tarsiers) as well as diurnal macaques ( Heck's , the booted , crested black , Gorontalo , moor , and Tonkean macaques). While most of Sulawesi's mammals are placental and have Asian relatives, several species of cuscus , arboreal marsupials of Australasian origin, are also present ( Ailurops ursinus and Strigocuscus celebensis , which are diurnal and nocturnal, respectively). Sulawesi

2442-788: The Tomini , the Tolo and the Boni . These separate the Minahasa or Northern Peninsula , the East Peninsula , the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula . The Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island. The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, and by Flores and Timor to the south. The Selayar Islands make up

2516-558: The federal United States of Indonesia , which in 1950 became absorbed into the unitary Republic of Indonesia . The Portuguese were rumoured to have a fort in Parigi in 1555. The Kaili were an important group based in the Palu valley and related to the Toraja. Scholars relate that their control swayed under Ternate and Makassar, but this might have been a decision by the Dutch to give their vassals

2590-572: The semiaquatic Waiomys . All nine sciurids are from three endemic genera, Hyosciurus , Prosciurillus and Rubrisciurus . While over 20 bat species are present on Sulawesi, only a portion of these are endemic: Rhinolophus tatar , Scotophilus celebensis and the megabats Acerodon celebensis , Boneia bidens , Dobsonia exoleta , Harpyionycteris celebensis , Neopteryx frosti , Rousettus celebensis and Styloctenium wallacei . Lake Matano Lake Matano ( Indonesian : Danau Matano ), also known as Matana ,

2664-401: The 19th century. Most Muslims are Sunnis . Christians form a substantial minority on the island. According to the demographer Toby Alice Volkman, 17% of Sulawesi's population is Protestant and less than 2% is Catholic . Christians are concentrated on the tip of the northern peninsula around the city of Manado , which is inhabited by the Minahasa , a predominantly Protestant people, and

2738-426: The 2000 census, the population of the provinces of Sulawesi was 14,946,488, about 7.25% of Indonesia's total population. By the 2010 Census, the total had reached 17,371,782, and the 2020 Census recorded a total of 19,896,951. The official estimate for mid-2023 was 20,568,411. The largest city on Sulawesi is Makassar . Religion in Sulawesi (2023) Islam is the majority religion in Sulawesi. The conversion of

2812-408: The 2010 Census and 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2023. The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centres, and the numbers of villages (all rated as rural desa ) in each district. Note (a) the population of the new Sigi Kota District in 2010 and 2020 is included in the figures for Sigi Biromaru, Dolo and Palolo Districts, from parts of which it

2886-560: The Bare'e-Speaking Toradja of Central Celebes," which is invaluable for English-speaking researchers. One of the most recent publications is "When the bones are left," a study of the material culture of central Sulawesi, offering extensive analysis. Also worthy of study are the brilliant works of Monnig Atkinson on the Wana shamans who live in the Mori area. Population of Sulawesi by province (2020 Census) At

2960-536: The East Indonesia Mujahiddin ( Mujahiddin Indonesian Timur , or MIT) in the province. In late November 2020, there were indications that the conflict had spread into Sigi Regency when four residents of remote Lembantongoa village were killed in an apparent terrorist attack attributed to MIT. Indonesia's senior Coordinating Political, Legal and Security Minister Mahfud MD issued a statement saying that

3034-447: The Kaili under Dutch rule. Some very surprising and interesting photographs were taken of shamans called Tadulako. Further Christian religious missions entered the area to make one of the most detailed ethnographic studies in the early 20th century. A Swede by the name of Walter Kaudern later studied much of the literature and produced a synthesis. Erskine Downs in the 1950s produced a summary of Kruyts and Andrianis work: "The religion of

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3108-586: The Majapahit port in East Java. By 1400, a number of nascent agricultural principalities had arisen in the western Cenrana valley, as well as on the south coast and on the west coast near modern Parepare. The first Europeans to visit the island (which they believed to be an archipelago due to its contorted shape) were the Portuguese sailors Simão de Abreu in 1523, and Gomes de Sequeira (among others) in 1525, sent from

3182-614: The Moluccas in search of gold, which the islands had the reputation of producing. A Portuguese base was installed in Makassar in the first decades of the 16th century, lasting until 1665, when it was taken by the Dutch. The Dutch had arrived in Sulawesi in 1605 and were quickly followed by the English, who established a factory in Makassar. From 1660, the Dutch were at war with Gowa , the major Makassar west coast power. In 1669, Admiral Speelman forced

3256-474: The age of the depiction of hunting a pig and buffalo thanks to the calcite 'popcorn', different isotope levels of radioactive uranium and thorium . In March 2020, two small stone ' plaquettes ' were found by Griffith University archaeologists in the Leang Bulu Bettue cave, dated to a time between 26,000 and 14,000 years ago. While one of the stones contained an anoa (water buffalo) and what may be

3330-409: The anoxic zone would likely abiotically oxidize Fe(II), rather than methane. It is unclear how methane oxidation is able to occur at 122 m, as there is virtually no sulfate or nitrate. Coupling with catalyzed iron and manganese hydroxide reduction is one possibility. δ C-CO 2 is at around -8 permil below the epilimnion.The CO 2 could be depleted to this extent because the carbon in this CO 2

3404-450: The arrival of a group from east Borneo speaking a Proto- South Sulawesi language (PSS). Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sa'dan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested. Subsequent migrations across the mountainous landscape resulted in the geographical isolation of PSS speakers and the evolution of their languages into

3478-569: The basin of Lake Matano. These species come from several families, such as Adiantaceae , Davalliaceae , Dennstaedtiaceae , and Schizaeaceae . Some, such as Schizaeaceae, are usually only found below the Wallace Line in places such as New Guinea . Others, including Adiantaceae, are usually only found above the Wallace Line in places like Borneo . Some species, such as Lindsea pellaeiformis , are likely endemic to Sulawesi Island, where Lake Matano

3552-485: The deadly 2018 and 2021 quakes. Off the eastern coast of Sulawesi, the North Banda Sea was created through subduction rollback during the early Miocene. Evidence for this tectonic event lies with the extensive interconnected fault network found in the area, a volcanic seamount with its surrounding ridges, and an accretionary wedge. Off the coast of east Selawesti and Banggai is an accumulation of carbonate rocks from

3626-475: The deepest portion of the lake is below sea level ( cryptodepression ). It is one of the two major lakes (the other being Lake Towuti ) in the Malili Lake system. Lake Matano is considered an ancient lake , and it formed in a tectonic graben around 1 to 2 million years ago. Lake Matano and its catchment area have a large amount of endemic flora and fauna. The catchment area's soils and rocks make it have

3700-564: The eight families of the South Sulawesi language group. If each group can be said to have a homeland, that of the Bugis – today the most numerous group – was around lakes Témpé and Sidénréng in the Walennaé depression. Here for some 2,000 years lived the linguistic group that would become the modern Bugis; the archaic name of this group (which is preserved in other local languages) was Ugiq. Despite

3774-630: The fact that today they are closely linked with the Makassarese , the closest linguistic neighbors of the Bugis are the Torajans . Pre-1200 Bugis society was most likely organized into chiefdoms . Some anthropologists have speculated these chiefdoms would have warred and, in times of peace, interbred. Further, they have speculated that personal security would have been negligible and head-hunting an established cultural practice. The political economy would have been

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3848-440: The government was committed to tracking down those responsible for the murders and the accompanying destruction. The Sigi Regency was divided at 2010 and at 2020 into fifteen districts ( kecamatan ), but on 14 September 2020 a sixteenth district ( Sigi Kota ) was formed from parts of Sigi Biromaru (7 desa ), Dolo (2 desa ) and Palolo (1 desa ) Districts. The districts are tabulated below with their areas and their populations at

3922-423: The island and separates the island from Borneo. The name Sulawesi possibly comes from the words sula ("island") and besi ("iron") and may refer to the historical export of iron from the rich Lake Matano iron deposits . The name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence . The name Celebes was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers . While its direct translation

3996-401: The island are the provincial capitals of Makassar , Manado , Palu , Kendari , and Gorontalo (the provincial capital of West Sulawesi – the town of Mamuju – is not a city); there are six other cities – Bitung, Palopo, Bau-Bau, Parepare, Kotamobagu and Tomohun. Sulawesi is part of Wallacea , meaning that it has a mix of both Indomalayan and Australasian species that reached

4070-417: The island by crossing deep-water oceanic barriers . The flora includes one native eucalypt, E. deglupta . There are 8 national parks on the island, of which 4 are mostly marine . The parks with the largest terrestrial area are Bogani Nani Wartabone with 2,871 km and Lore Lindu National Park with 2,290 km . Bunaken National Park , which protects a rich coral ecosystem, has been proposed as

4144-584: The island is believed to have been formed by the collision of terranes from the Asian Plate (forming the west and southwest) and from the Australian Plate (forming the southeast and Banggai ), with island arcs previously in the Pacific (forming the north and east peninsulas). Because of its several tectonic origins, various faults scar the land and as a result the island is prone to earthquakes , including

4218-427: The lake suggests that the methane is only around 2 millennia old, and could not have been formed due to hydrothermal activity. The δ C-CH 4 in Lake Matano is around -70 permil, suggesting that the carbon in the methane likely came from an organism. Methanogenesis in Lake Matano under 110 m is anaerobic, and likely occurs from acetate metabolism, or from carbon dioxide reduction with H 2 . Any oxygen that would reach

4292-615: The late Miocene. These carbonates are likely pinnacle reefs and the carbonate platform  has a total thickness of around 180–770 meters. Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the biogeographical region of Wallacea , is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia collision zone . Parts of the island were formerly attached to either the Asian or Australian continental margin and became separated from these areas by vicariant processes . In

4366-402: The latter into South Sulawesi and Southeast Sulawesi. Today, it is subdivided into six provinces : Gorontalo , West Sulawesi , South Sulawesi , Central Sulawesi , Southeast Sulawesi , and North Sulawesi . Among these, the newest provinces are Gorontalo, established in 2000 from part of North Sulawesi, and West Sulawesi, established in 2004 from part of South Sulawesi. The largest cities on

4440-625: The lowlands of the south western peninsula (South Sulawesi) to Islam occurred in the early 17th century. The kingdom of Luwu in the Gulf of Bone was the first to embrace Islam in February 1605; the Makassar kingdom of Gowa-Talloq, centred on the modern-day city of Makassar , followed suit in September. However, the Gorontalo and the Mongondow peoples of the northern peninsula largely converted to Islam only in

4514-546: The megaliths is unknown. Approximately 30 of the megaliths represent human forms. Other megaliths are in form of large pots ( Kalamba ) and stone plates ( Tutu'na ). A burial of a woman associated with the hunter-gatherer Toalean culture dating to 7,000 years ago has yielded DNA that has provided rare insight into early migrations in and through the region. In October 2014, it was announced that cave paintings in Maros had been dated as being approximately 40,000 years old. One of

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4588-508: The middle. The past geological history has allowed for a large accumulation of carbonates which could lead to a higher potential of oil and gas occurrences. However, the faults present in the basin makes it a very complicated system. The oldest evidence for humans on Sulawesi are stone tools produced by archaic humans , dating from over 200,000 to 100,000 years ago, that were found at the Talepu site in southwestern Sulawesi. Before October 2014,

4662-643: The northern Minahasa Peninsula , the East Peninsula , the South Peninsula , and the Southeast Peninsula . Three gulfs separate these peninsulas: the Gulf of Tomini between the northern Minahasa and East peninsulas, the Tolo Gulf between the East and Southeast peninsulas, and the Bone Gulf between the South and Southeast peninsulas. The Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of

4736-663: The northernmost Sangir and Talaud Islands . The Toraja people of Tana Toraja in South Sulawesi have largely converted to Christianity since Indonesia's independence. There are also substantial numbers of Christians around Lake Poso in Central Sulawesi, among the Pamona speaking peoples of Central Sulawesi, and near Mamasa. Though most people identify themselves as Muslims or Christians, they often subscribe to local beliefs and deities as well . Smaller communities of Buddhists and Hindus are also found on Sulawesi, usually among

4810-464: The previously vacant ecological niches , as can be seen in the family Telmatherinidae . Endemic and near-endemic fishes from other families include Glossogobius matanensis , Mugilogobius adeia , Nomorhamphus weberi and Oryzias matanensis . Many of the endemics are seriously threatened due to pollution and predation / competition from a wide range of introduced fishes, including flowerhorn cichlids . The water snake Enhydris matannensis

4884-616: The product would have an oxidation state of +3, potentially explaining the Fe(III) in BIFs. Most Fe(III) is thought to be covered with Fe(II) rather than exposed to organisms for use. However, a small amount of Fe(III), enough to consume a thirtieth of organic carbon, is reduced by microorganisms for respiration. Methane is virtually absent above roughly 105 m; its concentration then rises steadily until around 200 m before stabilizing at around 1.25 mmol/L. The amount of Carbon-14 in methane sampled from

4958-479: The right bank of the Walanae River at Barru (now part of Bone Regency ), which were thought to date to the Pleistocene on the basis of their association with vertebrate fossils, are now thought to date to perhaps 50,000 BC. Following Peter Bellwood's model of a southward migration of Austronesian-speaking farmers (AN), radiocarbon dates from caves in Maros suggest a date in the mid-second millennium BC for

5032-534: The ruler, Sultan Hasanuddin, to sign the Treaty of Bongaya , which handed control of trade to the Dutch East India Company . The Dutch were aided in their conquest by the Bugis warlord Arung Palakka, ruler of the Bugis kingdom of Bone . The Dutch built a fort at Ujung Pandang, while Arung Palakka became the regional overlord and Bone the dominant kingdom. Political and cultural development seems to have slowed as

5106-480: The settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c. 30,000 BC on the basis of radiocarbon dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. No earlier evidence of human occupation had at that point been found, but the island almost certainly formed part of the land bridge used for the settlement of Australia and New Guinea by at least 40,000 BC. There is no evidence of Homo erectus having reached Sulawesi; crude stone tools first discovered in 1947 on

5180-446: The surface, has been observed to increase during the dry season (though not to a sufficient extent for mixing), and increase during the wet season. Beneath the epilimnion, density is generally constant year-round. Because the hypolimnion does not receive water from the epilimnion, the physical and chemical environment in the hypolimnion differs greatly from the environment in the epilimnion. A wide variety of fern species are present in

5254-421: The west, the opening of the Makassar Strait separated West Sulawesi from Sundaland in the Eocene c. 45 Mya. In the east, the traditional view of collisions of multiple micro-continental fragments sliced from New Guinea with an active volcanic margin in West Sulawesi at different times since the Early Miocene c. 20 Mya has recently been replaced by the hypothesis that extensional fragmentation has followed

5328-481: The world. The largest of these are the two species of anoa or dwarf buffalo. Other artiodactyl species inhabiting Sulawesi are the warty pig and the babirusas , which are aberrant pigs. The only native carnivoran is the Sulawesi palm civet ( Asian palm and Malayan civets have been introduced ). Primates present include a number of nocturnal tarsiers ( T. fuscus , Dian's , Gursky's , Jatna's , Wallace's ,

5402-474: Was created on 14 September 2020. 1°23′06″S 119°58′01″E  /  1.38500°S 119.96694°E  / -1.38500; 119.96694 This Central Sulawesi location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sulawesi Sulawesi ( / ˌ s uː l ə ˈ w eɪ s i / SOO -lə- WAY -see ), also known as Celebes ( / ˈ s ɛ l ɪ b iː z , s ə ˈ l iː b iː z / SEL -ib-eez, sə- LEE -beez ),

5476-456: Was dated to 2nd–7th century AD by Bosch (1933). In 1975, small locally made Buddhist statues from 10th-11th century were also discovered in Bontoharu, on the island of Selayar , South Sulawesi. Starting in the 13th century, access to prestige trade goods and to sources of iron started to alter long-standing cultural patterns and to permit ambitious individuals to build larger political units. It

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